Maximum adsorption oxygen (NMAX.OXIGENO) and nitrogen (NMAX.NITROGENO), Langmuir constants (KOXYGEN and KNITROGEN) and oxygen- nitrogen selectivity (αNITROG- OXIG) on modified natural mordenite MP [36].
\r\n\t
\r\n\t-production; advances in decline curve analysis, determining of optimal well spacing, parent-child wells relation, frat hit, stress shadowing, well interference,
\r\n\t-completion; determining optimal fracture spacing, optimal pad volume, optimal proppant volume, size and type, fiber optics,
\r\n\t-environmental aspects; produced water management, environmentally sustainable operation, footprint, and water consumption,
\r\n\t-improved oil recovery; Huff and Puff gas injection, surfactant injection, pilot tests, upscaling of lab-results to pilot-scale and field-scale,
\r\n\t-economics; integration of gas utilization, reducing operational costs, and water treatment.
The concept of “adsorption” was recommended by Kayser in 1881 to explain the growth in concentration of gas molecules on the adjacent surface of a solid adsorbent, an effect previously noted by Fontana and Scheele in 1777 [1]. In particular, majority of adsorbents useful for industrial applications have pores with hole dimensions in the nanometer region; in this pore-size zone, adsorption is on the one hand a significant methodology for the characterization of porous materials; to be exact, gas adsorption offers evidence concerning the mesopore area, volume and size of the pores together with the energetics of adsorption [2]. Also, gas adsorption is a vital unitary operation for sustainable energy and pollution abatement applications of nanoporous materials along with the industrial uses, where materials like metal organic framework molecular sieves, metal organic frameworks, Prussian blue analogues, mesoporous molecular sieves, pillared clays, silica, alumina, active carbons, titanium dioxides, magnesium oxides, carbon nanotubes together with zeolites and related materials are the most widely studied and applied adsorbents in Science and Technology [3].
\nIn addition to their adsorption properties, nanoporous materials are a group of advanced materials with other excellent properties and applications in many fields, for example, waste water treatment [4, 5, 6], ionic conduction [7], ionic exchange [8], gas separation [9], membranes [10], catalysts [11], catalyst supports [12] and detergency [13].
\nThe classification of the different pore widths of porous adsorbents was carried out by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC); in this classification, adsorbent materials are categorized as those with pore diameters greater than 50 nm, named macroporous adsorbents, while mesoporous materials show pore diameters between 2 and 50 nm that are termed microporous; those adsorbents showing pore diameters between 0.3 and 2 nm, where, the pore width, Dp, is defined as equal to the diameter in the case of cylindrical shaped pores, and as the distance between opposite walls in the case of slit-shaped pores [14].
\nIn addition, the clean surface of an adsorbent is characterized by the fact that the atoms that produce the surface have non-saturated bonds, fact producing an adsorption field above this surface; been the adsorption field the cause of the formation of a stockpile of molecules close to the adsorbent surface; this effect, i.e., adsorption, is a universal propensity of surface systems, given that throughout this process a reduction of the surface tension is experienced by the solid; been, adsorption the term applied to describe this process; whereas for the opposite, the term desorption is used [1].
\nNow it is necessary to state that the occupation of the adsorption space by adsorbed molecules in complex porous systems occurs roughly in the following form: initially, micropore filling takes place, with the adsorption process being controlled almost totally by the interaction of the adsorbed molecules with the pore walls; thereafter, at higher pressures, the external surface is covered, which is a monolayer and a multilayer adsorption on the walls of mesopores, and open macropores take place. Finally, capillary condensation occurs in the mesopores [2]. On the other hand, dynamic adsorption is a mass transfer between a mobile, solid, or liquid phase, and the adsorption bed packed in a reactor, been necessary to carry out the dynamic adsorption, a reactor, where the adsorption process will occur in the reactor adsorbent packed bed, been, the adsorbents normally used for these applications are active carbons, zeolites and related materials, silica, mesoporous molecular sieves, alumina, titanium dioxide, magnesium oxide, clays, and pillared clays [3].
\nInorganic compounds are mixed, following stoichiometric proportions; after that, the powders are thoroughly milled and then finally thermally treated to get the required product, been, perovskites synthesized using this method [15, 16].
\nThese processes can be based on the hydrolysis condensation of metal alkoxides. In the important case of amorphous silica synthesis, silicic acid is first produced by the hydrolysis of a silicon alkoxide, formally a silicic acid ether; then, the global reaction continues as a condensation polymerization to form high molecular weight polysilicates, which connect together to produce a gel [17].
\nThese materials are normally synthesized in hydrothermal conditions using solutions that are composed of sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate and sodium aluminate, where three steps are observed during the synthesis process, i.e., induction, nucleation, and crystallization, which determine the specific zeolite produced by the applied reactants, along with the parameters used, such as temperature, pH, and time [18, 19].
\nIn this case, the aluminosilicate synthesis is complemented with the addition of structure-directing agents (SDA), such as quaternary ammonium cations, linear or cyclic ethers, and coordination compounds. been, the first high-silica zeolites, that is, ETA, EU, NU, and the ZSM series, patented in the late 1960s, or early 1980s [20]; moreover, high silica zeolite can be as well synthesized using ethanol and seeds of the desired phase [21]; meanwhile, Microporous aluminophosphate molecular sieves, that is, non-aluminosilicate zeolites; such as: SAPO molecular sieves were obtained by incorporation of Si in the AlPO framework, while MeAPO molecular sieves are obtained by the inclusion of Ga, Be, Va, Co, Fe, Mg, Mn, Zn in the AlPO framework obtaining between others: gallophosphates, zincophosphates, beryllophosphates, vanadophosphates and ferrophosphates [22].
\nActive Carbon prepared with wood, lignite, peat, coconut, eucalyptus lignin, and apricot, cherry and olive stones under physical (a) and chemical activation (b) methods; i.e. [23, 24, 25]:
carbonization at 800–1000°C under inert gas, and activation under oxidizing agents, as a rule, carbon dioxide or water vapor.
chemical activation requires a treatment with: sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, zinc chloride, potassium hydroxide at 400–1000°C, followed by the elimination of the dehydrating agent by meticulous washing.
Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) [26, 27] and nitroprussides (NPs) [28] are produced by mixing solutions of K3[Fe(CN)6], for the synthesis of Prussian blue analogues, and Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] for the synthesis of nitroprussides with a nitrate of the corresponding metal to get the corresponding PBAs and NPs.
