Fitting decay time values of eumelanin suspensions, carried out in DMSO‐methanol mixture. The suspension was excited at 2.254 eV. Table adapted from [17].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tThe seepage flow is a phenomenon, where something like water finds gaps in a medium and passes through them. The flow is a slow progression on different time scales in various places. Rainwater that has infiltrated the soil is absorbed by plants through their roots and stems by capillary action. On islands, saltwater intrusion affects field crops and fruit trees. In a sandy beach, the action of waves generates seepage flow, purifying seawater physically and biochemically, which is one of the natural purification mechanisms. Artificial structures are also infiltrated by fresh or saltwater depending on environments. Although these seepage phenomena appear to show a steady-state, the phase proceeds so slowly as not to be noticed, where a certain amount is integrated to cross a threshold, leading to sudden changes. For example, seepage rainwater can trigger landslides. The infiltrated water causes corrosion and degradation of structural components through chemical reactions. In addition, the penetrated high-temperature magma, touching osmotic groundwater, raises the pressure in its chamber via phreatic explosions, resulting in an eruption.
\r\n\r\n\tThis volume will provide new conceptual, qualitative, and quantitative commentaries on seepage flow in various situations, as well as the resultant phenomena due to seepage flow.
\r\n\t
Nowadays, the possibility to investigate optical nonlinearities offers great insights on material properties and the interaction between light and matter. After the interaction with a strong optical field, the response of the material will be no longer linearly dependent on its strength, instead nonlinear effects start playing major roles. Due to crystal structures and symmetries of media, the third order is the nonlinearity of the lowest order that can be observed in all media [1], and thus has become a valuable tool to investigate structural and dynamic aspects of matter. Among the third‐order nonlinear effects (e.g., third‐harmonic generation, optical Kerr effect), the four‐wave mixing (FWM) is the mostly explored since it generalizes all the third‐order nonlinearities. The FWM relies on the mixing of three input signals, which results in the generation of a fourth output field. When one of the input signals is resonant with the frequencies of the material, the FWM process can be enhanced and is called stimulated Raman scattering (SRS). Coupling this process with laser pulses delayed in time, namely using a pump‐probe setup, it is possible to investigate the temporal behavior of the material and the evolution of its properties. Nonlinear Raman spectroscopy is an example of such combination between third‐order nonlinear optical effect and pump‐probe technique [2].
\nIn this chapter, we discuss one of the FWM processes which contributes to the stimulated Raman scattering, called inverse Raman scattering (IRS). The theory behind the IRS effect will be explained, resorting to Feynman dual‐time line (FDTL) diagrams [3], as well as its application as a spectroscopic tool. Furthermore, the connection held between the IRS and the femtosecond transient absorption (FTA) spectroscopy will be clarified, pointing out the important role the IRS effect plays on the temporal evolution of relaxation dynamics in FTA.
\nSchematic showing the stimulated Raman‐scattering process. The molecules in the Raman‐active medium are described by harmonic oscillators of frequency ωv. The incoming laser beam has frequency ωL. (a) Modulation of the refractive index and subsequent emission of Stokes and anti‐Stokes radiation and (b) beating of the Stokes frequency with the laser field reinforcing the vibrational oscillation of the molecule.
To describe the SRS and its origin, we begin by discussing the interaction of an optical field of frequency
The two processes hereby depicted reinforce one another: the modulation of the vibrational frequencies interacts with the incoming laser beam frequency, leading to a Stokes field which increases the amplitude of the vibrational oscillation, and eventually strengthens the Stokes frequencies. This condition of amplification is called vibrational coherence, and it can be probed by a third laser beam, determining the stimulated Raman scattering [4]. The mathematical expressions of energy conservation and phase matching are given below:
\nwith
The probability of annihilation of a photon with frequency
where
Here,
As stated in Eq. (3), the absorption of a photon with frequency
Even if there are other nonlinear processes involved, due to the intensity of the laser field typically used, the treatment of the SRS can be narrowed down to three relevant equations in the classical description, reporting on the laser excitation frequency
Here,
assuming that the incoming field intensity is constant, that is,
where
It follows that the intensities at the anti‐Stokes frequencies are higher than the corresponding ones at the Stokes frequencies [7, 9, 10]. In the spontaneous Raman scattering, at room temperature the populations in the excited vibrational levels are negligible, as described by Boltzmann distribution, thus the anti‐Stokes peaks are weak. However, in the stimulated process (such as IRS) the Boltzmann distribution does not describe anymore the energy levels population, and a strong anti‐Stokes emission can be observed [11].
