Examples of the temperature-independent preexponential and the activation energy for diffusion of some atoms in the case of interstitial diffusion mechanism.
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"293",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Practical Applications and Solutions Using LabVIEW™ Software",title:"Practical Applications and Solutions Using LabVIEW™ Software",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book consists of 21 chapters which present interesting applications implemented using the LabVIEW environment, belonging to several distinct fields such as engineering, fault diagnosis, medicine, remote access laboratory, internet communications, chemistry, physics, etc. The virtual instruments designed and implemented in LabVIEW provide the advantages of being more intuitive, of reducing the implementation time and of being portable.\nThe audience for this book includes PhD students, researchers, engineers and professionals who are interested in finding out new tools developed using LabVIEW.\nSome chapters present interesting ideas and very detailed solutions which offer the immediate possibility of making fast innovations and of generating better products for the market. The effort made by all the scientists who contributed to editing this book was significant and as a result new and viable applications were presented.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-650-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5551-5",doi:"10.5772/819",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"practical-applications-and-solutions-using-labview-software",numberOfPages:488,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8709b37736bf2d4359e98e5542cae86c",bookSignature:"Folea Silviu",publishedDate:"August 1st 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/293.jpg",numberOfDownloads:141439,numberOfWosCitations:45,numberOfCrossrefCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:54,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:132,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 3rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 1st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 7th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 7th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 6th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"6084",title:"Prof.",name:"Silviu",middleName:null,surname:"Folea",slug:"silviu-folea",fullName:"Silviu Folea",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6084/images/293_n.jpg",biography:"Folea, C., Silviu, PhD, is professor at the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Automation Department, Romania. 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Since there has been a shrinking of the devices’ physical dimensions, more problems have emerged concerning comprehending features of diffusion in more complex structures [1]. There is a link between some common problems with the deterioration of a doped structure, for instance, a superlattice or p-n junction, diffusion barrier, or a metal contact’s endurance [1, 2, 3, 4].
Knez pointed out four diffusion situations that are separate from each other, which can crop up in the post-processing of the substrate’s surface layer. The layer can be thin like mercury telluride (HgTe) or cadmium telluride (CdTe) [4, 5, 6]. There are four different diffusion situations for the post-processing, which are the following:
Firstly, there is components’ lateral diffusion in the surface layer.
Secondly, there is surface component diffusion into the substrate (surface into substrate).
Thirdly, there is substrates’ component diffusion into the surface layer (substrate to surface).
Fourthly is the diffusion barrier stationed between the substrate and surface layer.
The type of diffusion within the crystal lattice is called lattice diffusion, and it takes place by either substitutional or interstitial mechanisms. Interstitial lattice diffusion involves a diffusant like carbon in an iron combination diffusing in the middle of the lattice structure of one or more crystalline elements. On the other hand, substitutional lattice diffusion involves self-diffusion or inter-diffusion (where self-diffusion takes place in pure metals because atoms exchange location for the same type and there is no net mass transport, while inter-diffusion occurred in alloys which have net mass transport and atoms diffuse into different metals) whereby the movement of an atom is made possible by its substitution with another atom to replace it [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. This diffusion is usually made possible by point vacancies’ availability all over the crystal lattice. Diffusing particles relocate fast from one vacancy point to another, basically by random jumping termed as jump diffusion, as shown in Figure 1. Considering that the regularity of point vacancies multiplies in line with the Arrhenius equation, the frequency of diffusion crystal solid state improves with temperature [11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
Atomic movement that results in atomic diffusion. (a) Interstitial diffusion, (b) self-diffusion or inter-diffusion, (c) vacancy diffusion.