\nThe X-ray Diffraction (XRD) methodology was used to determine the crystalline phases present in the natural and synthesized materials, together with the investigation of the nucleation and growth process during the synthesis of different materials to be used as adsorbents, ion exchangers and catalysts [29]. The XRD tests were carried out, at room temperature using a stage similar to an Anton Paar HTK-1200 N with an equipment similar to a Bruker D8 Advance system in a Bragg-Brentano vertical goniometer configuration, the angular measurements being made applying steps of 0.01° from 5 to 80°, using a Cu anode tube together with a Ni filter placed, prior to the detector, to eliminate Cu Kα radiation the one-dimensional detector was employed [26].
\nThe analytical test was carried out with an equipment similar to a TA, Q-500 instrument; the samples were placed onto a ceramic sample holder suspended from an analytical balance, suspended from an analytical balance; then the temperature was linearly scanned, from 25 to 300 C, at a heating rate of 5 C/min under a pure N2 flow of 100 mL/min. TGA testing process was carried out with a TA, Q-500 instrument, and the samples were placed onto a ceramic sample holder [27].
\nDRIFTS were gathered using equipment similar to a Thermo Scientific Nicolet iS10 FTIR spectrometer. The data of the hydrated and dehydrated samples were collected at a resolution of 4 cm−1 employing 100 scans per sample; a background, with pure KBr, was in all cases collected before the collection of the spectra. Both the hydrated and dehydrated samples were gathered at room temperature while flowing N2 (Praxair, 99.99%) at a rate of 50 cc/min; while, the dehydration of the studied samples was performed at 100°C for 2 h in N2 flow of 50 mL/min while the sample under test was included in the finger-sample-holder of the IR high temperature cell [28].
\nRoom-temperature Mossbauer Spectrometry measurements were made with a system similar to a SEECo supplied spectrometer operating at constant acceleration mode with a 50 mCi 57Co γ-ray source in a Rh matrix made by Rietverc GmbH. The 1024-point raw data were folded and analyzed using WMOSS, a public domain Mossbauer spectral analysis program; the calibration was made with reference to α-Fe metal [30].
\nIt is the most important measurement made to characterize an adsorbent; it is defined as the relationship between the amount adsorbed, \n
Graphic representation of the adsorption isotherm.
The gas adsorption process is normally considered a physical process, named physical adsorption, since the molecular forces involved in this process are usually of the van der Waals type. Meanwhile Chemical adsorption of gases in solid surfaces takes place in the case where during the adsorption process a reaction with exchange of electrons between the solid surface and the gas molecules with the formation of chemical bonds takes place, been, the adsorbent the solid phase and the adsorbate the gas phase [14].
\nGas and vapor adsorption in solid adsorbents can be also classified as mobile adsorption, where the first case occurs when the adsorbed molecule is performed as a gas molecule is free to move within the adsorption space, or the instance of immobile adsorption, taking place in the case where the adsorbed molecule vibrates around an adsorption site [2, 3].
\nFor open surfaces, adsorption consists of a layer-by-layer loading process, where the first layer is filled as in the case when \n
They are characterized by their specific surface area, denoted by S, and measured in (m2/g), in which the surface area is the outer surface, concretely, the area external to the micropores. If the adsorbents do not have micropores, the surface area and the outer surface area match; furthermore, the micropore volume is represented by WMP, measured in (cm3/g), whereas the total pore volume labeled W is the sum of the micropores and mesopore volumes [32] of the adsorbent, also measured in (cm3/g). Lastly, we have the pore size distribution (PSD), i.e., a plot of \n
The interfacial layer is the non-homogeneous section of an adsorption system, i.e., between two neighboring bulk phases (\nFigure 2\n), where the properties typifying this region are radically dissimilar from, but associated to, the properties of the bulk phases; in which, to deal with this system is assumed that in the ideal reference system, the concentration must be constant up to the Gibbs dividing surface (GDS) (see \nFigure 2\n); been, in an actual system [32]
\nGibbs dividing surface.
Then the total amount of gas molecules in the system measured in (mol/g) is
\nwhere
\n\n\n
Finally the isotherm is calculated as follows:
\nwhere ms\n is the degassed adsorbent mass in grams. Then if the ideal gas equation is applied,
\nBeen, n and T, kept constants, then [29]:
\nwhere \n
Thereafter, using Eq. (4), based in the scheme of the volumetric adsorption equipment shown in \nFigure 11\n, we get:
\nIn \nFigure 11\n, a schematic representation of volumetric gas adsorption measurement equipment is shown, where using the scheme, it is possible to show that:
\nInitially \n
where Pat is the atmospheric pressure and P1 is the measurement of pressure after expansion.
\nSubstituting Eq. (\n
In this sense, using the proportions rule, we get:
\nConsequently applying the ideal gas law:
\nwhere
\nNumber of moles in the dose volume and the volume provided by the displacement of the manometer.
\nWhen the valve of the sample holder is opened, the gas is expanded; hence:
\nwhere:
\nThis allows the calculation of Va, the so-called dead volume. Nevertheless the really expanded volume should consider the volume occupied by the adsorbent sample, i.e.:
\nAnd \n
According ideal gas low:
\nwhere:
\nwhich is the amount adsorbed in the tested sample, which plotted against the equilibrium pressure \n
The Dubinin adsorption isotherm equation can be inferred by the application of the Dubinin’s Theory of Volume Filling, i.e., (where volume filling is a process which takes place by the filling of the adsorption space rather than the surface coverage), together with, the Polanyi’s adsorption potential [32]. In this regard, in 1914, Polanyi created perhaps the first convincing physical adsorption model. Mijail. M. Dubinin, a former pupil of Polanyi applied this model that essentially entailed a link between the adsorption space volume, Vi\n, and the adsorption energy field, εi\n, (see \nFigure 3\n): i.e.,\n
Polanyi adsorption model.