\nThe IRS effect can be described by the Feynman dual‐time line (FDTL) diagrams in the Liouville space with the ket and bra evolution (Figure 2) [12]. Using the FDTL diagrams and the related energy level diagrams, it is possible to illustrate the temporal evolution of the density matrix in the four‐wave mixing process, which the IRS is based on. The temporal evolution goes from
In the energy diagrams,
Feynman dual‐time line (FDTL) diagrams (top) and energy‐level diagrams (bottom) describing the IRS effect. The wavy line is the field coming out from the stimulated Raman‐scattering process, and illustrates the third‐order polarization of the involved energetic states. In the energy diagrams, the solid and the dashed lines represent the real and the virtual levels, respectively. (a) The pump pulse arrives after the probe pulse, and excites the sample. This originates the anti‐Stokes line since the outcoming frequency is higher than the one of the incoming pump fields. This is called IRS (I) process and (b) the probe pulse follows temporally the pump pulse and the Stokes line is generated because the outcoming frequency is smaller than the incoming one. This is the IRS (II) process.
According to Lee\'s papers [3, 14], it is possible to extrapolate the mathematical expression of the third‐order polarization from the FDTL diagrams. The time‐dependent third‐order polarization in the IRS effect in the probe direction (i.e., wave vector
Here, the four‐time correlation function
where
Once defined the third‐order polarization for both effects IRS (I) and IRS (II), it is possible to show the variation in intensity of the stimulated Raman signal as function of the frequencies, to be given by\n
where
Relation between the Stokes and anti‐Stokes susceptibilities. The solid black line is the imaginary part of the Raman susceptibility; the red dashed line is the real part of the Raman susceptibility.
Extracted Raman spectrum of eumelanin dispersion in DMSO‐methanol mixture.
The aforementioned variation in intensity
To carry out FTA measurements, a noncollinear geometry in the pump‐probe setup is used. A diode‐pumped Ti:Sapphire femtosecond oscillator generates a ∼100 fs pulse at a repetition rate of 78 MHz. The so‐generated pulses are stretched and amplified by a regenerative Ti:Sapphire amplifier, pumped by a Q‐switched Nd3+:YLF laser at 1‐KHz repetition rate, and eventually compressed, leading to 4 mJ, ∼100 fs pulses at 798 nm. A beam splitter sends 90% of the outcoming pulse to an optical parametric amplifier to provide tunability over a broad spectral range (290–2600 nm). This tuneable laser pulse is sent through a depolarizer, an optical chopper, and finally focused on the sample in 1 mm spot, yielding an excitation density of 5 × 1014 photon pulse−1 cm−2. The remaining 10% of the radiation is delayed in time by an optical delay line and focused on a CaF2 crystal to generate a white‐light continuum radiation, spanning between 450 and 800 nm. The WLC radiation is used as probe beam spatially overlapped to the pump pulse on the sample. The light transmitted by the sample is coupled into an optical fiber and sent to a charge‐coupled device (CCD) spectrometer. The temporal resolution (∼200 fs) is determined by the cross‐correlation between the width of pump and probe pulses overlapping on the sample. The chromatic aberrations are removed by chirp correction software.
\nSo far, the nature of the IRS has been described. In this section, the IRS will be treated in relation with femtosecond transient absorption (FTA) experiments. In an FTA experiment, the intensity transmitted by an unexcited medium is given by
where
By expressing the transient absorption signal as function of the detected difference in intensity, Eq. (19) can be obtained\n
Three‐dimensional plot of a femtosecond transient absorption experiment performed in eumelanin dispersed in a DMSO‐methanol mixture. The sample was excited at 2.294 eV and probed over a range spanning from 1.548 to 2.753 eV. From left to right, the Stokes, laser pump, and anti‐Stokes peaks can be identified. The ∆A(ℏω,τ) is shown in the first picosecond of time delay between the pump and probe pulses to clearly exhibit the Raman peaks.
and, thus, it is possible to directly relate the IRS effect to the FTA measurements. At Stokes frequencies, the probe‐beam field experiences gain in intensity as already described above. Hence, the argument of the logarithm in Eq. (19) is larger than 1 and the transient absorption
Due to the different amount of photons detected in the femtosecond transient absorption experiments caused by the inverse Raman‐scattering effect, it is crucial to recognize the presence of such coherent artifact to avoid misinterpretation in the analysis of the FTA spectra. Hereafter, the relaxation dynamics of a dispersion of eumelanin suspended in a DMSO‐methanol mixture (1:20 ratio) is investigated by means of FTA. This sample was chosen to demonstrate the influence of the IRS, whose signal arises from the solvent used, in the temporal relaxation of the eumelanin pigments.