The use of inter-diffusion of quantum wells (QWs) is an emerging technology that is significant for fabricating semiconductor lasers since it improves devices’ optical and electrical properties [16]. Selective inter-diffusion is achievable by obscuring into the QW wafer’s desired regions. Since the 1980s, there have been extensive investigations regarding inter-diffusion [16, 17]. It comprises disordering or intermixing of heterostructures that are quantum-confined like QWs and quantum dots (QDs). The thorough investigations are due to its potential to achieve monolithic integration of optoelectronic/photonic devices. Among the inter-diffusion techniques, there has been a consideration of impurity-free vacancy disordering (IFVD) as the technique that is most promising for device applications because of its simplicity and causes lesser residual damage to the sample [17, 18, 19].
During inter-diffusion, there will be a resultant modification of refractive index and electrical conductivity between the regions that are as-grown together with disordered ones. The technology allows a homogenous process that leads to the enhancement of the sideways electrical and optical restraint of laser semiconductors in such a manner that the bottom threshold current, as well as single operation that is lateral mode, is obtainable. Moreover, the QW’s shape alters as a result of inter-diffusion between QWs and barriers that are next to it. In turn, there is a modification of the sub-band energy in valence and conduction bands. Eventually, the inter-band transition energy is modified. Therefore, the inter-diffusion technique could be utilize the fabrication of QW lasers and LED for multiple wavelengths without using complicated epitaxial regrowth or etching processes. Other merits of utilizing inter-diffusion techniques include one, its simplicity. And there is also compatibility with existing semiconductor lasers’ fabrication technologies [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
For the vacancy diffusion mechanism, the probability for any atom in a solid to move is the product of the probability P of finding a vacancy in an adjacent lattice site [25, 26]:
where z is the coordination number (number of atoms adjacent to the vacancy), Gf is the free energy necessary to form the defects, T is the absolute temperature (K), KB is the Boltzmann constant, and the frequency of jumps (probability of thermal fluctuation needed to overcome the energy barrier for vacancy motion)
where Rj is the probability of such fluctuation or frequency of jumps, V0 is an attempt frequency related to the frequency of atomic vibrations, and Gm is the activation free energy for vacancy motion.
Therefore, the diffusion coefficient [27] is
where
Eq. 3 can be rewritten as
where D0 is a parameter of material (both matrix and diffusing species).
Thus, the diffusion coefficient is the measure of the mobility of disusing species:
where
The slope of particular point on the concentration gradient.
Hence, from Eq. 5
where D0 is the temperature-independent preexponential (m2/s), Qd is the activation energy for diffusion (J/mol or eV/atom), and R is the gas constant (8.31 J/mol K or 8.62 × 10–5 eV/atom K).
By taking the logarithm for Eq. 6, we can get
From Eq. 8, Q d the activation energy for diffusion and D0 independent preexponential can be measured by estimating the logD0 versus 1/T or lnD0 versus 1/T as the Arrhenius plots (Figure 3). Figures 1 and 2 and Tables 1 and 2 were taken from Porter and Easterling textbook and
Arrhenius plots. Q d as the function of D0 diffusion temperature dependence [
Impurity | D0 = (mm2/S−1) | Q d = (kJ/mol) |
---|---|---|
C in BCC Fe | 1.1 | 87 |
C in FCC Fe | 23 | 138 |
N in BCC Fe | 0.74 | 77 |
N in FCC Fe | 0.34 | 145 |
H in BCC Fe | 0.12 | 15 |
H in FCC Fe | 0.63 | 43 |
Examples of the temperature-independent preexponential and the activation energy for diffusion of some atoms in the case of interstitial diffusion mechanism.
Impurity | D0 = (mm2/S−1) | Q d = (kJ/mol) |
---|---|---|
Fe in FCC Fe | 65 | 279 |
Fe in BCC Fe | 410 | 246 |
Si in Si | 180,000 | 460 |
Ni in Cu | 230 | 242 |
Examples for the temperature-independent preexponential and the activation energy for diffusion of some atoms in the case of vacancy diffusion mechanism.
In Eq. 7, it seems that the vacancy diffusion mechanism is slower than interstitial diffusion, as shown in Figure 4 and Tables 1 and 2 (self-diffusion or diffusion of substitutional atoms) [28, 29, 30, 31].
