Comparison of microcystin synthetase genes.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7850",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Mitochondria and Brain Disorders",title:"Mitochondria and Brain Disorders",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The mitochondrion is a unique and ubiquitous organelle that contains its own genome, encoding essential proteins that are major components of the respiratory chain and energy production system. Mitochondria play a dominant role in the life and function of eukaryotic cells including neurons and glia, as their survival and activity depend upon mitochondrial energy production and supply. Besides energy production, mitochondria also play a vital role in calcium homeostasis and may induce apoptosis by excitotoxicity. Mitochondrial dysfunction is related to common neurological diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Friedreich's ataxia, Huntington's disease, and Multiple Sclerosis. An efficient treatment of mitochondrial dysfunction would open new horizons in the therapeutic perspectives of a substantial number of inflammatory and degenerative neurological disorders.",isbn:"978-1-78985-532-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-531-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-653-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77668",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mitochondria-and-brain-disorders",numberOfPages:124,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e4cb9b34e45c6177ede9cf78fbda4b82",bookSignature:"Stavros Baloyannis",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7850.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5476,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 4th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 20th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 7th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros J.",middleName:"J.",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-j.-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros J. Baloyannis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156098/images/system/156098.jpg",biography:"Stavros J. Baloyannis is Professor Emeritus of Neurology at Aristotelian University, Thessaloniki, Greece. He graduated from the School of Medicine, Aristotelian University. He trained in Neurology at the same university and at the Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London. He also trained in Neuropathology and Electron Microscopy at the Institute of Neurology, London; Catholic University of Louvain, Belgium; University of Pennsylvania; and Yale University. He trained in Acoustic Neuropathology at Harvard University, and in Neuroimmunology at Yale University. Dr. Baloyannis has conducted research on the blood-brain barrier, mitochondria in Alzheimer’s disease, synaptogenesis, neurodegeneration, dendritic and synaptic pathology, and Golgi apparatus in dementias. His special interests include neuroethics, neurolinguistics, neurophilosophy, history of neurosciences, neurology and art, and the brain and music. He is a member of sixty-two scientific societies and an honorary member of the Academy of Hellenic Air Forces. He is also the president of the Society for the amelioration of the quality of life in neurological diseases and former president of the Orthodox Association for the medical mission. He is a visiting professor at Tufts University, Democritus University, School of Theology, School of Philosophy. Dr. Baloyannis is the author of 29 textbooks, 760 papers on neurology and neurosciences, and 3 books of poems. From 1992 to 2011, he was the head of the Department of Neurology and director of the Research Institute for Alzheimer’s disease.",institutionString:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1049",title:"Mitochondrial Genetics",slug:"mitochondrial-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"70996",title:"Introductory Chapter: Mitochondrial Alterations and Neurological Disorders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91051",slug:"introductory-chapter-mitochondrial-alterations-and-neurological-disorders",totalDownloads:765,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Stavros J. Baloyannis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70996",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70996",authors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros J.",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-j.-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros J. Baloyannis"}],corrections:null},{id:"69863",title:"Pathology Associated with Hormones of Adrenal Cortex",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84815",slug:"pathology-associated-with-hormones-of-adrenal-cortex",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adrenal gland is an endocrine organ comprising of an outer cortex and inner medulla. These secrete various hormones that have a vital role in maintaining the normal homeostasis of the body. Lesions of adrenal cortex are quite common to encounter and most of these are related to the hormones secreted by three layers of adrenal cortex: the zona glomerulosa, the zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis. Also it is very infrequent to encounter metastatic lesions in the adrenal glands too. So it is very important as a part of a clinician as well as a pathologist to know the pattern in which these hormones are secreted along with their physiological roles. Thus this chapter includes the disease that are related to excess as well as deficiencies of the hormones secreted by adrenal cortex. The chapter also includes various genetic syndromes that are associated with the disorders associated with hormones of adrenal cortex. The last part of the chapter includes a brief description of various benign as well as malignant lesions, the pathological as well as the etiological aspects and the hormonal abnormalities associated. This chapter thus mainly focuses on the pathology associated with the adrenal cortex and hormones secreted by the various layers of adrenal cortex.",signatures:"Lovelesh K. Nigam, Aruna V. Vanikar, Rashmi D. Patel, Kamal V. Kanodia and Kamlesh S. Suthar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69863",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69863",authors:[{id:"228499",title:"Dr.",name:"Lovelesh K.",surname:"Nigam",slug:"lovelesh-k.-nigam",fullName:"Lovelesh K. Nigam"},{id:"239124",title:"Dr.",name:"Aruna V.",surname:"Vanikar",slug:"aruna-v.-vanikar",fullName:"Aruna V. Vanikar"},{id:"239127",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashmi",surname:"Dalsukhbhai Patel",slug:"rashmi-dalsukhbhai-patel",fullName:"Rashmi Dalsukhbhai Patel"},{id:"239128",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal V.",surname:"Kanodia",slug:"kamal-v.