\nTo investigate the influence of the IRS on the transient absorption dynamics, suitable probing energies have to be chosen accurately. To this end, the temporal evolutions of the Raman features have been analyzed. From Figure 6, it is clear that probing the sample dynamics at
Temporal evolution of the synthetic eumelanin transient absorption spectra acquired in DMSO‐methanol mixture after excitation at 2.254 eV. The spectra have been normalized to the pump‐pulse intensity. The τ on the right illustrates the delay times between the pump and the probe pulses at which the spectra were acquired. The inset points out the rising of the eumelanin absorption signal, in an enlarged scale.
Transient absorption dynamics acquired in synthetic eumelanin dispersed in DMSO‐methanol mixture. Dispersion has been excited at 2.254 eV and probed at energies ℏωpr<ℏωS (a), ℏωS<ℏωpr<ℏωpu (b) and ℏωpu<ℏωpr<ℏωaS (c), that is, 1.741, 1.823, and 2.460 eV, respectively. The experimental data (full circles) were fitted by a bi‐exponential decay function (red solid line); the blue line shows the instrumental response function (IRF). Figure revised from [17].
The dynamics in the aforementioned regions is shown in Figure 7 for the eumelanin suspension in DMSO‐methanol mixture [17]. The temporal relaxation of these pigments is well reported [18], and is consistent with the data herein shown. At the same time, it is possible to appreciate a change in the sign of the differential absorption at very short time delays (first hundreds of femtoseconds) upon the probed energy, disclosing the influence of the IRS. When the probe‐beam frequency is lower than the one at which the Stokes features appears, an IRS‐free FTA dynamics is observed. In fact, as presented in Figure 7a (
The second contribution occurs only in the first hundreds of femtoseconds instead. This is due to the fact that the vibrational coherence needed to achieve the inverse Raman scattering persists as long as pump and probe pulses are temporally overlapped. Since the frequency of the probe pulse resonates with one of the Stokes features, a reinforcement of the vibrational modes of the solvent follows. Due to the resonance at the Stokes frequency, a gain in the intensity of the probe beam is achieved and the IRS appears as an emission of photons as described by the theoretical model presented by Rai et al. [4]. An increase in transmitted intensity is registered as a negative
In Figure 7c, the FTA dynamics of the eumelanin probed at frequencies between the incoming pump beam and the anti‐Stokes features is presented. If
The decay time obtained from the fit of the eumelanin dynamics is reported in Table 1 for the DMSO‐methanol suspension. It is worth noting that regardless of the frequency of the probe pulse, the decay times of the samples are comparable. In fact, the IRS does not affect the relaxation dynamics of the pigment. However, the IRS influences the sign and the amplitude of the FTA measurements.
\nSolvent | \nProbe energy (eV) | \n||
---|---|---|---|
DMSO‐methanol | \n1.741 | \n1.5 ± 0.2 | \n10.1 ± 0.9 | \n
1.823 | \n1.6 ± 0.3 | \n16.9 ± 1.4 | \n|
2.460 | \n1.5 ± 0.1 | \n15.3 ± 1.2 | \n
Fitting decay time values of eumelanin suspensions, carried out in DMSO‐methanol mixture. The suspension was excited at 2.254 eV. Table adapted from [17].
The very need of high spatial and temporal resolution to investigate molecular reaction pathways has pushed toward the development of femtosecond stimulated Raman scattering. The aim is to be able to follow structural changes in molecules during a reaction occurring on short timescales, spanning from femtoseconds to picoseconds. The ability of femtosecond stimulated Raman spectroscopy lies in the high temporal resolution with which molecular vibrations can be collected, giving deep insights into reaction dynamics. Charge‐transfer processes have been intensely investigated by FSRS; for example, long‐debated studies on 4‐(dimethylamino)benzonitrile, due to the discrepancy between the structural simplicity of this push‐pull molecule and the complexity of the excited electronic levels, have been recently come to an end. In fact, the crucial role played by intramolecular and solvent reorganizations has been at the forefront of a systematic investigation, regarding three different dynamics on various timescales: the ππ* relaxation, the internal conversion, and the vibrational relaxation [21, 22]. By investigating the excited‐state proton transfer by FSRS, Fang et al. attributed to the skeletal motions the origin of the fluorescent form of a green fluorescent protein from Aequorea victoria, which is famous for its efficient bioluminescence [23]. Indeed, by looking separately at the low vibrational frequencies of specific modes, it was possible to identify an out‐of‐phase motion of the phenoxil ring in the chromophore, and thus to optimize the chemical structure of the chromophore for improving the excited‐state proton transfer. Another important role in which FSRS is actively utilized is to help reveal the role that molecular symmetry plays in vibrational coherence activity in photosynthetic systems (as carotenoids) and in photochemistry. In particular, internal conversion processes and coupling between electronic states are ruled out [24, 25]. Finally, the vast majority of chemical reactions studied by FSRS concerns the isomerization, because of its key function in chromophores of high significance in biology. For example, Kuramochi et al. presented the first information pertaining to the vibrations in early instants of the photodynamics observed in the chromophore of the photoactive yellow protein. This study provided more insights on how to trigger the photoreceptive functions of the chromophore when embedded in the protein [26]. Kukura et al., instead, explored the spectral evolution of specific vibrational modes explaining how the activation of rhodopsin, a light receptor, is driven by geometric changes in the retinal backbone [27]. These are just few of the large number of examples that can be recalled to demonstrate the power of FSRS to unravel reaction coordinates, chemical configurations, and nuclear dynamics.