Logarithm of the diffusion coefficient versus the reciprocal temperature [
From Eq. 6, the big atoms cause more distortion and take more time to diffuse than the smaller atoms during the migration process as we can see from Tables 1 and 2. Also the diffusion is slower in a close direction and lattices.
The fabrication of photonic integrated circuits (PICs) by employing an integration of lasers and transparent waveguides on a single epitaxially grown substrate demands the actual understanding and definition of regions possessing different bandgap energy characters. The approach to work out a solution to this problem can be categorized into intermixing and growth approaches. Among the growth approaches, the most popular ones are selective area growth approach and use of a plated substrate to etch-and-regrowth approach [29, 30, 32]. The former one allows for simultaneous epitaxy employing the use of different growth rates, which in turn allows for flexibility toward the growth of quantum wells with varying thicknesses [32, 33, 34]. In contrast to the former approach, the latter approach uses different quantum well thicknesses along with subsequent growth of material. Using impurities or vacancies toward the selective partial intermixing of quantum wells provides an alternative approach. The change in the shape of quantum well and thus the transition energies associated occur due to the intermixing of barrier material and quantum well material, which happens during a high-temperature annealing. The capability to identify and define regions that are not to be intermixed and which are to be intermixed acts as the key factor to the viability of the QWI approach. Intermixing method that does not demand epitaxial regrowth is identified to be more cost-effective and potentially simpler [35]. This is the main advantage of the intermixing method. In the following, the means of patterning non-intermixed and intermixed regions along with several QWI approaches are described.
There are three techniques of inter-diffusion that are in existence and are widely used. These are the inter-diffusion that is impurity-induced disordering (IID), vacancy diffusion that is IFVD, and laser-assisted disordering (LAD) laser-induced QW intermixing. The first technique uses impurities to accomplish inter-diffusion for the considerable alteration in electrical conductivity and refractive index. Its common utilization is in achieving sideways optical and electrical confinement in semiconductor lasers. In contrast, IFVD does not involve impurities in obtaining inter-diffusion such that there is the conservation of the electrical properties of the diffused QWs. Its typical use is in fabricating tuning LAD technique that has been tested and developed in the last three decades. This method is based on the direct writing of the laser beam into the structure [36, 37, 38].
Impurity-induced layer disordering (IILD) was the first quantum well intermixing technique to be ever demonstrated. In 1981, the affirmation of disordering of an AlAs-GaAs superlattice employing Zn (Zinc) as the active species was carried out by Laidig et al. [33, 34, 39]. In this affirmation, thermal annealing for several hours was conducted at a temperature of 600°C. As a result, it was identified that in a superlattice, different grades of intermixing can occur according to the anneal conditions used. The fabrication of lasers with emission wavelength (blue shifted) was conducted in 1983 employing this technique [33]. In 1984, it was made possible to laterally define the waveguide of a buried heterostructure employing stripe geometry QW laser devices using IILD [35, 40]. A year after, the first QW laser utilizing transparent facet windows was developed using IILD [33, 41, 42]. The refining of the intermixing method has been happening since then and has currently transformed into one of the best methods which are understood and employed in many commercial products; the most prominent of these includes high-power semiconductor lasers integrated with disordered facet windows. It should be noted that ion implantation can be utilized instead of incorporating impurities (impurities include Si, Mg, or Zn) into the lattice utilizing the process of diffusion. Ion implantation possesses the primary benefit of not automatically incorporating heavy p-type or n-type doping while introducing the reactive species and of having a larger variety of species made available. On the flip side, high implant energies utilized have been identified to cause crystal damage which is not easily removable as in the case with other material systems (e.g., Si material systems). Both of the intermixing processes discussed above rely on the use of impurity atoms to intensify the Al-Ga self-diffusion process by employing different mechanisms. Although discussions and debates still exist around the exact nature relating to the process of intermixing, several experiments and authors have confirmed the unquestionable role of column-III vacancies and column-III interstitial types. A decade ago, methods such as VED, which are impurity-free intermixing methods, gained their popularity since they offered the possibility of intermixing without employing the doping process which prevent the absorption of the free carrier and without crystal damage created by implantation which would, on the other hand, be responsible for scattering loss. An As-rich ambient in a quartz ampoule was employed in the first experiments to prevent crystal surface damage by arsenic out-diffusion [36, 37]. In 1988, the use of an evaporated SiO2 encapsulant in order to improve the intermixing process was first demonstrated [38]. Soon after, the process of generating vacancies and thus supporting the process of intermixing became possible by employing other dielectrics such as SiON or SiN. In 1993, fluorides (such as SrF or AlF) were identified to prevent QWI in a more effective manner [39]. Essential for the development of optoelectronic devices and instruments, these materials identified allowed for the definition of a certain pattern with dissimilar bandgap energies.