In which, μg\n is the chemical potential of the gas phase adsorbate, μL\n is the chemical potential of the pure liquid adsorbate, μa\n is the adsorbed phase chemical potential, while εi\n is the potential energy of the adsorption field. Consequently, applying of Eq. (7), it is possible to demonstrate that:
\nwhere Po\n is the vapor pressure of the adsorptive at the temperature, T is the adsorption experiment, while Pi\n is the equilibrium adsorption pressure (ε could be also designed as the differential work of adsorption). Now, following the so-called Gurvich rule, it is possible to obtain the subsequent relation \n
Now, applying the Weibull distribution function, the relation between the amount adsorbed, \n
where E is a parameter termed the characteristic energy of adsorption; meanwhile, Na\n is the maximum amount adsorbed in the volume of the micropore, n (1 < n < 5) being an empirical parameter. Now combining Eqs. (9) and (10) is feasible to construe the Dubinin adsorption isotherm equation [32] as follows:
\nIt is possible, as well, to express the Dubinin adsorption isotherm equation in linear form:
\nwhich is a very powerful tool for the description of the experimental data of adsorption in microporous material.
\nIn \nFigure 4\n is shown the Dubinin plot of N2 adsorption data at 77 K in the pressure range: 0.001 < P/Po < 0.03, in a high silica commercial H-Y zeolite, precisely, the acid Y zeolite labeled CBV-720, manufactured by PQ corporation; where, adsorption data was gathered in an Autosorb-1 automatic volumetric gas adsorption system [26]; been evidently the experimental data correctly fitted by Eq. (12)\n
\nDubinin plot sample CBV-720 N2 at 77 K [32].
Recapitulating, the concrete form to made the linear Dubinin plot as represented in \nFigure 4\n was as follows:
\nwhere \n
Nevertheless, this fitting process can be as well made using a non-linear regression method; in which, the fitting process is carried out with a program based on a least square procedure, allowing the calculation of the best fitting parameters of the Eq. (12), that is, Na\n, E, been n, taken as a constant, for example, n = 2; additionally the program compute the regression coefficient, along with the standard errors.
\nAs another example, in \nFigure 4\n, the use of the Dubinin equation in the measurement of the micropore volume, of a nickel nitroprusside (Ni-NP), is reported [34](\nFigure 5\n).
\nDubinin plot of carbon dioxide adsorption on nickel nitroprusside [34].
Within the frame of the osmotic theory of adsorption, the adsorption phenomenon in a microporous adsorbent, for example a zeolite, is considered as the “osmotic” equilibrium between two solutions, i.e., vacancy plus molecules of different concentrations and the molecules in the gas phase. The solutions are formed in the micropores, and the gas phase, where the solvents are the vacancies, i.e., the vacuum [33] been, these solutions in equilibrium, in the case when one of the solutions is submerged in an external field.
\nWhere the main supposition, made within the frame of this adsorption theory is that the role of the adsorption field could be simulated by; Π.; the so called “osmotic pressure” that is, the role of the energy of adsorption existing within zeolite or related materials channels and cavities, can be replicated by the pressure variation among the adsorbed and gas phases [32]; consequently, considering that the adsorption space is an inert volume; hence, the adsorption effect is produced by a virtual pressure compressing the adsorbed phase in this volume; in this case, we will have only a volume, i.e., a void adsorption space, in which an external pressure, Π took the role of the adsorption field [33]. Therefore, applying the hypothesizes of the osmotic theory of adsorption is feasible to affirm that the volume occupied by the adsorbate, Va\n, and the vacancies, Vx, or free volume is [29] Va + Vx = V; now in view of the fact that the volume occupied by an adsorbed molecule, b, and a vacancy is the same, therefore:
\nConsequently, if we multiply the previous equation by \n
where Xa\n and. Xx\n correspondingly are the molar fractions of adsorbed molecules and vacancies. Then considering that the adsorption process in a micropore system can be described as an osmotic process; in which vacuum, that is, the vacancies is the solvent, whereas the adsorbed molecules is the solute [3]; hence, using the Osmosis Thermodynamics methodology applied to the above described model, it is possible to obtain the following adsorption isotherm equation [29, 32, 33]:
\nIt is termed the osmotic isotherm of adsorption, or the Sips, or Bradleys isotherm equation, where this isotherm equation, fairly well, describes the experimental data of adsorption in zeolites, and other micoroporous materials; the linear form of the osmotic equation being expressed as follows:
\nwhere \n
In \nFigure 6\n, the linear plot of Eq. (14) is shown, using B = 0.5, fitting NH3 at 300 K adsorption results in Mg-CMT, i.e., homoionic magnesium natural zeolite, concretely a blend of mordenite (39 wt. %), clinoptilolite (42 wt. %) along with additional phases (15 wt. %), where these supplementary phases are: montmorillonite (2–10 wt. %), calcite (1–6 wt. %), feldspars (0–1 wt. %), volcanic glass together with quartz (1–5 wt. %). These results were measured in a Pyrex glass volumetric adsorption vacuum system, consisting of sample holder, dead volume, dose volume, U-tube manometer, and thermostat [32]; this plot allowed us to calculate the maximum adsorption capacity of this zeolite, which is m = Na = 5.07 mmol/g, and \n
Linear osmotic plot, with B = 0.5 of the adsorption data of NH3 at 300 K in magnesium homoionic CMT zeolite [32].
The fitting process of the osmotic isotherm equation could be also carried out with the help of a non-linear regression method, where the fitting process allows us to calculate the best fitting parameters of the Eq. (13), i.e., Na\n, K0\n, and B, if this parameter is not taken as a constant, for example, B = 1; besides the program calculates the regression coefficient and the standard errors.
\nFurther adsorption isotherms are reported below [35] (\nFigures 7\n and \n8\n):
\nNitrogen adsorption on zeolite 5 a (Ca, Na-LTA) at 291 K.
Ethane adsorption on zeolite 13 X (Na-FAU) at 291 K.
Additionally, the adsorption of oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2) in modified natural mordenite from the Palmarito, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, deposit, composed of mordenite (80 wt.%), clinoptilolite (5 wt.%), and other phases (15 wt.%), where the other phases included montmorillonite (2–10 wt.%), quartz (1–5 wt.%), calcite (1–6 wt.%), feldspars (0–1 wt.%), and volcanic glass [2]. Labeled MP are reported in \nTable 1\n, where H means acid; NH, ammonia; Li, Lithium; Na, Sodium; K, Potassium; Mg, Magnesium; Ca, Calcium; Sr., Strontium; Ba, Barium zeolite; where, the oxygen nitrogen selectivity is given by [36].