\nOne of the specific methods enrolled by the femtosecond‐stimulated Raman spectroscopy relies on the IRS effect and is called femtosecond inverse Raman scattering (FIRS) [2], or ultrafast Raman loss spectroscopy (URLS) [4]. In URLS, the decrease in intensity of the probe beam, as described in Section 4.2, is completely described by the IRS effect and is used as fingerprint to follow in time the reaction pathways. Moreover, this spectroscopic tool shows some beneficial features missing in the general FSRS. The intensity of the Raman peaks at the anti‐Stokes frequencies results higher than what is measured at the Stokes frequencies (Raman gain), leading to a better signal‐to‐noise ratio [7, 9, 10]. Second, looking at the blue side of the pump pulse to identify the spectral features of the sample helps to reject the fluorescence signal, which appears on the red side [2]. Finally, the detector dynamic range has higher efficiencies on the anti‐Stokes than on the Stokes side, minimizing the noise levels and thus allowing for clearer imaging (FIRS microscopy) [28–32], for example, in tissues [33] and drug‐delivery processes [34–36].
\nIn the previous paragraph, it was shown that investigating the temporal evolution of the
First, it is of crucial importance to identify the spectral features encountered in the FTA measurements, and ascribe them to specific vibrational modes. To this end, the Raman spectrum of the solvent mixture (DMSO‐methanol, 1:20 in ratio) was collected. As can be seen in Figure 8a, the Raman spectrum is dominated by three narrow peaks and a broad band. These features are recognized as follows: CO stretching and SO stretching in methanol and in DMSO, overlapping at 0.125 eV (peak I); CH2 bending in methanol at 0.177 eV (peak II); CH stretching in methanol at 0.352 and 0.365 eV (symmetric and antisymmetric vibrational mode), and in DMSO at 0.361 eV (peak III); OH stretching in methanol at 0.414 eV (peak IV) [39–41]. A direct correspondence of the Raman peaks shown in Figure 8a is found in the FTA measurements depicted in Figure 8b. In fact, the spectral evolution at ultrashort time delays shows specifically the same Raman features occurring symmetrically to the pump pulse at Stokes and anti‐Stokes frequencies.
\nTuning the pump pulse to lower energies, the spectral features follow the energy shift, maintaining constant the energy difference between each of them and the pump pulse (spectra from red to blue in Figure 8b). Computing
(a) Raman spectrum of DMSO‐methanol mixture (λex = 488 nm, Pincident = 6 mW, acquisition time: 30 s) and (b) Spectral evolution of the transient absorption signal detected at τ ∼ 0 in the DMSO‐methanol mixture for different pump‐pulse energies. The curves are vertically shifted for clarity. Figure taken from [17].
Once identified the Raman vibrational modes, it is possible by URLS to investigate them specifically and, in particular, to address their spectral evolution in time. This can give insights on the transient structure of the molecules and on the dynamics of the specific vibrational modes. Here, we report on a very preliminary analysis ran in such direction on the aforementioned sample; in Figure 9 the C─H Raman vibrational mode located at 2.641 eV, upon pumping the sample at
This example should visually explain the potential and the strength of the URLS as spectroscopic tool. In fact, the results here collected, and the many more presented in literature [37, 38, 42], unambiguously demonstrate the ability of the technique to select specific bonds and study their dynamics upon photoexcitation, at ultrafast timescales. However, further investigations are required to relate the experimental observations to the ultimate structure of the solvent molecules.
\n(a) ∆A signal in the blue region of the pump pulse. The peak taken into account is the anti‐Stokes feature related to the stretching of the C─H bond in methanol and DMSO, (b) evolution of the Raman peak position as function of delay time between the pump and the probe pulses, and (c) temporal evolution of the intensity of the Raman peak.