The IILD process makes use of an Ar-based laser beam that is very highly focused in nature. To develop the AlGaAs-GaAs DFQW, the beam of laser marking a wavelength measurement of 488 nanometers (nm) is used to scan the sample which is heterostructure in nature and is also enclosed using a layer of Si-Si3N4, which is approximately 90 nm in thickness. The speed of scan employing the laser beam could be marked up to the highest value of 85 pds. The area in which the laser beam interacts will develop an enhanced cylindrical segment identifiable to the range of microns. The process of annealing is then initiated in order to guide the silicon into the required crystal, which will result in the local intermixing of the layers of crystal. On the other hand, to selectively intermix GaInAs over GaInAsP quantum well structure, pulsed photo-absorption-induced disordering (PAID) technique is employed, which was deliberated employing the utilization of time-resolved photoluminescence of high spatial resolution. As a consequence of the above-said process of intermixing, a reduction of approximately two orders of measure in the time of non-radioactive recombination was achieved, which was confirmed from the measurements conducted.
Impurity-induced, impurity-free (dielectric cap), implantation-induced, and laser-induced techniques are some of the QWI techniques that have been advanced. Out of these techniques, the use of impurity-free techniques is strongly advised since optical absorption occurs as a result of the process that the semiconductor waveguide being instituted to dopants which are electrically active in nature. In order to develop vacancies on the group III lattice site, the impurity-free vacancy disordering (IFVD) technique employs the utilization of dielectric caps, which are placed on the semiconductor’s exterior surface [3, 7]. The vacancies happen to diffuse through the surface of the semiconductor resulting in solitary atoms bouncing among different lattice sites. Resultantly, it is found that the quantum well intermixes with the adjoining barrier material [34].
From the development of individually addressable laser arrays of higher density to laser-based products within extreme power ranges, monolithic integration platform which is highly innovative and known as quantum well intermixing (QWI) is reshaping methods in which laser diodes are used to solve the ever-increasing optoelectronic requirements. This is particularly important since laser systems which are QWI-enabled are found to deliver far better performance characteristics in factors of power output, luminosity, yield, and dependability.
The QWI is utilized to develop passive waveguides to the interior of the laser cavities adjoining to each facet. It is identified that excellent electro-optical performance is achieved owing to the incorporation of the passive waveguides, especially referring to high-power, single-mode function. An idiosyncratic attribute of this approach is that it allows for the mass production of huge numbers of lasers in parallel, on the very same chip, with very superior efficiency since the passive waveguides are adequately long enough to relax mechanical-related cleaving tolerances. The QWI technologies can be largely employed in many other applications, owing to their farthest versatility. Some of the areas in which the extremely versatile nature of the QWI technology could be utilized to its maximum potential include monolithic photonic integrated circuits (PICs) and in the comprehension of the broad area and stack lasers which provide atypical high-power characteristics and dependability. PICs mainly find their application in broadband optical systems, optoelectronic signal processing systems, microwave photonics, and biophotonics.