-kanodia",fullName:"Kamal V. Kanodia"},{id:"282877",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamlesh",surname:"Suthar",slug:"kamlesh-suthar",fullName:"Kamlesh Suthar"}],corrections:null},{id:"67194",title:"PET Imaging of Mitochondrial Function in the Living Brain",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86492",slug:"pet-imaging-of-mitochondrial-function-in-the-living-brain",totalDownloads:1004,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the last two and half decades, we have conducted research on brain functional imaging in nonhuman primates using animal positron emission tomography (PET) scanners with high spatial resolution. We recently designed and synthesized the novel PET probe [18F]BCPP-EF to quantitatively image mitochondria complex-I (MC-I) activity in the living brain. Brain MC-I activity, measured using [18F]BCPP-EF, was significantly lower in aged monkeys than that in young animals, while no significant reduction was observed in SV2A activity, a synaptic-specific parameter that was measured using [11C]UCB-J. Some aged monkeys exhibited increased amyloid-β deposition in the brain, measured using [11C]PiB, which induced neuroinflammation. A positive correlation was noted with neuroinflammation, measured using [11C]DPA-713 and a negative correlation with MC-I activity. Furthermore, a monkey model of Parkinson’s disease prepared by the chronic administration of MPTP revealed suppressed MC-I activity not only in the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway, measured using [11C]PE2I and [11C]6MemTyr, but also in cortical serotonergic neurons, measured using [11C]DASB. This review introduces the translational application of a novel PET probe for noninvasive MC-I imaging from preclinical to clinical PET measurements.",signatures:"Hideo Tsukada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67194",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67194",authors:[{id:"179616",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideo",surname:"Tsukada",slug:"hideo-tsukada",fullName:"Hideo Tsukada"}],corrections:null},{id:"67264",title:"Mitochondrial Proteomic and Molecular Network Alterations in Human Ovarian Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86493",slug:"mitochondrial-proteomic-and-molecular-network-alterations-in-human-ovarian-cancers",totalDownloads:848,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mitochondrion is a multi-functional organelle, which plays important role in human ovarian cancers. Mitochondrial quantitative proteomics was used to detect, identify, and quantify proteins from mitochondrial samples prepared from ovarian cancer and normal control ovary tissues. A total of 5115 mitochondrial proteins and 1198 mitochondrial differentially expressed proteins (mtDEPs) were identified in human ovarian cancer compared to control tissues. Pathway network analysis revealed multiple pathway network changes to involve those mitochondrial proteins and mtDEPs. These findings provide the scientific data about the role of mitochondria plays in ovarian cancer, and offer the source for discovery of mitochondrial biomarker for ovarian cancers.",signatures:"Xianquan Zhan and Na Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67264",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67264",authors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"},{id:"318858",title:"Dr.",name:"Na",surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}],corrections:null},{id:"68488",title:"Mitochondrial Dysfunction as a Key Event during Aging: From Synaptic Failure to Memory Loss",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88445",slug:"mitochondrial-dysfunction-as-a-key-event-during-aging-from-synaptic-failure-to-memory-loss",totalDownloads:1225,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Mitochondria are important cellular organelles with key regulatory functions in energy production, oxidative balance, and calcium homeostasis. This is especially important in the brain, since neurons require a large number of functional mitochondria to supply their high energy requirement, mainly for synaptic processes. A decrease in the activity and quality of mitochondria in the brain, particularly in the hippocampus, is associated with normal aging and a large number of neurodegenerative diseases compromising memory function. Although synaptic and cognitive dysfunction is multifactorial, growing evidence demonstrates that mitochondria play a key role in these processes and suggests that maintaining mitochondrial function could prevent these age-dependent alterations. In this chapter, we will discuss the hippocampal mitochondrial dysfunction present in aging and how these defects promote age-associated synaptic damage and cognitive impairment. We will summarize evidence that shows how neurodegeneration can be accelerated or attenuated during aging by modulating mitochondrial function.",signatures:"Claudia Jara, Angie K. Torres, Margrethe A. Olesen and Cheril Tapia-Rojas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68488",authors:[{id:"183873",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Jara",slug:"claudia-jara",fullName:"Claudia Jara"},{id:"299224",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheril",surname:"Tapia-Rojas",slug:"cheril-tapia-rojas",fullName:"Cheril Tapia-Rojas"},{id:"299227",title:"Ms.",name:"Angie K.",surname:"Torres",slug:"angie-k.-torres",fullName:"Angie K. Torres"},{id:"299230",title:"Ms.",name:"Margrethe",surname:"A. Olesen",slug:"margrethe-a.-olesen",fullName:"Margrethe A. Olesen"}],corrections:null},{id:"68330",title:"Coenzyme Q 10 and L-Carnitine Disturbances in Children with Mitochondrial Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87950",slug:"coenzyme-q-sub-10-sub-and-l-carnitine-disturbances-in-children-with-mitochondrial-diseases",totalDownloads:821,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) and L-carnitine are very important biologically active compounds involved in energy metabolism. L-carnitine and coenzyme Q10 disturbances in mitochondrial diseases require the correction. Patients and methods: The levels of coenzyme Q10 and L-carnitine (total carnitine, free carnitine, and acylcarnitines) were determined in children with mitochondrial diseases (25 children and 16 children, respectively). High-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection (chromatograph Shimadzu Nexera LC-30) and chromatography-mass spectrometry (Agilent 6410 QQQ , USA) were used. As an additional parameter of possible coenzyme Q10 and carnitine insufficiency, the coenzyme Q10/cholesterol ratio and acylcarnitines/free carnitine ratio were calculated. Results: A significantly low ratio of coenzyme Q10/cholesterol in children with mitochondrial diseases was revealed—0.10 ± 0.01 vs. 0.19 ± 0.01 in the control group (p < 0.001). A lower absolute level of coenzyme Q10 and tendency toward a more pronounced decrease in the Q10/cholesterol ratio in older patients (6–16 years) were shown. The free carnitine blood level was within the normal range and averaged at 29.8 ± 2.6 μmol/l; however, the level was lower than that in the control group (44 ± 5.2 μmol/l, p < 0.05). A pronounced significant increase in the acylcarnitines/free carnitine ratio was determined—1.5 ± 0.05 (the normal range < 0.6).",signatures:"Ekaterina A. Nikolaeva, Ilgar S. Mamedov and Irina V. Zolkina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68330",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68330",authors:[{id:"299513",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina",surname:"Nikolaeva",slug:"ekaterina-nikolaeva",fullName:"Ekaterina Nikolaeva"},{id:"304282",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilgar",surname:"Mamedov",slug:"ilgar-mamedov",fullName:"Ilgar Mamedov"},{id:"304283",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Zolkina",slug:"irina-zolkina",fullName:"Irina Zolkina"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6331",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8943dda86e7f5eea7bb5afc1ff70cfe",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",bookSignature:"Stavros J. 