\r\n\tFourth, the effects of digitalization on economic and sustainable development and the benefits of digitization for public services, including e-governance, e-payments, e-democracy, e-health, e-learning, e-payments, and so on, are also presented.
\r\n\r\n\tAt the fifth stage, we will try to highlight the imperative role of blockchain technology, artificial intelligence, and machine learning in the digitization process.
\r\n\r\n\tLast but not least, the main threats of a digital economy are presented under the form of cybercrime and “surveillance capitalism”, including the impact of financial crimes referring to card frauds, online frauds, digital frauds, digital shadow economy, black market, money laundering, etc.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"45ca4a969c50d02d2bab6894218c7ef8",bookSignature:"Prof. Monica Violeta Achim and Dr. Nawazish Mirza",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10918.jpg",keywords:"Definition, Digital Transactions, Innovative Financial Services, Cryptocurrency, E-governance, E-payments, Spiral Transformation of Knowledge, Financial Education, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Money Laundering Surveillance Capitalism Economy, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 25th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"In February 2020, Ph.D. Achim won the Prize for Excellence in Scientific Research, at Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Since 2020, she became a member of the Romanian Ministery of Education and Research, as a representative in the panel of Economic Sciences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof.Mirza obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Paris Dauphine and has over 18 years of research, teaching, and consulting experience across Western Europe, Middle East, Asia Pacific, and Australia.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"236659",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Achim",slug:"monica-violeta-achim",fullName:"Monica Violeta Achim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/236659/images/system/236659.jpg",biography:"Monica Violeta Achim is is currently full professor and doctoral supervisor in the field of Finance at the Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Administration, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca. She teaches the disciplines 'Diagnosis and Financial Analysis”, 'Financial analysis in banks” and 'Economic and financial crime” at the same faculty. She has many research concerns in the area of financial analysis, business performances, corporate governance, economic and financial crimes and public finance. With over 22 years of experience in academia, she has published as author and co-author, over 130 scientific articles and 25 books. Among the main targeted top journals, the following can be mentioned: The European Journal of Health Economics, Technological and Economic Development of Economy, Population Health Management, Social Indicators Research, Apply Research in Quality Life, Journal of Business Economics and Management, E+M Ekonomie and Management, Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, Sustainability, Entrepreneurship Research Journal, Singapore Economic Review. Her most recent reference work is the book Economic and financial crime. Corruption, Shadow economy and Money laundering, published as co-authored at Springer. She is also reviewer and board member for many international journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Babeș-Bolyai University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"420517",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawazish",middleName:null,surname:"Mirza",slug:"nawazish-mirza",fullName:"Nawazish Mirza",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000039UrYIQA0/Profile_Picture_1622035121865",biography:"Nawazish Mirza is a professor of finance at the Excelia Business School, La Rochelle, France. He obtained a Ph.D. from the University of Paris Dauphine and has over 18 years of research, teaching, and consulting experience across Western Europe, Middle East, Asia Pacific, and Australia. His research interests include financial technology, credit ratings, risk management, financial intermediation, and valuations. He has extensive professional and consulting experience in credit ratings, investment banking, and the valuation of new technologies. His recent research has been published in the Resources Policy, Journal of Environmental Management, International Review of Economics and Finance, Economic Modelling, Pacific-Basin Finance, Technology, and Social Forecasting, Finance Research Letters, among others. He is associate editor of the Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences and Economic Research. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Every day globally about 40,000 people die from malnutrition and the diseases associated with it, which are also responsible for the death of 5 million children according to FAO, the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations report of 2004.
\nFrom time to time, efforts are made by the developed world to eliminate the extreme poverty prevailing in the developing countries. Radical changes, however, can only be achieved by effective measures at the local level.
\nUp until the nineteenth century, famines most commonly originated from the natural disasters. At present, in most of the cases, they are caused by people; suffice with Ethiopia, Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, or Haiti. In the era when we are capable of handling famine, a lot more than ever before, such situations prove to be a big shame of mankind.
\nMalnutrition (undernutrition) is a pathological condition where energy deficiency or lack of energy or absolute or relative lack of at least one nutrient is present [4]. More than one of the factors playing a part in the development of malnutrition may be present in hospitalized individuals or in those living in social institutions offering prolonged stay.