\nZEOLITES | \nNMAX.OXYGEN\n (mmol/g) | \nNMAX.NITROGEN\n (mmol/g) | \nKOXYGEN\n (Torr)−1×10−3\n | \nKNITROGEN\n (Torr)−11×10−3\n | \nαNITROG- OXIG\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
H-MP | \n0.24 | \n0.5 | \n1.3 | \n2.3 | \n3.7 | \n
NH-MP | \n0.10 | \n0.25 | \n0.12 | \n2.0 | \n42 | \n
Li-MP | \n0.21 | \n0.86 | \n1.8 | \n3.0 | \n6.8 | \n
Na-MP | \n0.29 | \n0.63 | \n9.3 | \n2.0 | \n4.7 | \n
K-MP | \n0.07 | \n0.26 | \n3.1 | \n3.7 | \n4.4 | \n
Mg-MP | \n0.13 | \n0.56 | \n0.21 | \n3.9 | \n84 | \n
Ca-MP | \n0.27 | \n0.56 | \n1.4 | \n4.8 | \n7.1 | \n
Sr-MP | \n0.32 | \n0.59 | \n1.2 | \n4.6 | \n7.1 | \n
Ba-MP | \n0.23 | \n0.75 | \n1.5 | \n1.9 | \n4.1 | \n
Maximum adsorption oxygen (NMAX.OXIGENO) and nitrogen (NMAX.NITROGENO), Langmuir constants (KOXYGEN and KNITROGEN) and oxygen- nitrogen selectivity (αNITROG- OXIG) on modified natural mordenite MP [36].
where Xa and Ya are the molar fractions of the adsorbates in the adsorbed phase, while Xg\n and Yg\n are the molar fractions of both adsorbates in the gas phase.
\nIt is necessary now to state that the framework of mordenite shows an orthorhombic unit cell displaying the space group Cmcm or Cmc21; in this sese, the unit cell of the Na cationic form has dimensions a = 18.13 Å, b = 20.49 Å, and c = 7.52 Å, along with the following composition: Na8Al8Si40 O96 · 24H2O; composed fundamentally of a channel system composed of a 5-membered ring system parallel to [001], having a free diameter of 6.6 Å, interconnected by smaller channels, parallel to [010], of 2.8 Å free diameter. However, the existence of stacking faults in the framework reduces the effective diameter of the channels to about 4 Å [37]. Moreover, the volume of the unit cell is 2794 \n
The application of the grand canonical ensemble (GCE) allows us to handle the adsorption process in microporous materials such as zeolites and related materials. In this case, the whole zeolite is considered a GCE, i.e., the zeolite cavities or channels are considered in the frame of this model as independent open systems constituting the ensemble, additionally the adsorption field within the cavities is energetically homogeneous, i.e., the adsorption field is the same at any site within the adsorption space; besides, each cage can accommodate \n
where
\nIs the channel or cavity grand canonical partition function; been, Z(N) the Canonical Partition Function for N molecules in the channel or cavity (0 < N < m), while the absolute activity is given by \n
Now it is necessary to state that within the frame of the adsorption process in zeolites and related materials two cases are possible; that is, inmobile (I) or mobile (M) adsorption, been in the first and second cases, the canonical partition functions for the inmobile (Zi\n) and mobile (ZM\n) cases, in a homogeneous field without lateral interactions between the adsorbed molecules for N < m given by:
\nNow since:
\nConsequently:
\nWith:
\n\nEquation (19) is of the Fowler-Guggenheim type (FGT), but describing volume filling rather than surface covering, where both equations reduce to Langmuir-type (LT) isotherm equations, as well describing volume filling. Moreover, the osmotic isotherm equation and the FGT types have the same mathematical form in the case where B = 1 in the osmotic equation, as well as are equivalent to the Langmuir T type equations, when \n
To test these isotherm types, the FGT and LT type equations can be written as follows [2]:
\nWhile the linear form of the LT type isotherms is \n
Carbon dioxide adsorption on Ni-NP at 273 and 300 K [34].
The t-plot method suppose that the adsorbed phase as a liquid adhered film over the solid surface, the model was proposed by Halsey, De Boer, and coworkers following ideas previously proposed by Frenkel-Halsey-&-Hill which stated that it is possible to calculate, t, the width in (Angstrom) of the adsorbed layer, or multilayer thickness [32] and plot it as a function of: x = P/Po\n. The methodology is effective for a multilayer adsorption; in which, the surface liquid film is supposed to show a unvarying width, t, density equal to the bulk liquid adsorbate, ρL\n, and be in contact with a uniform surface that produces an attraction adsorption field over the solid surface; hence, based on the aforementioned arguments, the adsorbed amount will be [38]:
\nAttraction by the adsorption field is given by \n
Subsequently, since the adsorption process considered in the present model is a multilayer one, then \n
where d0\n is the thickness of a monolayer.
\nThereafter, supposing again, that the surface liquid film is assumed of uniform width, t, along with having a density equal to the bulk liquid adsorbate, ρL\n, hence, we have [32]:
\nwhere NA\n is the number of Avogado and σ is the cross-sectional area, that is, the normal area that each molecule occupies in a completed monolayer. For instance, if σ(N2) = 0.162 nm2 for N2 at 77 K, M(N\n2) = 28.1 g/mol, and ρL(N2) = 0.809 g/cm3 then, d0\n = 0.354 nm.
\nThe following relation t versus, (1/x), is used between others to carry out the t-plot [32, 38]:
\nwhich is the Halsey equation, valid for N2 at 77 K or the equation used by De Boer. Moreover, the following expression:
\nis as well used for the application of the t-plot methodology. Now it is necessary to state that the molar volume of liquid nitrogen at 77 K is \n
The method to calculate, W, the microporous volume [in (cm3/g)] and S [in (m2/g)] the outer surface applying the t–plot method is as follows: after the elimination of the points that do not fit a linear plot (\nFigure 10\n):
\nt-plot for the adsorption of \n\n\nN\n2\n\n\n at 77 K in a high specific surface silica labeled 70bs-2-25C [39].
The linear regression is made, then the intercept, b = Na\n, and the slope, m = R, are calculated, given that the intercept is related to the micropore volume, WMP\n; thereafter, using the Gurvich rule \n
Adsorption is a general tendency of matter, and during its occurrence, a decrease in the surface tension is experienced by the solid. For this reason, adsorption is a spontaneous process, where the Gibbs free energy decreases, i.e., ΔG < 0. Besides, in the course of physical adsorption, molecules from a chaotic bulk phase are transferred to a relatively ordered adsorbed state, since in the adsorbed state molecules can only move within the surface or a pore; consequently, in the course of adsorption by the entire system, a reduction of entropy takes place, i.e., ΔS < 0; subsequently [2, 32]:
\nConsequently, the adsorption process releases heat, i.e., it is an exothermic process. Consequently, it is stimulated by a reduction of the adsorption experiment temperature.