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Goto, Hossein R. Najafabadi, Guilherme C. Duran, Edson K. Ueda, André K. Sato, Thiago C. Martins, Rogério Y. Takimoto, Hossein Gohari, Ahmad Barari and Marcos S.G. Tsuzuki",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"May 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 6th 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10627",title:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineering Problems - Uncertainties, Constraints and Optimization Techniques",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki and Prof. Rehab O. O. 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Abdel Rahman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10627.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"146384",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Sales Guerra",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuzuki",slug:"marcos-sales-guerra-tsuzuki",fullName:"Marcos Sales Guerra Tsuzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11542",leadTitle:null,title:"Crude Oil - Emerging Downstream Processing Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tDemand for crude oil plummeted and prices fell during the coronavirus lockdown. Now, the world economy is recovering and the fuel demand is increasing. Crude oil has been one of the major energy sources globally and crude oil-derived products always play a crucial role as fuel and feedstock for the petrochemical industry, which is irreplaceable pro tem.
\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
\r\n\tThis edited book aims to provide the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art technologies of crude oil downstream processing which include the primary and secondary upgrading or treating processes covering desulfurization, denitrogenation, demetallation, and evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-681-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-680-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-682-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"808b0ddfb3b92e0636ae44a83ef7dbd9",bookSignature:"Dr. Ching Thian Tye",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11542.jpg",keywords:"Crude Oil Properties, Hydrocracking, Catalytic Cracking, Coking, Visbreaking, Thermal Cracking, Hydroprocessing, Hydrodesulfurization, Desulfurization, Denitrogenation, Demetallation, Dearomatization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia and dedicated researcher in fuel-related catalytic process and chemical reaction engineering. Dr. Tye serves on a review panel for international and national refereed journals, scientific proceedings as well as international grants.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"304947",title:"Dr.",name:"Ching Thian",middleName:null,surname:"Tye",slug:"ching-thian-tye",fullName:"Ching Thian Tye",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304947/images/system/304947.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tye is an associate professor at the School of Chemical Engineering in Universiti Sains Malaysia. She received her doctoral degree at The University of British Columbia, Canada. She is working in the area of chemical reaction engineering and catalysis. She has been involved in projects to improve catalysis activities, system efficiency, as well as products quality via different upgrading and treating paths that are related to petroleum and unconventional oil such as heavy oil, used motor oil, spent tire pyrolysis oils as well as renewable resources like palm oil. She serves as a review panel for international & national refereed journals, scientific proceedings as well as international grants.",institutionString:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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These parameters are also attractive for use in the new generation of electrical transportation, ventilation and heating systems. With the development of control technology, these machines are being used now in variable speed drives applications. There are two forms of control vector or field oriented: direct field orientation, which need measurement or estimation of the rotor flux, and indirect field orientation, which use an inherent relationship. Though indirect field oriented control uses essentially the command reference rotor flux.Some recent works using the actual rotor flux are reported to achieve perfect decoupling Blaschke, F. 1972, Bose, B. K. 2002, Leonhard, W. 1990, Vas, P. 1990.
\n\t\t\tThe implementation of direct field oriented control via air gap flux measurement has typically been plagued by the complexities and lack of mechanical robustness associated with intrusive sensors located in machine air gap. Furthermore, a correction is required for the rotor leakage flux if the rotor flux field orientation is to be achieved. Estimation rather than measurement of the rotor flux is an alternative approach for both direct and indirect field oriented control that has received considerable attention Holtz, J. 2006, Kennel, R. 2007, Krishnan, R. 2001.
\n\t\t\tIn many popular implementations of field oriented induction machine drives, rotor flux is estimated from the terminal variables such as stator voltage and current measurements. Digital shaft position encoders are usually used to detect the rotor speed. Speed and flux sensors cause many problems, as degradation in mechanical robustness; high cost and volume lower the system reliability and require special attention to noise. In some special applications such as high speed control drives and hostile environment, difficulties arise in mounting these sensors Bose, B. K. 2002, Holtz, J. 2006, Krishnan, R. 2001.
\n\t\t\tIn the last decade, researches have been carried on the design of sensorless control schemes of induction machines. Most methods are based on the Model Reference Adaptive System schemes (MRAS) Chang, G. W. et al. 2001, Marino, R. et al. 2008. In Wang, et al. 2007 the authors used a reactive-power based reference model in both motoring and generating modes, but one of the disadvantages of this algorithm is its sensitivity to detuning the stator and rotor inductances. The basic MRAS algorithm is very simple but the greatest drawback is the sensitivity to uncertainties in the motor parameters Chang, G. W. & Hespanha, J. P. et al. 2001, Marino, R. et al. 2008\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\tBy using the advances of power electronics and Digital Signal Processing DSP technology, the control schemes of induction machine are developed from simple scalar control methods or auto-tuning control strategies to FOC and DTC. The Indirect Field Oriented Control (IFOC) is applied in real time control when dealing with high performance induction motors drives El Refaei, et al. 2005, Holtz, J. and Thimm, T. 1991, Holtz, J. and Quan, J. 2002, Jeon, S.H., et al. 2002.