\nStarvation in the child’s organism may range from occasional or rare mild undernutrition through severe deficiency in growth to life hazard.
\nStarvation (inanition) is the condition where the bodyweight decreases due to the lack or low level of food intake, the body grows thinner and weaker, and the metabolism of essential nutrients shows a value lesser than normal.
\n“Quantitative” starvation means that the individual for some reason consumes too little food. Insufficient energy uptake leads to weight loss even in the short run. The regenerating mechanisms of the organism are capable of preventing only the effect of moderate undernutrition, while weight loss also leads to reduced spontaneous and voluntary activity.
\n“Qualitative” starvation is less conspicuous, while its importance is high, since in this case, the intake of vitally important nutrients (such as vitamins and minerals) is insufficient, especially in childhood and babyhood.
\nSpecialists most commonly encounter protein and energy deficiency resulting in protein-energy malnutrition. In this case, the fatty tissue disappears, the organism can resist infections to a lesser extent, and chronic diarrhea may also occur. If the energy balance in the organism is upset for a long time (i.e., the daily energy uptake is less than the energy use), emaciation may develop. If the body weight is 15–20% less than the optimal and the amount of fatty tissue reserve also gets reduced or disappears, cachexia can be established, while in cases when the organism uses up the muscle proteins in addition to fat reserves, marasmus is diagnosed.
\nIt seems the most cruel and absurd thing that the world struggling with famines needs to fight obesity at the same time. In history, this is the first time when there are more obese people than those suffering from undernutrition. In the United States alone, every year, more than 300,000 people die due to obesity, while 100 billion dollars are spent on the treatment of the disease and the related consequences.
\nOverweight and obesity are two endemics that are not restricted to the population of rich countries. There are more than 300 million obese people in the world, of them 115 million live in the developing countries [5].
\nAccording to the World Health Organization, it is among the top 10 most severe diseases. Plenty of people suffer from its complications and even more from the esthetic and social consequences. The incidence of cancer increases with the pathological obesity of the population, while both obesity and individual types of tumors are preventable. The simplest recipe of slimming diets: eat less and move more. If we consume just 500 kcal less daily, it results in 0.5 kg weight loss, which is 2 kg in the month. Body weight reducing therapies are built on four pillars: slimming diet, exercise, behavior change, and medication. A long-lasting effect can be achieved by the combined application of these four possibilities [6].
\nThe effects of overweight and obesity are well documented. Obesity studies typically reveal association with cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases diabetes, gall stones, goiter, and a number of cancers (e.g., breast, colon, ovary, and prostate cancer) endocrine disturbances, renal disturbances, liver damages, pulmonary disturbances, and joint diseases.
\nThe composition, quality, and quantity of the food consumed and the frequency of food intake have crucial effect on our general feeling, well-being, and diseases. A healthy adult consumes half a ton of food per annum. Nowadays, information on the role of nutritional factors in developing diseases gains more and more importance. The explanation is simple: there is a whole industry that focuses on health preservation, optimal body weight, and well-being. The products promoting healthy way of living need to be advertised, whereas the value of programs arousing public interest is unfortunately determined by the number of viewers of such programs and the chances for placing commercials in them, rather than their usefulness for the society.
\nIn the civilized world, preferences are to be given to foods which, in addition to their nutritional value, have obvious biological usefulness; therefore, beside the level of microelements vitamin, fiber and flavonoid content of foods to be consumed should be taken into account. The quality of foods also counts, so the qualitative approach should gain priority over the quantity-centered nutrition; mass media plays an important part.
\nFor national economies, the treatment of obesity-related conditions is a great challenge which takes up an increasing part of health care expenditure. Obese people suffer three to four times more often and intensely from depression and anxiety than their fellow citizens with optimal body weight.
\nSince both obesity and the development of some malignant tumors are preventable, the greatest issue and challenge for health care providers is the number of pathologically obese European citizens. Besides public health specialists parents and those in charge of children’s education also share this responsibility. We, Hungarians, would not die 10 years earlier than our European fellow humans if we valued health, cared for ourselves and others, and increased our knowledge on health preservation [7].
\nSafe food supply does not sheerly mean that we have a sufficient amount of food at our disposal but the diversity of this food at reasonable price is also important. Families need income covering the cost of sufficient and diverse food for each family member.