\nAs a matter of fact, the main thermodynamic relation for a bulk mixture system is given by:
\nwhere S is their entropy, U is the internal energy, V is the volume, T is the temperature, μi is the chemical potential, and ni is the constituent number of moles included in the system [18]. Now it is supposed that the adsorbent together with the adsorbed gas is a solid solution, labeled, system aA; thereafter, using the proposed scheme, it is possible to deduce the following equation, which thermodynamically describes the aA system [2, 32]:
\nwhere UaA, SaA, and VaA are the internal energy, entropy, and volume of the system aA, respectively, and μa and μA are the chemical potentials of the adsorbate, a, and the adsorbent, A, while na and nA are the number of moles of the adsorbate and the adsorbent in the system aA, respectively. Now if we define \n
As a result:
\nwhere Hg\n and Ha\n are the partial molar enthalpies of the adsorbate in the gas phase and in the aA system, respectively; now, applying Eq. (16), it is possible to define the isosteric enthalpy of adsorption [31]
\nwhere qiso is the enthalpy of desorption, or the isosteric heat of adsorption, which is calculated with the help of adsorption isotherms. An additional significant adsorption heat is the differential heat of adsorption, since when an adsorbate contacts an adsorbent, heat is released. In our case, the thermal effect produced was measured with the help of a thermocouple placed inside the adsorbent and referred at room temperature (\nFigure 11\n), a variety of the Tian–Calvet heat-flow calorimeter [32]. This calorimetric methodology is characterized by the fact that the difference of temperature among the tested adsorbent and a thermostat is determined; therefore, in this heat-flow calorimeter, the produced thermal energy in the adsorption cell is permitted to flow with no limitations to the thermostat. In the calorimeter constructed by us, heat flows throughout a thermocouple; thereafter, the voltage produced by the thermocouple, which is proportional to the thermal power, is amplified and recorded in an x-y plotter (see \nFigure 11\n); in which, the actual thermal effect generated is the integral heat of adsorption, measured using the Eq. (2)
\nAdsorption volumetric equipment.
where ΔQ is the integral heat of adsorption released during the finite increment, κ is a calibration constant, ΔT is the difference between thermostat temperature and the sample temperature during adsorption, and t is time, the differential heat of adsorption being calculated as follows [32, 33]:
\nThe heat-flow calorimeter used consisted of the high vacuum line for adsorption measurements applying the volumetric method; as reported in \nFigure 11\n, the equipment comprises the following: a Pyrex glass, vacuum system including a sample holder, a dead volume, a dose volume, a U-tube manometer, and a thermostat, including now a thermocouple immersed in the adsorbent bed, which was coupled to an x-y plotter.
\nIn \nFigure 12\n, the measurement of the differential heat of adsorption for the adsorption of carbon dioxide in the natural mordenite labeled MP is reported, which is a mordenite from the Palmarito, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, deposit (mordenite (80 wt.%), clinoptilolite (5 wt.%), together with montmorillonite (2–10 wt.%), quartz (1–5 wt.%), calcite (1–6 wt.%), feldspars (0–1 wt.%), and volcanic glass) [2]. In \nFigure 12\n, the obtained data are shown indicating that CO2 adsorption process in this zeolite is energetically heterogeneous; i.e., the heat of adsorption is a diminishing function of the zeolite micropore volume recovery, i.e., θ = na/nmax. That is, the plot of qdiff versus θ shows the following: two steps, one at 90 kJ/mol and the other at 70 kJ/mol, where was released, moderately high values of the adsorption heats, indicating that CO2 molecules powerfully interact through their quadrupole moments with the mordenite framework; after that, a reduction of the adsorption heat is found, up to a value corresponding to the bulk heat of condensation of the CO2 molecules [26, 27, 28].
\nPlot of qdiff vs. θ for the adsorption of CO2 at 300 K in the MP zeolite [2].
If a molecule contacts a solid adsorbent, it is exposed to various interaction fields, such as dispersion attraction, φD; repulsion, φR; induced polarization, φP; permanent dipole, φEμ; quadrupole, φEQ; and sorbate-sorbate, φAA.\n
\nSpecific interactions as the acid-base interaction with the active site, φAB, if the surface contains hydroxyl bridge groups.
\nThe dispersion or London forces among adsorbed nonpolar molecules and all types of adsorbents takes place when the transient dipoles turn out to be correlated; then, the dipoles of the nonpolar adsorbed species prompt a dipole in the atoms of the adsorbed species that act together to reduce the energy of the adsorption system. Hence, due to the correlation, the prompted dipoles created in the entire arrangement do not disappear, generating a dipole–dipole collaboration, dispersion interaction being intensity dependent on the polarizability of the adsorbate molecule and the adsorbent surface atom [40].
\nAdditionally, the electrostatic contribution to the potential includes the dipole induced, dipole permanent and quadrupole terms, where, the induced polarization term occurs when nonpolar molecules within an electric field are polarized, and then an induced dipole moment is produced, the permanent dipole and quadrupole terms being caused by molecules whose structures produce permanent dipoles and quadrupoles; for example, H2O, H2S, SO2, and NH3 are molecules with a high dipole moment, whereas CO2 is a molecule with a high quadrupole moment [1].
\nThe electrostatic attractive interactions are stronger than the dispersion interactions; however, dispersion is the fundamental attractive force present during adsorption in all adsorbate-adsorbent systems, for example, in the case of molecules like H2, Ar, CH4, N2, and O2. Given that the dipole moments of these molecules are zero, the quadrupole moment is very low or absent, and the polarization effect will only be noticeable in the case of adsorbents with high electric fields; the dispersion and repulsion interactions are responsible for the adsorption effect present in all adsorption gas-solid systems; therefore, they are nonspecific interactions [2].