In this chapter, the authors presented a complete description of the inverse Raman scattering effect, one of the four‐wave mixing processes contributing to the stimulated Raman scattering process. Feynman dual‐time line diagrams and energy level diagrams were used to explain the theory behind the IRS effect. Once addressed the nature of the IRS effect, its close relation with the transient absorption pump‐probe experiment was described, as well as the influence on the temporal evolution of the sample dynamics. To this end, the dynamics of eumelanin dispersions carried out at different exciting energies were shown, pointing out the crucial role of the IRS in the relaxation dynamics of the sample. Finally, the implementation of the IRS effect as diagnostic tool in determining the structures and interactions among molecules was presented. In fact, the high resolution achieved in the time and spectral domains showed by ultrafast loss Raman spectroscopy enables to follow specifically the electronic structure of molecules while undergoing chemical reactions, even on ultrafast timescales.
\nWith its profession founded in the need for vocational guidance in the early 1900s, professional school counseling has substantially evolved during the last century. Historically, there has been a considerable amount of role confusion regarding the responsibilities placed on the professional school counselor (PSC) [1]. This lack of clarity and uniformity of the role of the PSC has prompted the need to further define it “to help the profession become as integral, understood, and valued as other disciplines in a school building” [2]. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) states that by implementing a comprehensive school counseling program, PSCs can improve student success for all students [3]. Furthermore, ASCA emphasizes that school counselors maximize student success as vital members of the education team [3]. The overall objective of school counseling “is to help students overcome barriers to learning and to prepare for successful careers after graduation”[2].
Over the past few decades, the profession of school counseling has answered the call to implement a more holistic and comprehensive approach to describe and delineate the roles and responsibilities of the PSC. The concept of a comprehensive school counseling program is not a new one, having first been introduced by Norm Gysbers in the late 1960s. This holistic approach has allowed for PSCs to implement a more equitable and inclusive comprehensive school counseling program for all students by infusing the three domains of academic achievement, career readiness, and social/emotional development by placing an equal emphasis on each of the three domains. PSCs also understand that each domain compliments one another. For example, PSCs guiding students toward college, career, or other post-secondary pathway must do so in collaboration with maximizing every student’s ability to learn while also helping them to manage their emotions [2].
Over the last few decades, the domains of academic achievement, career readiness, and social/emotional learning have been expanded upon by the ASCA National Model which provides PSCs with a formal structure for implementing comprehensive school counseling programs [2]. For example, the career readiness domain includes competencies used to guide school counseling programs so that students understand the connection between school and work and can plan and transition effectively to a future postsecondary education or work setting [2]. The ASCA National Model provides a framework for PSCs to be more intentional in the establishment of school counseling programs that are “comprehensive in scope, results-oriented in design, and developmental in nature”[2]. This comprehensive approach to school counseling allows for PSCs to deliver services that promote a culture of equity from which all students can benefit.
Given that comprehensive school counseling programs are designed to benefit all students, PSCs are tasked with a plethora of responsibilities including administrative demands outside of the three ASCA domains [4]. It is common for PSCs to be assigned large caseloads of students that can impact the overall effectiveness of their school counseling program. Although ASCA recommends an appropriate student to school counselor ratio of 250:1, there are few schools in the United States that adhere to that ideal ratio and, in some cases, that ratio is nearly quadrupled [5]. Thus, given the large caseloads and myriad of responsibilities assigned to PSCs, it is of no surprise that dedicating sufficient time to career development has been found to be lacking [5].
Research has shown that career development processes are necessary and critical components of a school counseling program during the PK-12 years [6, 7]. Through the leadership of the PSC, the concept of career development should begin as early as the preschool years [8, 9] and must continue as students make the journey through high school. As part of a comprehensive school counseling program, PSCs who implement career readiness are giving students the knowledge, skills, and self-awareness needed to manage their own education and career decision-making for a lifetime [10]. Students who do not receive any type of career intervention during the elementary years will likely miss the opportunity to build career development skills that will later impact their vocational lives [11]. Career guidance may potentially have the most significant impact on middle school students as there is still time for them plan and shift directions before exiting high school [1]. Recognizably, high school students are at the crossroads for critical college and career decision making that will greatly influence their future selves [7].
Due to an increasingly globalized economy that views a college education as a gateway to a secure economic future, college and career readiness initiatives have become an important policy goal within education [10]. Notably, perhaps the most significant policy goal was introduced by former U.S. president Barack Obama when he emphasized the importance for students to continue their education past high school in his Delivery Address to Joint Session of Congress [12]. As part of that vision, the National Reach Higher Initiative was introduced, [13] which provided support to school counselors in their work preparing high school students to successfully transition to college, a career, or other post-secondary pathway [1]. Never forgetting their roots founded in vocational guidance, PSCs have reinvented a career counseling focus sustainable for the 21st century as they aim to “create a culture of college and career readiness for all students”[2].