\nApart from that it is also important for individuals to have access to relevant information about the nutrients and food. It is a fact that the amount of corn grown all over the world could provide 3000 kcal of energy for each man, woman, and child, whereas the optimal value is 2300 kcal per person. Food production exceeds the growth of population by 16%.
\nThe real problem is caused by distribution. For many people, appropriate food is unaffordable –this is how starvation becomes a global problem. Since it is widely known that the amount of foodstuff is sufficient, increasing the production provides no solution for the problem. In spite of the fact that climate factors and various natural disasters have a huge influence on the agricultural production, there are economic, social, cultural, and political issues behind starvation and malnutrition. Intensive cultures are accused with damaging the environment and endangering natural resources,—water and soil—with fertilization and inconsiderate use of chemicals. The intensification of agricultural cultivation of the land maybe defined as the increase in the proportion of industrial products as compared to the cultivated agricultural area. By now, agricultural technology has become independent of the land, its own natural basis. By destroying the environment, we will not have the chance for producing appropriate and sufficient foodstuff.
\nGlobally every day 40,000 people die from undernutrition and the related diseases. Every fourth child in the Earth suffers from undernutrition and annually 11 million infants below 1 year of age die from undernutrition, 2 billion people suffer from chronic undernutrition [8], while the amount of foodstuff produced could profoundly satisfy all people’s needs.
\n“If the order of values gets disturbed and good is mixed with bad, then individuals and groups take sheerly their own interests and not those of others into account. Safe food supply of the world is endangered by the greediness of the rich and the spread of inappropriate methods of production—the excessive increase of the productivity of soils and the use of excessive amounts of pesticides” [3]. This is what we need to change until it is not too late.
\nBesides these aforementioned facts, the nutritional problems from the viewpoint of science need to cover other “real scientific problems” namely characteristics of the different foods and food preparations: toxicological approach, clinical nutrition behaviors (chemical constituents, their stabilities utilization, physical-chemical properties, food preparation forms, etc.).
\nSorry to say, the toxicological problems of the different food or food components are not sufficiently studied in over the world.
\nIn our previous studies, we deeply analyzed the capsaicin problems and were very surprised that no human clinical toxicological examination was found independently in the literature during the human population of the last 7000–9000 years [9, 10, 11] by the international authorities asked different toxicological data and by the measurements given internationally accredited institutes. We received these data from the different authorities, and Hungarian authorities gave permission to carry out observations with capsaicin for 1 month period (Phase I). However, we would like to use capsaicin for human therapy we need to give farther toxicological data (two species of animals—rats and Beagle dogs for 6 months, and thereafter in human beings).
\nFrom this book, the changes of different physical-chemical properties of the food produced by different preparation are absolutely absent; meanwhile, these data are important in the utilization of different foods or food preparations.
\nFor the objective analysis of the foods, we need to use objective methods as we did during drug therapy [11].
\nIn case of drug preparation, we need to give the international authorities so-called Drug Master File (DMF). In case of capsaicin, the DMF has to be present in the following details: (1) specification of the capsicum species, (2) climatic regulations in places of capsicum cultivation, (3) chemical treatments of capsicum plants during their cultivation, (4) detailed treatment of capsicum plants (their collection, drying, extraction storages, etc.), (5) analytical results supporting the chemical composition of the plant origin of capsaicinoids extract, (6) chemical stability of natural capsaicin (capsaicinoids), (7) analytical results showing the possible contamination of natural compounds with organic phosphates, pesticides, fusarium, and aflatoxins, and (8) international certification (including the Food and Drug Administration, FDA) on the capsaicin (capsaicinoids) content of the natural preparation. Aforementioned data need to be given by internationally accredited laboratories. These data are collected in the DMF.
\nSorry to say, similar qualification systems do not exist in case of foods regardless of using much higher portions in the everyday life (Food Master File, FMF). These are in under discussion by the international organizations.
\nThe qualification of the foods would be necessary to be done firstly in human beings, of course, with respect to the actual physiological (pathophysiological) parameters of the human organs [12].
\nOur challenges now and in the forthcoming decades are the solutions of these aforementioned problems. Our biggest challenge is that although the number of human population increases exponentially, increase of food supply does not happen exponentially.