\nProprietary or “paywall” publishing mode dominated the scholarly world throughout the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This is for-profit commercial publishing where publishers make their returns by the collection of research of scholars, application of peer-review, offering of editorial and formatting services, the collation of this research into subject-specific journals, and then selling subscription-based access of these works to academic libraries, scholarly societies and individual researchers. Access to individual articles on a short-term basis (typically 24 hours) is also supplied on a pay-for-use model. Commercial publishers also provide publishing facilities for books and monographs, although these have been on the decline [1]. The advent and wide use of the internet have strongly affected the process of scholarly publishing worldwide. A new mode of publication has emerged and widely employed by scholars and researchers. This new mode is Open Access (OA) publishing of scholarly work. This chapter will discuss OA focusing on its benefits to all the stakeholders and presenting other aspects of this new way of scholarly communication including its definition, types, development, its pros and cons and the myths and misconceptions surrounding it.
\nOpen access refers to free, unrestricted online access to research outputs such as journal articles and books. OA content is open to all, with no access fees. Open access is more than free access. When people think about open access (OA), they immediately relate it with free access. Providing reuse rights is another important asset of open access. Open access in its purest form is “digital, online, free of charge, and free of most copyright and licensing restrictions”. Open access entails a new model of publishing wherein the author, supported by an institution or funding agency, pays the publishing costs and owns the copyright. The publisher manages the peer review process and publishes directly to the Internet, where content is accessible free of charge to the public. Open access publishers take full advantage of available computing technology to streamline the publishing process [2]. Open Access aims to provide users with information that is unconstrained by the motive of financial gain or profits [3]. Furthermore, Open access implies that “users must be able to copy, use, distribute, transmit and display the work publicly and to make and distribute derivative works, in any digital medium for any responsible purpose, subject to proper attribution of authorship” [4, 5].
\nIn subscription-based publishing, authors are required to transfer the copyright of their works to the publisher who makes profits via the dissemination and reproduction of the works. Contrary to this, with OA publishing, authors can retain copyright to their work and
The OA movement can be said to have started in the year 1971 with Project Gutenburg Founded by Michael Hart [7]. This project is now providing free public domain text files with more than 60,000 eBooks. However, the modern open access movement began in the 1990s with the wide availability and access to the World Wide Web and online publishing became the norm. Starting in the early years of the 21st century there was a significant momentum towards making access to published research free of charge to scholars and universities through the Open Access movement. Three pioneering initiatives laid the foundation for the ideas and principles of OA movement. These are The Budapest Open Access Initiative on Feb. 14, 2002, The Bethesda Statement on Open Access Publishing on Apr. 11, 2003, and The Berlin Declaration on Open Access on Oct. 22, 2002 [8]. The Budapest Open Access Initiative was worked out during the human rights proponents gathering for the Open Society Institute meeting in December 2001. During the meetings a number of participants suggested that a global support is needed to create open information access within the scientific community. A draft was created during that meeting, and formalized two months later, in February 2002 as the Budapest Initiative. In April 2003, the United States and the United Kingdom based biomedical community convened and drafted a set of publishing principles guiding scientific dissemination. These principles were finalized and published in June 2003 as the Bethesda Statement. In October 2003, the European scientific community called for support by European researchers to engage in Open Access, with the Berlin Declaration [9].
\nMany stakeholders contributed to building institutions and resources for shaping up the global OA movements. Some of the institutions emerged during the first two decades of the third millennium are namely, Public Library of Science (PLOS), BioMed Central (BMC) – publishers of peer-reviewed OA journals, the Scholarly Publishing and Academic Resources Coalition (SPARC), and Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) [10]. In addition to the previously mentioned (BBB); the Budapest, Berlin and Bethesda OA declarations or statements got signed by the scholarly communities, particularly by the funding agencies, research councils, learned societies, institutions, universities, and scientists for the OA dissemination of public funded research.
\nThe latest strong support for the OA movement is represented by what is known as PLAN S where the s could stand for “science, or shock” but “speed” is the most relevant where it refers to speed with the transition to direct and open access [11]. Plan S is an initiative for Open Access publishing that was launched in September 2018. The plan is supported by cOAlition S, an international consortium of research funders. Plan S requires that, from 2021, scientific publications that result from research funded by public grants must be published in compliance with Open Access journals or platforms.
\nThere are three basic types of open access publishing. These are Green Open Access, Gold Open Access, and Hybrid Open Access [12].
\nGreen Open access publishing refers to the self-archiving of published or pre-publication works for free public use. Authors provide access to preprints or post-prints of their works with publisher permission in an institutional or disciplinary digital repository. Thus, Green open access refers to the practice of republishing a publication in an open access institutional or disciplinary repository. In this case the publication is first published in a traditional, closed-access journal. These materials are then made available to all via the internet, without restrictions or pay walls. In the “Green Route” of open access, institutions create repositories for their own research which is made open after an appropriate embargo period agreed upon with commercial publishers. As such Green Open Access generally refers to the post-print of an article [1]. In this context, there are three basic version types that can be self-archived in repositories: These are:
Pre-Prints – The author’s copy of article before it has been reviewed by the publisher, or pre-reviewed.
Post-Prints – The author’s copy of article after it has been reviewed and corrected, but before the publisher has formatted it for publication, or post-reviewed.
Publisher’s Version – The version that is formatted and appears in print or online.
Gold open access publishing refers to works published in an open access journal and accessed via the journal or publisher’s website. The Gold Route involves publishing in an open access journal, which then provides the dissemination and curation services in the same way as current proprietary publishers. This form of publishing is funded through government, society or institutional grants, and sometimes through charging authors a fee for deposit, known as an article processing charge (APC). However, the latter practice is implemented by a minority of open access journals and most journals do not charge any fees at all [13].
\nHybrid open access publishing is mostly associated with gold open access. It takes place in journals that offer authors the option of making their articles open access, for a fee. Hybrid journals are subscription-based journals that make individual articles openly available in return for a fee. The hybrid route has been suggested as a means for traditional publishers to make a transition to open access publishing without significantly decreasing revenue, by charging fees for open access articles equal to the average subscription revenue per article. In the Hybrid Open Access publishing type, sometimes called Paid Open Access, the fee is paid to the publisher or journal by the author, the author’s organization, or the research funder [14, 15].
\nThere are a number of other variations of these major types of open access publishing types. These include the Diamond Open access and the Platinum Open Access. The Diamond Open access journals provide scholarly publishing free of fees and access charges. They have direct or indirect subsidies from institutions like universities, research centres, government agencies etc. Whereas the Platinum model of open access publishing refers to the situation in which journals are published directly by the research or funding institutions themselves.