QWI gains its importance since it is an integration technique that permits the tampering of the properties of a semiconductor quantum well structure, after its growth. The quantum well intermixing technique combines active and passive components on the very same chip. To manufacture complex laser diodes, laser diode array systems, and photonic integrated circuits (PICs) in a manufacturing environment, intense proprietary QWI technology is utilized. The result of this process is the development of next-generation laser technology which can easily be utilized for a variety of applications [31, 41, 42].
The evolution of the next-generation systems is driven today by the latest innovations in laser diode technology. Intense is providing laser products with far better brightness, improved lifetimes, and increased dependability by employing modernized semiconductor design and patented QWI technology. The ways in which lasers are providing viable solutions to mission-critical problems are revolutionized by the quantum well intermixing method developed by the company, innovatively by producing integrated chips at efficient levels and yields which was unidentified in the industry before.
In this section, we will summarize some of the laser and light-emitting diode (LED) QWI applications that have been fabricated and tested by our group at the University of Central Florida (UCF) cleanroom facility [14, 43]. These experiments will show the important role of the intermixing and how it can be used for the integrated devices. We will start with the laser followed by the LED.
When quickly heated at higher degrees and topped using SiNx and SiOyNx films of various constitutions, quantum well frameworks InGaAsP are interlinked to different degrees. Laser diodes are fabricated with shifted samples of both blue and red, and their output is recorded.
Selective area mixing of semiconductor-based multiple quantum wells (MQWs) could be considered a crucial strategy toward the development of consolidated optoelectronic circuits and instruments. The bandgap energy of the substance can be controlled with stability over a wide spectral range by monitoring the intensity of the intermixing process. The lasers generated on a single monolithic substratum may, therefore, have wavelengths of output which differ widely. The correct combination of the encrusted films may vary the wavelength to either blue or red. The narrow-field semiconductor regrowth procedures have not been very successful in repeatedly producing high-yielding optoelectronic products. Others have documented many techniques for the after-growth combination of QW. In the analysis, we selected a method of induced disorder by impurity-free vacancy that works by rapid thermal annealing (RTA) of QW specimen coated by SiNx or SiOyNx. The range of intermingling could be precisely controlled by changing the dielectric layer capping constitution. Employing this method, we were able to manufacture multiple lasers using a single sample of the InGaAsP multiple quantum well framework, which has been covered by various SiOyNx configurations in different parts and annealed at 800°C for 30 s. Slope efficiencies, threshold currents, and laser diodes that are manufactured in the separate section are then carefully defined based on their lasing wavelengths. Such output properties are then juxtaposed with that of the laser diode made employing the primary as-grown multiple quantum well specimen as shown in Figure 5 [14, 17, 32, 40, 41].
Schematic of the InGaAsP MQW laser diode with InP substrate as substrate layer and InGaAs as capping layer.
Increasing the ratio between NH3 and SiH4 to N2O during the SiOyNx film growth has been found to result in a higher refractive index. It is noted that wavelengths (lasing) of the instruments manufactured on intermixed specimens are identified to be shifted to lower frequencies (red shift). At the same time, the capping film refractive index throughout RTA is higher than the value of 1.95 (refractive index). In comparison, the instruments covered with films having a refractive index lower than 1.95 in value show lasting wavelengths changed blue to higher frequencies. Accordingly, the absolute value of the laser spectrum is experiencing a red shift with a larger ratio in SiNx film and blue shift with a smaller ratio in SiOyNx film as shown in Figure 6.
The absolute values of all lasers’ spectrum as a value of the refractive index of the film for different capping layer combinations. The blue shift is associated with SiOyNx films, while the red shift is associated with SiNx.