\n\t\t\tIn high performance control, rotor time constant is a critical parameter for indirect field oriented control induction motor drives. Only recent works have aimed at filling in this gap by providing indirect field oriented control with a firm theoretical foundation. The influence of the rotor time constant mismatch on the stability of induction motors under indirect field oriented control. It has been shown that the speed control of induction motors through indirect field oriented control is globally asymptotically stable for any constant load torque if the rotor time constant is perfectly known or the estimated error is sufficiently small Bezanella, A.S. and Reginetto, R. 2007, Chang, G. W. et al. 2001, Holtz, J. and Thimm, T. 1991, Matsuo, T. and Lipo, T. A. 1985.
\n\t\t\tThe objective of this chapter is to present a high performance induction machines vector control that is robust against rotor time constant variations Grouni, S., Ibtiouen, R. & Kidouche M. and Touhami, O. 2007. These variations are predicted and corrected by using the online estimator approach algorithm. This estimator is developed to simultaneously control flux and estimate rotor time constant. Simulation and experimental results are presented. In addition we consider the problem of analytically seeking a reference with optimum flux that minimizes total energy of induction machines.
\n\t\tThe induction machine mathematical model, in space vector notation, established in d-q rotating coordinates frame system is based on the Park’s transformation. Dynamic models of induction machines are available in the literature Bose, B.K. 2002, Krishnan, R. 2001. Parasitic effects such as hysteresis, eddy currents, magnetic saturation and others are generally neglected. Consider a state-space model of equations system related to the indirect method of vector field control is described below. In the rotating reference frame at synchronous speed\n\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
In the same way, we define the stator and rotor fluxes by the following magnetic equations:
\n\t\t\twhere\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
In d-q rotating reference frame components, the expressions of electromagnetic torque and mechanical speed are stated by:
\n\t\t\twhere
This expression presents a high coupling between fluxes and electromagnetic torque.
\n\t\t\tFrom (7) and (8), d-q rotating reference frame the rotor currents are given:
\n\t\t\tSubstituting (11) and (12) into (3) and (4) we get yields
\n\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t
From (18), the electromagnetic torque is controlled only by q- axis stator current, and the rotor flux is controlled by d-axis stator current. In vector field oriented control we have :
\n\t\t\tSubstituting (15)-(17) into (3) and (11)-(14) it yields
\n\t\t\tin which:
\n\t\t\tThere are many categories of vector control strategies Bose, B.K. 2002, Krishnan, R. 2001, Vas, P. 1990. We are interested in this work to indirect field oriented control (IFOC). We have shown in equation (9) that the electromagnetic torque expression, in the dynamic regime, presents a coupling between stator current and rotor flux. The main objective of the vector field oriented control of induction machines is to obtain the decoupling between flux and electromagnetic torque Blaschke, F. 1972. This is done by using a d-q rotating reference frame at synchronous speed with the rotor flux is space vector orientation. The d-axis is aligned with the rotor flux space vector. Under this condition we have;\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
The function of electromagnetic torque with the reference slip speed frequency is:
\n\t\t\tThese equations are functions of some structural electric parameters of induction machines (\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
The dynamic model represented in equations (1)-(4) is applied with pulse width modulation (PWM) voltage or current control inverter. The schematic block diagrams of a real control system are represented in figures 1 and 2. The following models of control are used on closed loop in field oriented control systems which depend on the loading conditions.
\n\t\t\tBlock scheme of indirect field oriented control on voltage control inverter.
Block scheme of indirect field oriented control on current control inverter.
The current and voltage controls of indirect field oriented control are represented in Figures 3 and 4. It is noticed that the decoupling flux is maintened null in q-axis rotor flux. The fluxes circular locus show a good improvement of the proposed control.
\n\t\t\tSimulation results with current control inverter.
With respect to the proposed control, the speed response follows perfectly the reference speed while the curves of torque show good dynamic behavior for both transient and steady state. The stator current waveform shows a fast rise time response.
\n\t\tSimulation results with voltage control inverter.
As stated in the introduction, the interest study is in online tracking of the value of rotor time constant
Several research tasks Bezanella, A. S., Reginetto, R. 2001, Holtz, J. & Thimm, T. 1991, Jeon, S. H. et al. 2002, Marino, R., Tomei, Verrelli, C. M. 2008, Matsuo, T. & Lipo, T. O. 1985, Novotny, D. & Lorenz, R. 1986 and (Wensen, Wang, et al. 2001,) showed that effectiveness of the control in oriented flux depend strongly on the knowledge and accuracy of the machine parameters. The simulation of mathematical equations given by (28) and (29) are plotted in Figure 5.
\n\t\t\t\tDetuning of steady-state effect parameter of flux and torque current commands.
These curves show that the actual value of the rotor time constant is smaller than the predicted (Tr/Tr*<1). The identification method of rotor time constant is studied and simulated.