\nIn Gold and Hybrid OA models, publishers usually publish articles with Creative Commons (CC) licenses. Open Access does not imply there is no copyright attached to the open document; rather, in most cases the Creative Commons Attribution License (CCAL) model is used. Founded in 2001, the CCAL states that users are free to share, adapt, or use the work as long as they give attribution in the manner specified by the author or licensor [16]. The Attribution License is one of six codes under the Creative Commons License. Thus Open Access journals do not charge subscription or pay-per-view fees compared to traditional journals. The authors, their institutions, or the research funders pay the “open access” fee to make it free to readers; authors retain copyright for the article and most permission barriers are removed [17, 18].
\nThere is a controversial type of open access called the Bronze Open Access. In the Bronze model no open access Fee is paid but the publisher chooses to make a publication freely available to read. Many Open Access advocates and research funders would not regard Bronze as truly Open Access because the publisher can stop the publications being freely available at any time, whereas genuinely Open Access publications have a specific licence that means the publication is irrevocably open access and the terms of use and reuse are clearly stated [19].
\nAlthough bronze OA lacks a license, it is temporarily free to read only on the publisher’s website, and Publishers can deny access to the majority of open-access articles at their discretion [20].
\nThese two terms are interlinked to the basic three types of open access. But in contrast to Gold, Green and Hybrid OA, they do not describe forms of publication, but define the attributes of an article published in OA. Therefore an article might be described jointly as Gratis Open Access, or Gratis Gold or Green Open Access, etc. [21]. Gratis Open Access means free of charge Open Access. This means that price barriers alone are removed from access to the publication. It allows no uses beyond what is considered legitimate under copyright and fair use. Libre Open Access, on the other hand, means free of charge and free of at least some permission barriers. This means that the article is free for some kinds of further use and reuse, and presupposes some kind of open licence that allows types of uses that are not permitted by default [22].\n
\nOpen access publishing has a plethora of advantages for authors, institutions and readers across all sections of society. These advantages can be summarised as follows [8, 23]:
Increased accessibility of research work by users and other researchers. This leads to the enhancement and acceleration of the research cycle when results are available on an Open Access basis, where work is published, read, cited and then built upon by other researchers.
Increased visibility for authors and institutions, resulting in a higher impact of the research. There are no financial or copyright barriers so the readership continues to increase, enhancing the visibility and impact of the author’s Work. There is a greater chance of research results being seen when scientific journals are free to read and use, thus influencing the thinking of others. This state of affairs results in the increase of the academic’s impact factor.
Immediacy and Shorter publication times compared to non-open access publishing. Open access publishing takes shorter period of time from the date of submission of an article to a journal to its publication date.
Increased citations. A number of studies revealed that open access publishing leads to a greater number of citations. There is accumulating evidence showing that open access research articles are cited more often than those closed access articles. The studies reveal that across most subject areas there is at least a twofold increase in citation rate and that in some subject areas it is even higher [24].
Removing of price barriers. Open access removes price barriers and that openly accessible works are often full-text indexed, helping potential readers easily locate a work using a search engine, and access the work without being turned away by pay walls.
Contribution to author royalties. Some authors found that widespread dissemination of their openly accessible works stimulates demand for print copies of their works, contributing to royalties for these authors [23].
Those seeking wider visibility of their research work, higher impact for their research, less publication cost, and a shorter period of time from the date of submission to the publication date, should opt for publication in an OA journal [25].
\nThe most prominent and prevalent disadvantage of OA publishing is the emergence of predatory publishers and predatory journals. A predatory journal will not maintain the academic standards that are expected of a reputable scientific journal. The objective of the predatory journal is to make money for the owners without concern for the quality of the research published. A predatory journal will pretend to follow the essential editorial processes required for authentic academic publishing, but will not so do. Thus the quality of the research published in a predatory journal is likely to be low. Predatory journals can be identified by a number of characteristics, the most important of which may be the fact that they tend to market themselves through intensive e-mailing to invite selective victims who might otherwise have difficulty in having their research published in reputable journals. This lead to the development of what has become known as the predatory journal, which for a fee paid by the author delivers an un-scrutinised and unedited piece of writing purporting to be a high quality report on a piece of rigorously conducted scientific research. These journals are then presented to the public as Open Access journals [8, 26, 27].
\nAnother claimed disadvantage of Open Access publishing is that some OA journals do not have high impact factors and this is considered detrimental to a researcher, though this is questionable as many OA journals are new and have not yet received their first impact factor (IF). However, high-IF OA journals are available in a variety of fields [25].
\nThere are a number of myths and misconceptions surrounding open access publishing mode. Some of the most common myths include the following:
Myth 1: “open access journals are not peer reviewed”.
Myth 2: “all open journals charge publication fees”.
Myth 3: “authors must choose between prestigious publication and Open Access publication”.
Myth 4: “post-print archiving violates copyright”.
Myth 5: “OA invites plagiarism.”
Myth 6: “OA helps readers but not authors.”
Myth 7: “All OA is gratis OA.”
Below is a discussion of these myth and misconceptions about open access publishing with points that help dispel them.
\nStudies show that the majority of OA journals are peer-reviewed with the same or higher standards as traditional scholarly journals. However, it takes time for a new OA journal to build a high impact factor [18, 28]. Indexing of a journal in a major citation database is also considered a reflection of a journal’s quality. Indexing newly established OA journals in major citation databases is complex and time-consuming, furthering existing misconceptions of quality [8]. This myth entails that Open access journals are intrinsically low in quality. But as early as 2004, it was found that in every field of the sciences there was at least one open access title that ranked at or near the top of its field in citation impact. It’s quite normal that open access journals can be of high quality and first-rate: the quality of a scholarly journal depends on its authors, editors, and referees, not its business model or access policy [29, 30].
\nThere are a number of OA journal business models and a number of OA book business models available. The models include the following options and variations:
\nAuthor-Pays model, author pays publishing fee.
\nResearch funder subsidies, funding organisations pay author fees.
\nInstitutional membership, author fees are paid as a lump sum.
\nPublishing support funds, institutions reserve funds for author fees.
\nHybrid business model, journals mix subscription based and author pays content.
\nCommunity-fee model, societies fund journals by both subscriptions and membership fees.
\nInstitutional subsidies, institutions support their own university presses.