Laser diode made from an as-grown multiple quantum well specimen acted as a base standard and is identified to have a lasing wavelength of 1556 nm. In Figure 7, all the fabricated laser diodes are shown with the accompanying spectra. The highest blue-shifted wavelength of laser noted is 1392 nm (164 nm change compared to as-grown laser), and 1687 nm (131 nm change as compared to as-grown laser) is the most excellent noted red-shifted wavelength of the laser. Throughout this review, it is discovered that the laser light is not emitted by a system manufactured utilizing a noncapped RTA manufactured multiple quantum well sample. Thus, uncapped regions of the MQW specimen were found to have sustained irreparable harm during thermal annealing [14].
Laser spectrum of all fabricated devices. It shows the blue and red shifted from the as-grown ones. This figure is taken from [
Figure 8 shows the output power curve (L-I curve) for all intermixed laser devices. The laser that fabricated using the most intermixed MQWs had the lowest output power, while the as-grown laser diode has the highest output power. Therefore, as we intermixed more, we create more losses that affect the device efficiency.
The fabricated lasers diode as function of threshold current L-I curve.
Using a controllable technique for the red and blue shifting of bandgap energy of the quantum well, we were able to develop LED sources that reach a broad frequency spectrum along with all-optical modulator intensity instruments. Through using an impurity-free vacancy diffusion method, they show bandgap adjustment of multiple quantum well structures of InGaAsP. By utilizing SiO2, SiOyNx, and SiNx capping layers, and by regulating the related oxygen and nitrogen content, a significant modification of the bandgap energy toward the red and blue portions of the spectrum is identified. The subsequent degree of tuning, with band-to-band wavelength emissions of up to 120 nm red shift and 140 nm blue shift, was analyzed using photoluminescence at room temperature, following the emission spectra acquired from LED semiconductor instruments manufactured on this framework. The intensity modulator instruments are made along with compatible LED sources for the chosen frequency, designed to achieve minimal material losses and modulation of residual amplitude as shown in Figure 9 [43].
Measured absolute value of the PL shift of the RTA-treated samples from that of the as-grown wafer for different dielectric film capping, in respect to the refractive index of the film. The blue shift is associated with SiOyNx films for different ratios of NH3/N2O, while the red shift refers Si-rich compositions. The inset shows the absolute PL spectrum for selected data points. This figure and caption were taken from [
The fabricated LED has been integrated with transparent intensity modulator as shown in Figure 10. The intensity modulator is based on a Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) where the phase control is achieved by injecting electrons into the core of the waveguide.
Schematic for the integrated LED with MZI intensity modulator [
As the light source from the LED passes through the MM-MZI device, the outpower changes. The result has been recorded and evaluated as the function of the passing current as shown in Figure 11.
The output power as function of injected current for the integrated device.
In this chapter, we have studied and compared the different methods for diffusion of atoms into both surface and internal layers. Also, we have shown the variety of QWIs that change and modify the refractive index and energy bandgap of QW’s structures. There are several QWI techniques accessible, and each technique has specific characteristics that are useful under various circumstances. Very likely, more than one process will be used to produce a semiconductor chip. Among the techniques used for this purpose, owing to their capacity to preserve the electrical properties of the QW structure and its strong selectivity throughout the spatial domain, triggered disordering of MQWs by using impurity-free vacancy diffusion process gained much interest. A selective area QWI procedure is used that includes vacancy diffusion via the fast-thermal strengthening of the sample which is capped by silicon dioxide or different silicon oxynitride coatings. Prior to the fast-thermal annealing of the specimen, it is identified that the bandgap energy of the intermixed QW system can be efficiently managed by varying the dielectric capping film composition. As an illustration, for laser, we displayed the implications of intermixing of laser diodes based on InGaAsP QWs. By adjusting the proportion of mixed films, it was possible to adjust the lasing wavelength to the red or blue shift regions. Using an impurity-free vacancy diffusion method, we illustrated bandgap adjustment of several quantum well structures of InGaAsP, which was then used for the LED applications. By utilizing SiO2, SiOyNx, and SiNx capping films and by regulating the corresponding oxygen and nitrogen levels, a significant alteration of the bandgap energy toward the red and blue segments of the spectrum was achieved. The resultant level of adjustment was noted, red shift up to 120 nm and band-to-band blue shift of 140 nm.