\n\t\t\tThe simulation results in Figure 6 have shown the estimation method according to Garces based on the comparison of two expressions of the machine reactive power Garces, J. L. 1980, Okuyama, T. Nagase, H., Kubota, Y., et al. 1983. The simulation results applied for low load represent a good dynamic behavior for both transient and steady state responses in large scale of time. The flux curves show the decoupling between torque and flux, and (, β) axis of rotor fluxes show clearly circular locus. The control drives are applied for resistant
\n\t\t\t\ttorque value
Simulation results of Adaptation Tr for
The estimation approach of rotor time constant is based on error signal of real and optimum rotor flux. This approach has been used to optimize rotor flux for optimum control trajectory tracking. It depends largely on the machine parameters where optimum rotor flux is function of copper loss minimization Grouni, S., Ibtiouen, R. & Kidouche, M. and Touhami, O. 2008:
\n\t\t\tOptimum control of rotor flux is calculated by using equation:
\n\t\t\tDeveloping this expression, and calculating optimum flux according to the function of electromagnetic torque, we get the following expression:
\n\t\t\twhere
The d-axis component of rotor flux \n\t\t\t\t
The reference signal
The expression of estimated stator resistance is given by the following equation:
\n\t\t\tThe control scheme presented is shown as a dotted block in figure 7. This is used to improve the estimator of rotor time constant with optimum flux.
\n\t\t\tBlock scheme diagram of online estimator
Simulation results of rotor time constant with optimum flux.
We have tested the proposed scheme diagram with the estimation approach of rotor time constant. The responses of rotor flux and electromagnetic torque show that the decoupling is maintained. The speed signal has a good dynamic behavior in transient and steady state. The response follows perfectly the reference. The estimation approach has obtained a perfect response behavior of rotor time constant in large scale of time.
\n\t\tIn this chapter, we have presented the estimation approach of rotor time constant variation with optimum flux. The Garces method is applied for several applications of load torque. The estimation approach predicts and tune the rotor time constant to the actual value rapidly. Now, it is possible to say that this approach can be applied to reduce losses in low load application for induction machines. Further research can address the effectiveness rotor time constant which remains an important parameter for stability and robustness in high application vector controlled machines in presence of load disturbance.
\n\t\tCyanobacteria are essential microorganisms on earth as they produce oxygen and account for a large part of primary aquatic productivity. Simultaneously, some freshwater cyanobacteria can produce various toxins, named cyanotoxins, some of which are potently poisonous to humans and animals. A well-known cyanotoxicosis in humans was reported from Brazil in association with medical malpractice in 1996. In this incident, 126 patients in a hemodialysis unit were affected, and 60 of them died due to using microcystin-contaminated water from a local reservoir. A cyanobacterial bloom was found in that reservoir concurrently [1]. Besides, there have been reports concerning human cyanotoxin poisoning by drinking water or via injury after contacting recreational water [2]. Apart from humans, numerous animal poisoning cases have also taken place because they can reach the unprocessed natural water directly so that the risk of being poisoned becomes higher. These cases involve livestock, pets, and wildlife [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Cyanobacterial blooms occurred more frequently in recent years, which may have been attributed to the aggravating eutrophication in freshwater and global warming. As such, cyanotoxin poisoning incidents have also been increasingly reported. Nowadays, freshwater cyanobacterial blooms have broader geographical and temporal impacts on local water bodies that act as vital municipal or agricultural water supplies. With the possibility of cyanotoxin contamination, humans and animals residing in surrounding areas continue to be threatened. Therefore, testing for toxic cyanobacteria or cyanotoxins is imperative for detection and preventive measures.
Although cyanobacteria can be observed under a microscope, their toxigenicity cannot be determined by microscopy because the toxigenic cyanobacteria do not have unique morphological characteristics. Some laboratories have adopted a testing strategy that combines microscopic observation and cyanotoxin detection to indicate the existence of toxigenic cyanobacteria in samples. Although this strategy may seem reasonable and pragmatic, it needs collaboration between chemical analysts and microalgal biologists to reach an agreement on the conclusion. Furthermore, it neglects the complex phenomena of the same toxin production by different species or genera, leading to an incorrect judgment of the truly culpable toxin producers.
Cyanotoxin testing has been in place. Yet, available tests have shortcomings. For example, commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have been widely employed in water testing for cyanotoxins. However, it still has issues, such as low sensitivity [11] or inaccuracy. Erroneous detection is due to the cross-reactivity of isomorphic substances with targets. False-positive results can occur in a worst-case scenario [12]. The high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS) are the most accurate analytical methods and have been often employed in cyanotoxin testing [11, 13, 14, 15, 16]. But they require exquisite instruments and complicated operations, making them not as affordable as ELISA-based testing. Aside from these limitations, chemical testing can only tell the presence and/or quantity of cyanotoxins without identifying the toxin producer(s). However, it is crucial to recognize the existence of toxigenic cyanobacteria in water bodies for monitoring and early warning of cyanotoxin poisoning incidents.
It is known that cyanotoxin synthesis is catalyzed by a string of relevant enzymes encoded by toxin synthetase genes [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Lack of essential genes for forming a toxin backbone or disruption of the enzymatic cascade toward toxin production results in the failure of toxin synthesis. Therefore, the detection of toxin synthetase genes in samples by a molecular test can disclose the presence or absence of toxigenic cyanobacteria. In this chapter, we review the application of molecular techniques, particularly PCR-based assays, for detecting toxigenic cyanobacteria in freshwater.