In the digital age, technology plays a prominent role in the lives of students who are engaging in more virtual learning than at any other time before. At this point in history, all current students were born as digital natives [14] into a world of ubiquitous technology consisting of computers and the Internet and have never known a world without it. Students in schools today are often referred to as the Google generation or the digital generation. These are terms that underscore the use of technology as a way of life [15]. Social networking sites serve as logical tools for career counseling centers to connect with students and increase student responsivity [16]. Responsivity is an important consideration as we consider computer assisted career planning as 21st century students often expect fast response times and instant results in their quest for knowledge regarding nearly any question they seek an answer.
Computer assisted career planning systems have existed since the late 1960s. These systems have assisted individuals in career development and decision making. Computer assisted career planning systems offer effective tools for career guidance [17]. Students who create career goals using these systems are more likely to remain in high school and proceed to some form of postsecondary education. It has been shown that gains from using these systems can be enhanced by spending more time interacting with the systems themselves [17] and through supportive individuals, such as counselors, that can augment learning [11, 17].
Computer assisted career group guidance is effective at increasing career decision making and self-efficacy for students [18]. Students assigned to an online career intervention group show greater career adaptability and life satisfaction than those in a traditional type of career intervention [19]. Furthermore, using career websites to store various resources, including assessments, allows for communication and collaboration among individuals including teachers, parents, counselors, administrators, and students [20]. Online career guidance systems are often viewed as tools for the delivery of assessment, information, and career planning support [17] and prove to be invaluable tools to assist students in career exploration and development.
Considering the comfort level of students to engage in virtual learning, the use of technology in the classroom and counseling has quickly become an expectation and is commonly used as a supplement to traditional instructional and counseling methods. Due to the demands placed on school counselors’ time, the school counselor to student ratio concerns, and educational initiatives for college and career readiness for all students, career interventions in schools are critical components to students’ postsecondary success.
Students can use online career guidance systems either independently or collaboratively with educator involvement, and these systems can be time and resource efficient. Online career guidance systems provide convenience and economy to students making career decisions and those individuals, such as school counselors, who are assisting them in the process [21]. Interestingly, technology-based career development programs appear to be used more frequently than many other types of counseling tools [4]. In addition, many of these career counseling tools serve as sources of accountability measures for educational mandates.
For the purpose of this chapter, we will examine three online career guidance systems frequently used in the United States. These systems include the Kuder Career Planning System (KCPS) [22], Naviance College and Career Readiness Program (NCCRP) by Hobsons [23], and Xello [24]. These three systems share commonalities and differences. Notably, they were created to assist school-aged students and adults in their career development journeys. They can be considered solutions for connecting career theory to practice in comprehensive school counseling programs across elementary, middle, and high school settings.
The first career guidance system we will present is the KCPS. This system can be accessed by students via desktop, laptop, or tablet in both English and Spanish language versions. The KCPS has three distinct programs, or subsystems, highlighting the developmental career progression from preschool to postsecondary school. These include Kuder Galaxy (KG) [25], Kuder Navigator (KN) [26], and Kuder Journey (KJ) [27]. Each will be explored separately so that educators can form a basic understanding for how these systems may compliment, or add value to, career exploration and planning that occurs within educational settings. It is important to recognize that the three subsystems of the KCPS work in tandem to form a complete career guidance planning system across the PK-12 years and across the lifespan.
KG is a career awareness program dedicated to elementary school students (prekindergarten through Grade 5). The content of the system is aligned to ASCA. KG was designed by career development and elementary experts to help young learners begin their career exploration process as early as preschool [25].