I want to give special thanks to my professor and advisor Prof. Patrick Lickamwa for his help and advice through all my PhD. Also, I would like to thank UCF and CREOL for letting me use their cleanroom facility. Finally, many thanks go to King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology for their supports.
The world population growth brings great challenges regarding food security and environmental sustainability [1]. In this scenario, increasing the production of vegetable oils by developing resilient and sustainable cropping systems may be a promising approach. The global production of vegetable oil is dependent on the production of tropical perennial oilseed plants, in particular the African palm (
In this context, the identification of oilseed plant species that contain oils with triacylglycerol composition similar to palm oil, high production yield, and greater resistance to adverse edaphoclimatic conditions is a challenge. Macauba [
This plant species grows preferably in tropical and subtropical regions with high rainfall and solar irradiation [11]. However, it is able to adapt well to other environments, including subtropical and semiarid conditions [9]. In Brazil, there is a large quantity of degraded land or land in process of degradation or desertification caused by human action or natural phenomena. Land degradation is the loss of productivity due to factors such as soil erosion, reduction of soil fertility, and loss of natural vegetation [12]. The fact that macauba has a great capacity to adapt to extreme edaphoclimatic conditions has led to the proposal that this plant could contribute to the recovery of degraded lands [13].
The energy capacity of macauba is due to the high productivity and quality of the pulp and kernel oils. Macauba oils have a different fatty acid profile and minority compounds. The pulp oil has a predominance of unsaturated fatty acids and bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids and tocopherols [14]. In turn, kernel oil is rich in saturated fatty acids, mainly lauric acid. These notable differences confer distinct market potential for both products [15].
In the last decade, studies on
Due to the essentially extractive nature of macauba cultivation, in many cases, good practices for harvesting and storing the raw material are not followed, and this directly impacts the quality of the fruits and oils obtained [10]. In Brazil, there are several commercial cultivation programs demonstrating that it is a viable strategy, although it is still far from competing with commodities. The processing of macauba oils begins with the process of extraction by continuous pressing to obtain the crude oil [20]. Subsequently, the oils must undergo a refining process in order to eliminate undesirable substances that compromise both the oxidative stability of these oils and their organoleptic qualities [20]. Once refined, oils can have several applications both in the food and oleochemical areas and can still undergo modifications to expand their range of applications [15]. Figure 1 outlines the complete macauba oil production chain from the palm tree to the lipid modified.
Representation of the macauba oil production chain: Palm, fruit bunches, open fruit, processing of oils, and lipids modification (photos source: S. Oleum).
Excellent studies on the biology of macauba have been reported, including the factors that influence productivity, domestication processes, and genetic improvement, aiming for the development of commercial crops, and genetic variability, among others. Recently, Vargas-Carpinteiro et al. have published an exhaustive review on
Macauba is a palm species that belongs to the Arecaceae family, which includes approximately 189 genera and about 3000 species, which are classified into five subfamilies, as follows: Calamoideae, Nypoideae, Coryphoideae, Ceroxyloideae, and Arecoideae [21]. The latter is the most representative family since it contains species of great economic interest such as
Currently, nine species are included within the genus
Macauba is a perennial, halophytic, tree-like palm species with a solitary, aerial, cylindrical, and spindle-shaped stem that can reach 10–15 m in height and 20–30 cm in diameter. The stipe is often covered by the bases of the petioles, which remain attached for many years. The node region is covered with dark and sharp spines and is approximately 10 cm long [31].