\nOur Take Home Message is
\n(William Shakespeare, 1564–1616)
\nThe editors thank the excellent cooperation of the contributors during the book edition. The editors are especially thankful for the excellent support given by Mr. Luka Cvjetkovic, the Author Service Manager from Intech Open Access Publishers and by the publishers.
\nIn the past decades, the health effects of environmental pollution on the population have been a growing source of worry around the world. According to the WHO (World Health Organization), one-third of the diseases afflicting humanity are caused by extended exposure to pollution. Since World War II, scientists have identified a number of chemical contaminants that are toxic, persistent in the environment, bioaccumulative, and prone to long-range atmospheric transboundary migration and deposition, and are expected to have serious health consequences for humans, wildlife, and marine biota both near and far from their source of emission. These toxins are chemical contaminants, also called the dirty dozen [1]. Being volatile substances, POPs evaporate into the air in warm regions of the globe, are transported by air currents up to cold regions and in mountainous regions where they condense [2, 3].
Most POP chemicals are non-polar organic compounds, consequently hydrophobic, with extremely low water solubility. In marine and terrestrial systems, they bind strongly to solids, particularly organic matter, evading the aqueous segment [4]. They are also lipophilic, which means that they accumulate in the fatty tissue of living animals and human beings. The stockpiling in fatty tissue allows the compound to persevere in biota, where the metabolism rate is low [5, 6, 7, 8]. Due to the bioaccumulation and biomagnification phenomena, the POP concentration may be much higher in the tissues of the organisms (up to 70,000 higher concentrations). POP concentrations tend to rise as you travel up the food chain, therefore species at the top of the food chain, such as fish, predatory birds, mammals, and humans, have the largest concentrations of these chemicals and are thus at the greatest danger of acute and chronic harmful effects. POPs are mostly man-made chemical products intended to be used in various areas, for an example, in agriculture and industry, or unintentional by-products resulting from industrial processes, or from waste incineration. Different classes of POPs substances such as organochlorinated pesticides (OCP), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), brominated compounds (BFR), dioxins and furans are known. Most of these substances are anthropogenic origin. However, substances such as dioxins and furans may have natural origin (Figure 1), such as volcanic activities and vegetation fires [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Classification of persistent organic compounds according to their origin. Picture adapted from [
Many POPs were widely used during industrial revolution after World War II. However, many of these chemicals proved to be beneficial in pest and disease control, but they had unforeseen effects on human health and environment. In Stockholm 2001, representatives from 92 countries have agreed to sign the Stockholm Convention on POPs to reduce and/or eliminate the release of 12 original POP substances. More contaminants have been discovered; the main concern is over the original 12. These contaminants are the 10 intentionally produced chemicals: aldrin, endrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and PCBs and the two unintentionally produced substances polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) [18, 19]. Another type of interest also classified as persistent organic compounds is polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Combustion and burning of organic compounds produces these substances unintentionally. Their occurrences are related to anthropogenic processes, and contamination of PAHs in river sediment is especially serious in high-density industrial areas [18]. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of chemicals that have been intentionally or unintentionally produced, and introduced into the environment as shown in Figure 2.
Categories of persistent organic pollutants. Picture adapted from [
Intentionally produced chemicals currently or were once used in agriculture, manufacturing, disease control or industrial processes. These intentional POPs compounds, shown in Figure 3, will be produced as wanted products by different chemical reactions that include chlorine. These types are organic molecules with linked chlorine atoms, high lipophilicity and, usually, high neurotoxicity, and they are called organochlorine compounds. Some of the well-known examples of organochlorine compounds are the chlorinated insecticides, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, and polychlorinated biphenyls. They have several compounds which can be divided into two types that are industrial chemicals and organochlorine pesticides [22, 23].
Intentionally persistent organic pollutants chemical structures. Adapted from [
Polychlorinated biphenyls, very stable mixtures that are resistant to extreme temperature and pressure, are a group of manmade chemicals, oily liquids or solids, clear to yellow in color, with no smell or taste. They have been discovered in water, sediments, avian tissue, and fish tissue all throughout the planet. These chemicals make up a significant subset of special wastes. PCBs are a group of chemical compounds in which the biphenyl molecule has 2–10 chlorine atoms linked to it. When explaining PCBs, monochlorinated biphenyls (i.e., one chlorine atom bonded to the biphenyl molecule) are frequently mentioned. The chemical structure of chlorinated biphenyls is depicted in Figure 4. There are 209 distinct PCB congeners in theory. Many of them are resistant to degradation, allowing them to survive for lengthy periods of time in the environment and spread via air and water transport mechanisms [25, 26, 27].