Like other bacteria, cyanobacteria often have one circular chromosome and a few plasmids that consist of the whole genome. The cyanobacterial chromosome is a few megabases in size and contains most of the genes, while plasmids play a role in transferring DNA elements. Compared to the eukaryotic microalgae, the cyanobacterial genome is highly compressed but still contains all genes essential for aquatic and photosynthetic life. Some species even have genes that can facilitate competitive superiority in the environment. For example, gas vesicle genes in
Cyanotoxin synthetase genes often cluster together in the genome and constitute one or more operons that are transcribed in identical or opposite directions [19, 21, 22, 23, 26]. The reason for such an arrangement is likely that the transcription can be well regulated so that all pertaining genes are transcribed simultaneously. This process may ensure that all necessary enzymes/proteins are present for subsequent toxin synthesis. The whole-genome sequencing of toxic cyanobacteria to date has demonstrated only a single copy of the toxin gene cluster in the cyanobacterial genome [27, 28, 29]. The toxin synthetase genes have conserved sequences encoding conserved domains/motifs in the corresponding proteins with specific functions during toxin syntheses, such as polyketide synthesis, adenylation, and methylation. The genes are always clustered closely with whose proteins conduct successive functions in a cascade reaction. It should be reiterated that the synthetase genes are indispensable for toxin production, making them the ideal targets for molecular detection.
Cyanotoxins are traditionally named after the first identified toxin-producing genus, as in the case of microcystin (
Microcystin is the most common cyanotoxin implicated in human and animal poisoning incidents [36, 37, 38]. It is a hepatotoxin and thus can cause severe impairment in the liver when ingested by the casualties. The toxin is known to be produced by several genera of cyanobacteria, such as
Microcystin is a cyclic heptapeptide that inhibits the eukaryotic protein phosphatase type 1 and 2A in humans and animals by forming an irreversible covalent bond to a cysteine in the catalytic domain of these enzymes. It consists of the following amino acids: D-alanine, X, D-MeAsp (D-erythro-ß-methyl-aspartic acid), Z, Adda ((2S,3S,8S,9S)-3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid), D-glutamic acid, and Mdha (N-methyldehydroalanine). X and Z represent variable L amino acids. It has reportedly over 80 variants, mostly differing in amino acids at the positions X and Z [39].
Microcystin is a non-ribosomal oligopeptide, which means unlike most of the peptides and proteins, it is not synthesized by cellular ribosomes. The enzymes responsible for its synthesis contain the non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPS) and polyketide synthases (PKS) modules as well as tailoring functional domains. All the enzymes are the protein products encoded by the microcystin synthetase genes (
Gene | Size (bp)1 | Encoded domain or function2 | Existence in different genera | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
8838 | NRPS, C, NMT, E | yes | yes | yes | |
6318 | NRPS, A, T, C | yes | yes | yes | |
3876 | NRPS, C, A, TE | yes | yes | yes | |
11721 | PKS, KS, AT, KR, DH, ACP, CM | yes | yes | yes | |
10464 | PKS, NRPS, KS, AT, ACP, CM, AMT | yes | yes | yes | |
756 | Racemase | yes | yes | no | |
7896 | NRPS, PKS, KS, AT, CM, DH, KR, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
1617 | Transporter | yes | yes | yes | |
1014 | Dehydrogenase | yes | yes | no | |
837 | OM | yes | yes | yes | |
< 1000 | TE | no | no | yes |
Comparison of microcystin synthetase genes.
Values are from
NRPS, non-ribosomal peptide synthetase; C, condensation; NMT,
The microcystin synthetase gene (
Per annotation of
The cyanobacterial alkaloid anatoxin-a has been found in different genera, such as
Although anatoxin-a doesn’t look structurally complicated, its synthesis still requires a cascade of many enzymes whose genes known as anatoxin-a synthetase genes (
Gene | Size (bp)1 | Encoded domain or function2 | Existence in different genera | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
750 | TE | yes | yes | yes | |
1143 | Proline-ACP oxidase | yes | yes | yes | |
1596 | Proline adenylation | yes | yes | yes | |
273 | Acyl carrier | yes | yes | yes | |
6438 | PKS, KS, AT, DH, ER, KR, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
5619 | PKS, KS, AT, DH, KR, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
4896 | PKS, KS, AT, CM, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
< 1000 | Transposase | no | yes | yes | |
< 2000 | Transporter | yes | yes | yes | |
723 | Cyclase | yes | yes | yes | |
<1000 | Reductase | no | no | yes |
Comparison of anatoxin-a synthetase genes.
Values are from
TE, thioesterase; ACP, acyl carrier protein; PKS, polyketide synthase; KS, β-ketoacyl synthase; AT, acyltransferase; DH, dehydratase; ER, enoylreductase; KR, ketoreductase; CM,
The anatoxin-a synthetase gene (
To start the anatoxin-a synthesis, AnaC activates and tethers the precursor proline to AnaD, which covalently combines with the proline. Then AnaB dehydrogenates the heterocyclic ring of proline to form a “C=N” double bond. AnaE introduces a carbonyl group into its connection with the heterocycle passed from AnaD. Then AnaJ catalyzes a cyclization step to form the characteristic bicyclic ring structure of anatoxin-a by connecting the heterocyclic ring with the backbone. At the same time, the growing chain is bound to the acyl carrier protein domain of AnaF. Finally, the bicyclic thioester is transferred to AnaG for chain extension by adding an acyl group, followed by the enzymatic reaction of AnaA to break the single “SCO-C” covalent bond connecting the enzyme (AnaG) and final product for the completion and releasing of anatoxin-a. Similar to its counterpart McyH in microcystin-producing cyanobacteria, AnaI transports the toxin through the cytomembrane. The rest of the Ana proteins are not commonly shared across different genera and have their own functions. AnaH is a transposase only found in
Cylindrospermopsin can be produced by various cyanobacterial genera, such as
Cylindrospermopsin is synthesized via a string of NRPS/PKS reactions conducted by up to over a dozen Cyr proteins (Table 3, Figure 3). The cylindrospermopsin synthetase genes (
Gene | Size (bp)1 | Encoded domain or function2 | Existence in different genera | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1176 | AMT | yes | yes | yes | |
8754 | NRPS, PKS, PCP, KS, AT, DH, MT, KR, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
5005 | PKS, KS, AT, KR, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
5631 | PKS, KS, AT, DH, KR, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
5667 | PKS, KS, AT, DH, KR, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
4074 | PKS, KS, AT, ACP | yes | yes | yes | |
1437 | Uracil ring formation | yes | yes | yes | |
1431 | Uracil ring formation | yes | yes | yes | |
831 | Hydroxylation | yes | yes | yes | |
780 | Sulfotransferase | yes | yes | yes | |
1398 | Exporter | yes | yes | yes | |
750 | Transposase | yes | no | no | |
318 | Transposase | yes | no | no | |
600 | Adenylylsulfate kinase | yes | no | yes | |
1548 | Regulator | yes | no | yes | |
152 | ATP-grasp protein | no | no | yes | |
404 | Transposase | no | no | yes | |
299 | Transposase | no | no | yes |
Comparison of cylindrospermopsin synthetase genes.