Charging publication fees in the form of author fees or article processing charges is the best-known business model for open access journals, but it is not the most common. Most peer-reviewed open access journals nowadays charge no fees at all. The
OA is compatible with prestige for two reasons: First, a growing number of OA journals have already earned high levels of prestige, and others are earning it. The second reason is that most pay wall (Toll Access) journals allow OA archiving. When authors retain the right to self-archive, all journals willing to publish their work also allow self-archiving. The current misunderstanding has some negative effects. When scholars know about OA and don’t choose it, they are generally not opposed to it; many support it strongly. They are simply giving higher priority to prestige. But because OA is compatible with prestige, authors rarely have to choose. But they have to choose only when a prestigious journal doesn’t already permit post print archiving and when it rejects the authors’ individualized request for permission. Authors rarely have to choose between them, but to have both at once they will often have to choose to self-archive [32].
\nMost publishers allow their authors to self-archive their articles in institutional repositories or on their own personal websites. However, conditions and restrictions are frequently imposed. For example, authors are often obliged to observe an embargo period between the publication date and the date on which the document is made openly accessible online. The SHERPA/Romeo Listings provide information on the self-archiving policies of individual publishers. They used to classify publishers in different colours depending on their archiving policies; green publishers let authors archive preprint and post print or publisher’s version/PDF, blue publishers let authors archive post print or publisher’s version/PDF, yellow publishers let authors archive preprint, and white publishers do not formally support archiving. But they recently stated that they have now retired the Romeo colours, as open access policies have become more complicated and the colours no longer gave a clear overview [33]. Many of those authors, whose publishers do not allow self-archiving, supplement their standard publishing agreements with contract addenda which enable them to provide open access to their work in parallel with publication [34].
\nIn the early days of the OA movement some authors worried that OA would increase the incentive to plagiarize their work. On the contrary, OA might make plagiarism easier to commit, for people trolling for text to cut and paste. But for the same reason, OA makes plagiarism more risky to commit. Plagiarism from OA sources is the easiest kind to detect. Some of the misunderstanding here may arise from confusing plagiarism and copyright infringement. Plagiarism and infringement are two separate things although they are overlapping offenses. “Someone can commit plagiarism without infringing copyright (by copying a fair-use excerpt and claiming it as one’s own) and infringe copyright without committing plagiarism (by copying a larger excerpt but with attribution). One can also commit both together (by copying a large excerpt and claiming it as one’s own)” [32].
\nOA articles are accessible to everyone with an internet connection, a vastly larger audience than any scholarly journal can claim. Not all internet users will care to read your research, of course. But making your work universally accessible to the connected guarantees that it will be accessible to the subset which does care. If there’s an exception for the digital divide, there’s a larger exception for the non-digital or print divide. Moreover, there’s abundant evidence that OA articles are cited more often than non-OA articles, even more than non-OA articles from the same issues of the same journals [35, 36]. Many different studies have tackled this phenomenon, taking on different bodies of literature, using different methods, controlling different variables. They disagree on whether the OA impact advantage is large or small, and whether OA causes the increase in citations or is merely correlated with it. But they agree that OA articles are cited more often than non-OA articles. Authors
Gratis OA removes price barriers but not permission barriers. It makes content free of charge but not free of copyright or licensing restrictions. It gives users no more reuse rights than they already have through fair use or the local equivalent. Libre OA removes price barriers and at least some permission barriers. It loosens copyright and licensing restrictions and permits at least some uses beyond fair use [38]. There is some excuse for the opposite view, that all OA is libre OA. The Budapest, Bethesda, and Berlin definitions of OA all describe forms of libre OA. The current misunderstanding accepts that gratis OA is a kind of OA, but goes one step too far and assumes that gratis OA is the only kind of OA. The misunderstanding is that there is no libre OA, that libre OA adds nothing to gratis OA, or that what libre OA adds isn’t necessary or desirable. In general, OA repositories have good reasons to stick to gratis OA but OA journals don’t. Repositories can’t generate the needed permissions on their own, but journals can [37].
\nA large-scale study that investigates the prevalence and impact of OA publishing found that almost half of the scholarly papers that people attempt to access online are now freely and legally available [39]. The study tracked 100,000 online requests for journal papers in 2017. It examined reader data from a web-browser extension called Unpaywall which finds free-to-read versions of pay-walled papers in the Internet. The study authors analysed server logs of 100,000 papers that Unpaywall users tried to access during one week, and found that 47% of accessed studies were legally available to read for free somewhere on the web, and that around half the content being accessed was published in the previous two years. Their study also revealed that more than 20% of scholarly articles searched for through Unpaywall were available directly from journals, with clear licences describing whether the papers were free not just to read, but also to download or redistribute. Another 9% of the papers were still published behind a pay-wall, but authors later uploaded their paper to an online repository. The most intriguing category of papers was the 15% that were posted on a publisher’s site as free to read, but without any explicit open licence. The authors say this type of open-access — which they call ‘bronze’, in contrast to the widely used ‘gold’ and ‘green’ definitions — has been scarcely discussed. Of papers published in the most recent year examined −2015- 45% were freely available, which suggests that newer articles are more likely to be open. The authors of the study concluded that the percentage of literature that is OA continues to grow steadily, and that “In the next few decades, we’re going to be seeing nearly all the literature available freely.” [39].
\nPlan S is the latest initiative to promote and support open access publishing. Below is an excerpt from the Coalition website [40] which is the body responsible for the Plan S, revealing the target of this open access plan:
\n\nWith effect from 2021, all scholarly publications on the results from research funded by public or private grants provided by national, regional and international research councils and funding bodies, must be published in Open Access Journals, on Open Access Platforms, or made immediately available through Open Access Repositories without embargo [41].
\nThis chapter presented an overview of the basic principles and common practices of open access publishing as an emerging and expanding mode of scholarly publishing. The chapter started with an introduction to the concept of open access publishing with a brief background of the development of the open access movement. The different types of open access publishing are then highlighted and defined. These types include Gold Open Access, Green Open Access, and Hybrid Open Access, in addition to other variations of these basic types namely, the Diamond Open Access and the Platinum Open Access. The concepts of Gratis vs. Libre Open Access are also defined and explained. The chapter then discussed the advantages and disadvantages of open access focusing on the various advantages of this mode of scholarly publishing to authors and readers as well. The chapter then proceeded to discuss and refute the most common myths and misconceptions about open access publishing. The chapter is concluded with some views on the prevalence and future of open access publishing.
\nThis is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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