Industrial POPs chemical structure. Adapted from [
Many industrial applications, such as fire-resistant transformers and insulating condensers, relied heavily on PCBs. Prior to 1977, they were utilized as heat exchanger fluids and in the fabrication of aluminum, copper, iron, and steel [27]. Apart from their usage in the above applications, they were also applied as plasticizers in natural and synthetic rubber products, as well as adhesives, insulating materials, flame retardants, lubricants in the treatment of wood, clothing, paper, and asbestos, chemical stabilizers in paints and pigments, and as dispersing agents in aluminum oxide formulations. PCBs are frequently discovered in the effluent and sludge of municipal wastewater treatment plants. Although prohibited in the 1980s, PCBs are presently employed in transformers in some parts of the world, especially Brazilian [28, 29].
Organochlorine (OC) pesticides are typically man-made synthetic pesticides widely used all over the world. They belong to the group of chlorinated hydrocarbon derivatives, which have vast application in the chemical industry and in agriculture. Pesticides are a class of chemicals used to kill insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, and other organisms. Insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, herbicides, and rodenticides are some of the terms used to describe them. The majority of pesticides may kill a wide range of pests and weeds, but some are targeted at specific pests or pathogens. Although these substances are typically man-made, plant derivatives and naturally occurring inorganic minerals are examples of exceptions that occur naturally. Since the first naturally occurring pesticide, nicotine derived from tobacco leaf extracts, was employed to control the plum curculio and the lace bug in the seventeenth century. Many chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides were created in the 1940s, although they were not widely used until the 1950s. Aldrin, dieldrin, heptochlor, and endrin form part of the reported chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. However, in spite of their early promise, these organochlorine insecticides are now much less used because of their environmental pollution impact [30, 31].
Pesticides are employed for many different purposes. Pesticide use has increased due to increased agricultural production, resulting in increased pollution of environmental compartments such as soil, water, and air. Pesticide properties like high lipophilicity, bioaccumulation, long half-life, and potential for long-range transport have enhanced the risk of contamination in air, water, and soil, even after many years of use. This occurrence has the potential to become a long-term hazard to the ecosystem’s plant and animal groups’ coexistence. Pest problems result in the loss of nearly a third of the world’s agricultural productivity each year, despite the fact that pesticide consumption exceeds two millio liters each year. A study by Pimentel showed that only a small percentage (0.3%) of applied pesticides goes into the target pest while 99.7% go somewhere else into the environment [32].
Although the application of organochlorine pesticides has been forbidden for a considerable period in many countries, the residues continue to induce a significant impact on the environment and its ecosystems [33]. Overuse or misuse of pesticides has a negative impact on environmental health as well as ecosystem services. Many aquatic and terrestrial animals, have been documented to be toxicated by pesticides. Pesticides have a negative impact on aquatic ecosystems, including microbes, animals, plants, and fish [34, 35, 36, 37, 38].
During the last three or four decades, insecticide manufacturing has been rather constant. Insecticides and fungicides, on the other hand, are the most important pesticides for human exposure in food since they are sprayed just before or after harvesting. Herbicide output has risen as chemicals have increasingly supplanted land cultivation in weed management, accounting for the majority of agricultural pesticides. Large amounts of pesticides have the ability to enter water either directly, as in mosquito control applications, or indirectly, as in drainage of agricultural lands [39, 40, 41].
DDT was widely employed during World War II to protect soldiers and civilians from malaria, typhoid, and other diseases caused by insects before its insidious effects on humans and wildlife were discovered. DDT was employed to manage disease after the war, and it was sprayed on a number of agricultural crops, particularly cotton. It did the job, reducing the threat of malaria and the loss of income to the agriculture industry [42]. DDT continues to be applied against mosquitoes in several countries to control malaria. Its stability, its persistence, and its widespread use have meant that DDT residues can be found everywhere; residual DDT has even been detected in the Arctic.