Each grade level of the KG includes learning objectives to guide educators and students. Students learn about the world of work through various games, videos, and activities utilizing an outer space concept. The use of space creatures in this system promotes equity by avoiding gender roles, race, and prestige stereotypes. Using the Holland Theory of Vocational Choice as the undergirding for the system, students visit six different planets at each grade level that correspond with the six Holland work environments and include realistic (doers), investigative (thinkers), artistic (creators), social (helpers), enterprising (persuaders), and conventional (organizers). Students are introduced to a different lead commander at each grade level who serves as a guide. KG is presented as play to a child but includes important information regarding the world of work and the careers that people pursue. Children deepen their learning regarding familiar occupations within their communities while also gaining exposure to new occupations, as the system includes awareness of 120 different careers. There is an age appropriate career readiness theme and question for each grade level so that learning is scaffolded across the elementary years. All learning activities relate to each grade level theme. The theme for prekindergarten defines what work is; kindergarten focuses on what people do at work; Grade 1 includes reasons why people work; Grade 2 showcases the tools and skills people use at work; Grade 3 identifies where people work; Grade 4 provides information regarding the training and education needed to prepare people for work; and Grade 5 helps students learn more about occupations of interest to them. Individual I statements are included in the system and are customizable by school districts. Students can begin to build their career portfolios early in life by understanding their capabilities and making connections to a future career. Children have the opportunity to earn badges as they navigate the grade level activities to encourage completion and success and promote positive reinforcement. Additionally, the system includes dashboards for teachers and administrators to track progress, ensure completion, and present data for showing evidence of meeting career and education standards. A parent dashboard is also included so parents can create space for conversations with their children regarding the school to career connection. Additional information regarding the KG system can be accessed here:
KN is another developmental career program within the KCPS suite of products. This system is geared toward middle and high school students and their future career planning needs as they approach the critical transition from high school to work, college, or other postsecondary endeavor. In the KN, students gain access to a variety of career assessments that can be completed in approximately 20 minutes. They can also find out about their interests, skills, and values as they create education plans for their future. The portfolio that was started in KG is continued and expanded upon in KN [26].
There are several comprehensive career planning tools included in KN such as information regarding financial aid, scholarships, academic course planning, graduation planning, and college application tracking. There are also additional services that can be added to KN such as a college access package, pathways link, and administrative database management system. In the college access package, students gain additional services including college entrance test preparation and practice materials, a college match calculator to show how student academic achievement corresponds with personal goals and finances, a tracking system for scholarships and applications, and management features for important documents such as transcripts and letters of recommendation. With the pathways link, students can complete a career interest assessment and learn how their interests match with course offerings in their school or career and technical education program. In the administrative database management system, educators can review student information, generate reports, and provide accountability. Within the KN, students can tailor their e-profile to their unique plans and save their information in a portfolio that they will have access to for life. Parental involvement is also encouraged through a parent account that is complimentary with KN. Additional information regarding the KN system can be accessed here:
KJ is the final subsystem of the KCPS dedicated to postsecondary students and adults. In this chapter, we are focused specifically on the career development needs of PK-12 students in schools, however, we would like to emphasize that the KJ system recognizes career development as lifelong and that career planning needs do not stop as students exit high school. KJ provides information that is relevant to individuals who are in various stages of their careers such as those who are new to the workforce, those who are changing jobs, and those who are recently retired, as just a few examples. Practical career advice such as building a resume, interview tips, and job search strategies can benefit individuals at all career junctures. Additional information regarding the KJ system can be accessed here
NCCRP is a comprehensive career guidance platform for Grades 6-12 dedicated to help students develop skills for “college, career, and life readiness after high school”. This program does not have an elementary version but rather focuses on the middle and high school years of development. It is estimated that 40% of high school students use NCCRP within the United States. Educators can use the platform to discuss students’ interests, strengths, and needs and assist students in strengthening competencies. Additionally, NCCRP allows for collaboration among educational professionals, such as school administrators, school counselors, and family members. All of these individuals are vital contributors to the career success of students. Specifically, school counselors can “save time by streamlining course planning, college search, and college applications to focus on building the skills and knowledge for students to be successful”. Due to the many demands placed on school counselors’ time, finding innovative ways to help students flourish in their future is fundamental [23].
NCCRP emphasizes six competencies that are deemed essential for student postsecondary success. These include social emotional learning, interpersonal skills, academic skills, career knowledge, college knowledge, and transition skills. Each of these competencies will be defined for clarity. Social emotional learning “helps students understand their strengths, manage emotions, build relationships, plan ahead, and make informed decisions.” Interpersonal skills “gives students insights into their personality types and group interactions so they can strengthen interpersonal skills”. Academic skills “helps students understand their learning styles, strengthen study and test taking skills, and create an academic plan to meet their goals”. Career knowledge “helps students match potential career paths to their strengths and interests, learn about career requirements and wages, and prepare a resume”. College knowledge “helps students to make data-informed college decisions and complete the steps necessary to apply to and enroll in college.” Transition skills “help students build skills that smooth transitions from elementary to middle and high school, then to college and independent life”. Additional information regarding the Naviance platform can be accessed here
Xello is another college and career planning software program designed to prepare K-12 students for success through building “self-knowledge, personalized plans, and life skills”. Two separate programs exist; one for elementary school and another for middle and high school. These programs are developmentally appropriate for the ages and stages of school-aged students in promoting future career success. Students can access the program via a desktop, tablet, or mobile device and are available in both Spanish and English language versions [24].