Values are from
AMT, aminotransferase; NRPS, non-ribosomal peptide synthetase; PKS, polyketide synthase; PCP, peptidyl carrier protein; AT, acyltransferase; DH, dehydratase; MT, methyl transferase; KR, ketoreductase; ACP, acyl carrier protein; KS, β-ketoacyl synthase.
The cylindrospermopsin synthetase gene (
As
Nodularin is a cyclic pentapeptide and has the identical chemical structure as microcystin except the lack of D-alanine and the amino acid at position X. The mechanism of its toxicity is the same as microcystin’s, i.e., inhibiting the eukaryotic protein phosphatase catalytic subunit type 1 and 2A and leading to severe liver damage. Different from the three aforementioned cyanotoxins, nodularin is solely found in
Gene | Size (bp)1 | Encoded domain or function2 |
---|---|---|
2607 | NRPS, A, NM, PCP, C | |
1299 | C, A, PCP, TE | |
2640 | NRPS, PKS, A, PCP, KS, AT, CM, KR, ACP | |
3872 | PKS, KS, AT, CM, DH, KR, ACP | |
927 | OM | |
3475 | PKS, NRPS, KS, AT, CM, ACP, AMT, C, A, PCP | |
235 | Racemase | |
341 | D-3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase | |
601 | ABC transporter |
Comparison of nodularin synthetase genes.
Values are from
NRPS, non-ribosomal peptide synthetase; A, adenylation; NM,
The nodularin synthetase gene (
Nodularin synthesis is conducted putatively according to the annotated functions of each Nda protein. NdaC activates the starter unit as phenylalanine or phenylacetate, and then NdaE catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group to the growing chain. NdaD is involved in two further polyketide extension steps, and NdaF facilitates the final round of polyketide extension and the biosynthesis of Adda. Next, epimerization of L-glutamic acid is catalyzed by NdaG, followed by the peptide condensation carried out by NdaA and NdaB. During the condensation, NdaH participates in the conversion of N-methyl-L-threonine (MeThr) to N-methyldehydrobutyrine (MeDhb) with a cofactor nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). Finally, the mature peptide chain is cyclized by NdaB and released from the enzyme-substrate complex. As an ABC-transporter, NdaI is responsible for the transmembrane transportation of nodularin for extracellular excretion.
PCR-based assays have been most commonly utilized in molecular identification studies because the assays are able to recognize targets accurately. The assays incorporate oligonucleotide primers explicitly designed for complementary sequences of the target gene(s). Two types of PCR methods have been used: conventional gel-based PCR and real-time PCR. In general, the real-time PCR has higher sensitivity (i.e., detect a low amount of the target) than the conventional PCR. The real-time PCR also offers better specificity than the conventional PCR since it uses an additional oligonucleotide known as a probe, which is complementary to sequences between primer-binding sequences.
Furthermore, the real-time PCR allows estimating the number of the intended target in samples when performed with standards with a known copy number of the target sequences. This procedure is referred to as quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). In addition, reverse transcription (RT)-PCR or RT-qPCR platforms have been utilized for specifically detecting transcripts (i.e., mRNAs) from the target genes of cyanobacteria. Typically, PCR can be completed within one or two hours, much shorter than the traditional analytical methods and microscopy mentioned above.
The molecular identification of microcystin-producing cyanobacteria has been conducted using nearly all
Although most publications have been concerned about toxic/toxigenic
The rest of the
With increased bioinformatic data related to
There are a few unidentified open reading frames (ORFs) flanking the
The
Like
Molecular detection of cylindrospermopsin-producing cyanobacteria has been mostly reported for
Multi-generic detection of cylindrospermopsin-producing cyanobacteria was reported as well. Campo et al. found that
There are also a few ORFs flanking the
Since
Apart from the four most commonly reported cyanotoxins mentioned above, there are a few other cyanotoxins, such as saxitoxin, lyngbyatoxin, guanitoxin, β-N-methylamino-L-alanin (BMAA), aplysiatoxin, and lipopolysaccharide [18, 77, 78]. Hitherto, only the gene clusters for the biosynthesis of saxitoxin and lyngbyatoxin have been characterized.