Unintentionally produced chemicals (see Figure 5) are a result of combustion of medical waste, incarnation and some industrial processes. They are divided into three types, viz., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dioxin and furan compounds.
Unintentional produced POPs chemical structures. Adapted from [
PAHs are ubiquitous group of several hundreds of chemicals that comprise two or more fused benzene rings in linear, angular or cluster arrangements, containing only carbon and hydrogen. The central molecular structure is held together by stable carbon-carbon bonds. They are mostly caused by incomplete combustion of natural or man-made fuels such as coal and wood, as well as vehicular pollutants and cigarette smoke [44]. Dietary exposure accounts for more than 70% of human exposure in non-smokers [45]. According to a dietary survey conducted in the United Kingdom, cereals and oils/fats account for a significant portion of PAH intake [46]. Typical PAH contamination occurs when food is subjected to combustion products in technical procedures such as direct fire drying [47]. High PAH concentrations in charcoal grilled/barbecued foods may also result from certain traditional home cooking methods such as grilling, roasting, frying, and smoking [48]. However, the greatest amounts of PAHs released into the environment are via anthropogenic processes like fossil fuel combustion and by-products of industrial processing. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States included 16 PAHs on a priority pollutants list because they are considered potential or probable human carcinogens. As a result, their dispersal and the likelihood of human exposure have received a lot of interest. PAHs have been found in soil, air, and sediments, as well as on a variety of food and beverage products [49, 50, 51].
Polychlorinated dibenzo-
Molecular structures of chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (dioxins, PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (furans, PCDFs). Adapted from [
PCDDs and PCDFs are solids at room temperature and have a rather low volatility. Dispersion in the atmosphere is thus likely to occur mainly in particulate aerosols. The PCDD/F have been of concern for decades because of their toxic properties. A structurally similar series of compounds, the chlorinated dibenzofurans (furans), have similar chemical properties and toxic effects. The most toxic and most extensively studied representative of the chlorinated dioxins (PCDDs) is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
In the past decades, many reports on the dependents of POPs by industry and agricultural sectors were seen. POPs proved to be beneficial in pest and disease control, crop production, and industrial applications. Many were widely used commercially during the boom in industrial production after World War II, resulting in wide geographical distribution. Figure 7 shows some of the sources related to POPs [57].
Schematic depicting POPs in the environment and main environmental processes during long-distance atmosphere transport, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification. Adapted from [
POPs are extremely stable in all environmental elements. They are discharged into the atmosphere through a variety of industrial sources, including power plants, heating plants, and incinerating facilities, as well as from domestic furnaces, transportation, agricultural sprays, and evaporation from water surfaces, soil, and landfills. Other sources of POPs compounds, such as inadvertent generation, can be present in incinerations, chemical plants, other combustions, forest fires, putrefaction, and PCB-containing wastes. This type of trash can be found in a variety of places and stems from a variety of activities, such as the use of old oil, equipment repair and maintenance, and building destruction [58, 59].
Wastewaters from plants generating or using POPs, as well as runoff from fields and roads, and atmospheric deposition, are the origins of pollutants, oil, fates, liquid fuels, dirt, ash, and silt entering the water system. Oceans and seas are their greatest reservoirs, where they collect from river sediments, air deposition, trash disposal, and accidents. They are retained in sediments on the bottoms of seas, oceans, and huge lakes, where they can be released and re-enter the atmosphere after a period of time, as indicated in Figure 8 [42, 60].
Conceptual model for the behavior of persistent organic pollutants in the air-plant soil system. Adapted from [
POPs have adversely posed a health concern worldwide for ages. Due to their concerning health issues, some countries have resorted to reduce the use of chemicals or processes that produce POPs, while others have prohibited them entirely. However, most processes that result in the production of POPs are beneficial to both human and environmental health. This is because some POPs are produced during production of synthetic chemicals for crop production, medication, clothing etc. In addition, some POPs are unavoidable since they may be produced unintentional from simple combustions. Since most of these POPs end up in water streams, various methods for wastewater treatment have been implement and reported in literature. These methods ensure the conversion of wastewater into portable water by removing harmful and hazardous chemicals [61]. Conventional treatment refers to some of the most effective water treatment procedures used in the service and distribution of industrial or municipal potable water. At different stages of a typical treatment method, any of the physical, chemical, or biological channels provide good combination.