The elementary school program aims to spark children’s curiosity regarding their future through age appropriate career awareness and skills development. Xello for elementary school “encourages self-discovery, creates career awareness, and builds future readiness skills”. Xello indicates that students are more self-assured and excited about their future as a result of participating in the age appropriate skills and lessons. The program also includes built in activities for students aligning with educational standards such as the ASCA mindsets and behaviors for student success. Additional information regarding Xello for elementary school can be accessed here
Xello boasts a seamless transition in programming from elementary school to middle and high school as it aims to assist students from all backgrounds to become future ready. Specific focus in meeting educational requirements for college and career readiness is emphasized. Xello for middle and high school offers tracking for progress and completion, which is essential given the accountability standards inherent in educational programs of the 21st century. Additionally, assessments are offered as part of this program and include career, personality, and learning style inventories. Similar to other career guidance programs discussed in this chapter, Xello for middle and high school includes personalized student portfolios that can be updated as students grow, learn, and develop through the years. Support for tracking college applications and sending transcripts and letters of recommendation are useful features for college bound students. Additionally, test preparation for college entrance exams are provided along with college acceptance criteria. As students navigate their impending postsecondary transitions, dates and deadlines increase in importance. Xello for middle and high schools offers summary data of important upcoming deadlines for students to see at a glance and a course planner for identifying courses that fit with a student’s career goals. The interactive planning tools also help students create personalized career plans that are as unique as they are. Additional information regarding Xello for middle and high school can be accessed here
The three programs described in this chapter highlight the need for progressive web-based career interventions that can help to enhance the career development initiatives that PSCs offer to school-aged students. However, it is vital to assess research to determine the efficacy of online career guidance programs implemented in PK-12 school settings. It is important to note that there are very few published research studies examining the specific online career guidance systems discussed within this chapter. Although these systems are widely used in school settings across the United States, few studies have examined their utility, impact, or outcomes. In our literature search, we found two relevant studies regarding the NCCRP, one study regarding the KCPS, and no studies regarding Xello. We will review those existing studies as they are relevant to school-aged students.
There were two research studies that studied the use of the NCCRP. The reasons why school counselors chose (or did not choose) to utilize NCCRP was examined [28]. Four constructs were measured and included: perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitudes, and actual behaviors. This study considered if PSCs acceptance and use of NCCRP improved counseling practices, job productivity, and efficiency. Results indicated that the majority of middle and high school counselors agreed that NCCRP was easy to use and was useful in increasing job-related effectiveness and productivity. The study also noted that, overall, counselors had a favorable attitude toward using the system which was shown through their high usage rates. Notably, this study emphasized the value of using a system, such as the NCCRP, to help introduce and prepare high school students for college. Another study examined using the NCCRP as a supplement to college counseling in increasing college access [29]. The purpose of this study was to determine if using the system would influence college application rates. Results indicated that those students who used NCCRP more frequently had higher college application rates. The average number of times that students accessed NCCRP within a given year was a strong predictor of college application rate.
KCPS also had a relevant research study that examined the use of the KGP with fourth and fifth grade elementary school students as a career guidance intervention [11]. In this experimental study, students were randomly assigned to a series of four web-based career guidance lessons or four traditional (human facilitated) career guidance lessons and were administered pretest and posttest assessments. Four subscales of the assessment (information, curiosity/exploration, interests, and locus of control) were examined as those were the scales that most closely related to the content of the lessons. Overall, findings indicated that both the web-based and traditional guidance groups did not differ much in their average scores regardless of the career guidance intervention received, however students in the traditional career guidance intervention group had slightly higher scores posttest than those in the web based career guidance intervention group. The authors of this study assert that web-based career guidance systems should be supplementary, or adjunctive, in nature and should not replace the important role of the PSC’s human connection in providing career guidance and counseling.
There has been a significant shift in how PSCs deliver career services to their students, with online career guidance programs growing in popularity as they are regarded as both time and resource efficient. Career development must begin for students as they make the journey from pre-school through high school and beyond. Even though the profession of school counseling has evolved from vocational guidance, career development often receives the least amount of attention by PSCs [5]. Thereby, career development interventions have received little attention from counselors who predominantly define their roles to focus on academic achievement or social emotional development [30].
Online career guidance systems that work in tandem with PSCs can bridge the theory to practice gap and enhance, or compliment, a comprehensive school counseling program. There is value in using technology to support counselor growth and student outcomes in education [28]. PSCs should understand the capabilities, benefits, and shortcomings of using online career guidance systems with their clients [31].
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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