Saxitoxin belongs to the group of carbamate alkaloid toxins composed of a tetrahydropurine group and two guanidinium moieties [79] and can also be produced by marine phytoplankton [80]. It can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning syndrome and afflict human health via bioaccumulation. At least 30 clustered saxitoxin synthesis genes (
The
Lyngbyatoxin is characterized as a potent skin irritant produced by
No literature regarding molecular detection of cyanobacteria producing the rest of the toxins mentioned above could be searched. It is most likely because there are few reports as to the molecular mechanisms of their biosynthesis. Nevertheless, it is worthwhile to briefly introduce guanitoxin, previously known as anatoxin-a(S), to emphasize its difference from anatoxin-a. Guanitoxin was recently renamed due to its structural and toxicological disparities from anatoxin-a [77]. It is a guanidino organophosphate neurotoxin that irreversibly inhibits acetylcholinesterase’s active site, leading to excess acetylcholine, which causes severe salvation and chromodacryorrhea, so-called “bloody tears” before respiratory arrest [84]. Up to now, it was only found in planktonic
As various cyanobacterial genera can produce the same cyanotoxin, the development of toxigenic cyanobacteria identification needs to be multi-generic detection. Furthermore, as many genes for different toxins have sequences for the same conserved domains, designing PCR methods for all the cyanobacteria producing multiple toxins would be ideal.
Although most publications have focused on the selected cyanotoxins and their producers, more attention should be paid to other cyanotoxins and producers due to their potential of posing a significant threat to animal and human health. However, many cyanotoxin-producing cyanobacteria still lack bioinformation for the synthesis-related genes (e.g., guanitoxin), and it is thereby urgent to make further exploration to enrich the gene pools and their sequences so that a much more comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanisms and the development of nucleic acid-based identification methods can be facilitated.
With the technical advance in PCR, researchers have been able to develop multiplex PCR methods in which many cyanotoxin biosynthesis genes can be detected simultaneously. For example, Ouahid et al. devised a multiplex PCR assay to detect six
Cyanobacteria with cyanotoxin synthetase genes in their genome are clearly equipped with the ability of toxin production. However, transcription of toxin biosynthesis genes is triggered by various environmental factors [88, 89, 90]; hence, toxin production is not consistently ongoing. It means the presence of genes itself may not always translate into the appearance of toxins unless they are inter- or extra-cellularly accumulated and detectable. Furthermore, the significant positive correlation between gene copies and toxin levels is still controversial, as described in this chapter and another review [91]. Instead, the presence of mRNA transcripts from cyanotoxin synthase genes may be more closely associated with toxin production. Consequently, cDNA detection is justifiable to indicate an ongoing toxin synthesis, which is more critical and useful for monitoring the toxin-producing cyanobacteria. For this purpose, genes located at the end of operons should be good candidates for two reasons. One, primers designed from those genes can be directly used in cDNA testing like other genes because cyanobacteria lack introns. Two, the appearance of those genes in cDNA form signifies the successful cascade transcription of the clustered genes, gearing up all pertinent proteins for toxin synthesis. For example,
Although qPCR is preferred due to its many advantages, conventional PCR should also be considered for assessing the presence or absence of toxigenic cyanobacteria in water samples, as previously reported [49, 56]. In addition, the simplicity and cheaper operation may make conventional PCRs a more cost-effective tool for molecular detection of toxigenic cyanobacteria in comparison to qPCRs.
Besides PCR-based assays, there are other molecular technologies applicable to the identification and/or characterization of toxigenic cyanobacteria. A noteworthy method is the next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology. The technology has been widely used to identify previously unrecognized agents, non-culturable microorganisms, and/or variants because of its advanced and hypothesis-free sequencing ability [92] and has been applied to cyanobacteria research. Although most NGS studies have been investigations of taxonomic diversities using representative cyanobacterial genetic markers such as 16S rDNA [93, 94], the potential toxigenicity of cyanobacteria can be disclosed by sequencing the pooled libraries of toxin biosynthesis associated genes. Casero et al. revealed the existence of multiple toxigenic taxa in a summer bloom in a Spanish reservoir using
Nowadays, freshwater cyanobacterial blooms are seen more frequently than ever before because of increased eutrophication of their habitats and climate changes (e.g., global warming), which are utterly favorable to the overgrowth of cyanobacteria. Even though toxic cyanobacterial species are not always the mere culprit for these ecological disasters, they are often the dominant organisms and cause more destructive consequences because they can produce potent cyanotoxins into the water. There is no doubt that the toxic freshwater cyanobacteria pose a grave threat to human and animal health, agricultural production, tourism, to name a few. Hence, advancing techniques and technologies for rapid and reliable identification and monitoring of toxic cyanobacteria is an inevitable mission for healthcare, economy, and environmental conservation. To date, molecular assays, especially PCR-based tests, have been employed in toxic cyanobacterial identification, but their utilization should be further expanded into large-scale and long-term detection tasks and routine monitoring programs for not only the acute poisoning incidents but also the chronic impacts and preventative measures.
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the publication of this chapter: the manuscript compilation was supported in part by funding from the Innovative Swine Industry Enhancement Grant Program by the Iowa Attorney General’s Office, Iowa State University (ISU) Health Research Initiative, and ISU Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory Research Support Fund.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors are sincerely grateful to the people who have made their contributions to the pertaining studies that are helpful for writing the chapter, including, but not limited to, Dr. Steve Ensley, Dr. Hyun-Joong Kim, Dr. Christopher Filstrup, Dr. Baoqing Guo, Dr. Paula Imerman, Dr. Grace Wilkinson, Dwayne Schrunk, and Amy Curtis.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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