Preliminary, primary, secondary, and tertiary wastewater treatment stages are in sequence of increasing treatment level, with final pH adjustments as needed. The chosen conventional approach must be able to meet the regulatory authority’s recommended microbiological and chemical criteria while operating and maintaining at a low cost [62].
Conventional treatment methods such as flocculation, coagulation, filtration, and oxidant chemical treatment are ineffective against POPs. The chemical properties of POPs, such as, low water and high fat solubility, stability to all degradation processes and low vapor pressure, are the main components for their efficiency as pesticides and for their persistence in the environment [63]. The inability in some instances to remove POPs from wastewater using conventional methods have prompted scientists to develop other methods. Various advanced wastewater treatment technologies such as, activated carbon adsorption, biodegradation using membrane bioreactor [64] and advanced oxidation processes [65] have been applied in the treatment of POPs. This is because of growing number of emerging POPs that are being identified in water and the concerns that are accompanied by human and environmental health hazard [66]. Various setbacks such as cost, sophisticated instrumentation, low degradation efficiency, generation of toxic secondary chemicals and massive sludge production have recently been addressed using advanced methods and technologies. Below is the short discussion of biodegradation and advanced oxidation processes wastewater treatment technologies.
Biodegradation is an evolving technology that comprises the application of selected living microorganisms to degrade, metabolize/immobilize any unwanted substances such as pesticides, organic pollutants and hydrocarbons from soil and water, to improve its quality [67]. Although every microorganism has the ability to eradicate pollutants, only few particular or engineered microorganisms are used broadly to eradicate pollutants efficiently. Bioremediation technology, applied in perspective to POPs removal, takes into consideration the following methods: (1) bioventing: aerating water to stimulate
Currently, the membrane bioreactor does not always achieve the desired results in the treatment of POPs, and it performs poorly in the removal of non-biodegradable aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, halogenated organic compounds, organic dyes, pesticides, and phenols and their derivatives. The process technicalities and economic feasibilities are the two most significant assessment elements for achieving the goal in wastewater treatment technology [70].
The use of conventional methods is not wholly accepted nowadays because of the high costs and operational problems. Consequently, it is necessary to adopt modern systems like advanced oxidative processes (AOPs) [71]. Some of the AOPs’ characteristics include: (1) potential capacity for mineralization of organic pollutants to carbon dioxide and water, as well as oxidation of inorganic compounds and ions such as chlorides, nitrates, and others; (2) non-selective reactivity with the vast majority of organic compounds, which is particularly appealing to avoid the presence of potentially toxic by-products from the primary pollutants that can be produced by other methods that do not achieve complete oxidation [65]. Some of the AOPs discussed below.
AOPs have successfully used both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. Heterogeneous systems have obvious advantages over homogeneous systems, such as the ability to separate the catalyst easily for reuse from the treated water, the lack of a secondary treatment to remove dissolved metals from the treated water, and the ability to withstand extreme operating conditions. The system is also effective over a broader pH range including the common pH for natural water and wastewater (pH 2–9) [72].
The AOPs, as water treatment processes, are performed at pressure and temperature close to environmental conditions. They involve the generation of hydroxyl radicals in sufficient quantity to interact with the organic compounds of the medium. Hydroxyl radicals are the best of the powerful oxidants because they meet a number of criteria, including: (1) they do not generate additional waste; (2) they are not toxic and have a short lifetime; (3) they are not corrosive to equipment; and (4) usually produced by easy-to-manipulate assemblies [73]. The following are some of the most common approaches used for this purpose: UV alone, UV/H2O2, UV/Fe3+, UV/H2O2/Fe3+, UV/O3, UV/S2O82−, UV/TiO2, UV/chlorine and UV in combination with other photocatalysts. The major issue is the removal efficiency of specific target contaminants by the UV AOPs. UV AOP removal rates vary depending on the molecular structure of the pollutants, both in terms of direct photolysis and radical processes. Furthermore, water matrix effects have a significant influence on removal rates. As a result, each UV AOP system must be individually controlled in line with its water matrix and targeted contaminant removal for optimal POPs control [74]. In most situations, the UV/chlorine oxidation process outperformed UV alone or chlorination, according to Xiang et al. [75]. During the UV/chlorine reaction, hydroxyl and Cl radicals were produced, with the hydroxyl radical taking the lead in the oxidation process. Its contribution to the rate of diuron degradation was calculated to be 28.95%.
Most AOPs use a combination of oxidants and irradiation (O3/H2O2/UV) or a catalyst and irradiation (Fe2+/H2O2; UV/TiO2) to achieve their goals. The disadvantages that make them economically undesirable vary depending on the AOP are: (1) high electricity demand (for example, ozone and UV-based AOPs), (2) relatively large volumes of oxidants and/or catalysts (for example, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and iron-based AOPs), and (3) pH operating conditions (e.g. Fenton and photo-Fenton) [76]. Photo-Fenton oxidation system has been identified as a feasible oxidation system for treating these wastewaters. In Fenton and Fenton-like reactions, hydroxyl radicals are usually generated from H2O2 catalyzed by iron (Fe2+, α-Fe2O3, Fe3O4, H2Fe2O4, α-FeOOH, etc.) [77]. Nonetheless, the cost effectiveness is one of the major concerns. However, the cost reduction can be obtained through application of heterogeneous catalysts, chelating agent, solar energy and integration with biological treatment technologies [78].
Electrochemical oxidation procedures, among the numerous AOPs, are gaining popularity for water and wastewater decontamination due to their low cost and high efficiency. Dissolved organic contaminants are primarily oxidized in electrochemical oxidation processes by (i) direct anodic oxidation on the anode surface via charge transfer, and (ii) interaction with physio- and/or chemisorbed hydroxyl radical produced during water oxidation [79]. Electrochemical AOPs have been widely explored for the total degradation of POPs. The electrochemical oxidation is an effective and environmentally friendly technology because it does not require chemicals, only electric current is consumed. The first one is direct oxidation which occurs when the compound reacts directly at the anode’s surface or by physisorbed or chemisorbed •OH. The second mechanism is indirect oxidation, which is achieved through the electrochemical generation of a mediator in the bulk solution such as ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), active chlorine, active bromine or S2O82−, among others [80].
Recently, coupling approaches including an electrochemical pre-treatment followed by a biological process have been proposed as cost-effective and reliable remediation methods for persistent chemicals mineralization. This opens the door to more selective electrochemical methods than those involving hydroxyl radicals do, because the goal of the pre-treatment is no longer to achieve total mineralization of non-biodegradable species, but rather to improve their biodegradability by focusing on functional groups that have been shown to reduce biodegradability [81].
In the one-time elimination of POPs, nanofibers have demonstrated to be the most effective. These adsorbents, on the other hand, demonstrate adaptability in the collection of pollutants. The use of fiber layers with varied pore channels and surface chemistry to produce selectivity for a target chemical could be researched further. Because adsorption is a common water treatment method, the production and operational costs of adsorbent materials are crucial to the introduction of any new classes of materials [82]. Physically and chemically stable carbon-based materials alone (without metals) have also been successfully used as the electro-catalysts [83]. Inexpensive, non-noble transition metals or their oxides supported in carbon nanotube has been reported for treatment of POPs. Bismuth-based nanocomposites [84], copper-reduced graphene oxide electrode [85], boron-doped diamond [86], with different boron and substrate silicon or niobium content [87] have indicated to be an efficient technology for treating POPs wastewater.
The POPs are organic compounds of anthropogenic origin, and are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, or photolytic processes and as a result, accumulate in the food chain. Contamination by POPs is widespread, and circulate globally via the atmosphere, oceans, and other pathways. The Stockholm Convention defines criteria for new POP candidates in terms of their persistence, long-range transport, bioaccumulation and toxicity. Recognizing the dangers of POPs, countries began limiting their production, use, and release. This global, legally binding agreement is to reduce and eliminate the release of 12 POPs, including pesticides and industrial chemicals, as well as unintentionally produced POPs. Conventional water treatment facilities have failed to effectively degrade persistent contaminants from wastewater. However, advanced water treatment options such as activated carbons, membrane bioreactors and advanced oxidation processes are well documented for their capital intensive treatment of these recalcitrant pollutants.
The authors would like to thank the University of Limpopo for the financial assistance towards this project.
Authors report no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"