The
Macauba flowering is seasonal and annual. In Brazil, it blooms from September to February, with peak flowering in November and December [33]. However, fruiting occurs throughout the year and the fruits mature approximately 1 year after fertilization [33]. Macauba generates inflorescences with bulky clusters that contain 300–600 drupaceous fruits, weighing about 66 g/each, resulting in a highly productive plant [13].
The fruits can be 3.0–5.0 cm in diameter, are edible, spherical, and do not ferment immediately after ripening [5]. The fruit contains approximately 20% epicarp (peel), 40% mesocarp (pulp), 33% endocarp, and 7% kernel [34]. The epicarp ruptures easily when ripe. The mesocarp is fibrous, mucilaginous, sweet-tasting, edible, and rich in glycerides, yellow or whitish in color. The endocarp is strongly adhered to the pulp, with a black bony wall, and an edible oily kernel covered by a thin layer of the tegument. Each fruit usually contains a seed surrounded by a hard, dark endocarp approximately 3-mm thick [30, 35]. Macauba has two economically important kinds of oil, stored in the fruit pulp and its kernel. The pulp contains up to 75% of the total lipids, while the kernel may contain up to 65%, both on a dry basis [34]. Table 1 shows the proximate composition of
Kernel % | Pulp % | |
---|---|---|
Dry matter | 83.11 | 42.65 |
Ash | 1.29 | 2.03 |
Crude protein | 5.66 | 1.15 |
Lipids | 47.76 | 32.05 |
Crude fiber | 62.79 | 51.70 |
Mineral matter | 0.39 | 0.66 |
Carbohydrates | 33.40 | 18.10 |
Moisture | 3.18 | 45.42 |
Proximate composition of macauba fruit. Source: Lira et al. [36].
Macauba, like most palm species, has an essentially extractive cultivation system, leading to habitat fragmentation, increasing inbreeding, and decreasing genetic diversity [37]. Both the domestication process and the development of breeding programs for
There is great morphometric and genetic variability among macauba plants native to the Brazilian Cerrado and Pantanal regions of Brazil and Costa Rica, characterized by fruit biometry and oil yield [34, 40, 41]. However, these factors are not correlated [40]. Biometric studies of Costa Rican varieties have suggested a possible environmental effect on oil composition and yield [41]. Dos Santos et al. [42] studied the accumulation of metabolites in fruits coming from three Brazilian regions (Southeast, Northeast, and Midwest) characterized by having different lipid contents. The authors concluded that, despite the anatomical differences between mesocarp and endocarp, in both tissues, a similar trend of metabolite accumulation was observed toward ripening. In the mesocarp, total soluble proteins, free amino acids, sucrose, starch, and total lipids accumulate toward maturity, with a decrease in glucose and fructose contents. The endosperm differed from the mesocarp only for the amino acid contents, which decreased in mature fruits. The results pointed out that fruits from the Southeast region (Minas Gerais) may be of interest for breeding studies due to their higher lipid contents [42].
Genomics-based strategies allow access to the genetic potential of natural populations, germplasm characterization, phylogenetic analysis, etc. [38]. The availability of public databases (www.ncbi.nhi.gov) of genomic sequences of
The embryo culture of
In this context, the development of genetic improvement programs for macauba to allow systematic cultivation and commercialization on a large scale in the near future is required. Initiatives to cultivate macauba in Brazil for commercial purposes have been undertaken, including the programs Entaban Brazil, Solea, and Inocas, with production destined for national consumption [5].
The harvest and storage stages of fruits are determinants of the quality of agricultural products. Both the harvest method and the development stage of macauba fruit at the time of harvest directly impact the quality of the oil [16]. The storage time of the fruits before the oil extraction also has a great impact on the product quality, which is determinant in humid tropical countries [37]. In the extractive cultivation system of macauba, the fruits are collected directly from the soil, after the natural fall at the end of the fruiting period, and stored with no controlled humidity and temperature conditions, resulting in low-quality oils and yield [16].
Data have shown an increase in oil content at the end of the maturation period of macauba fruits, thus harvesting bunches at the end of this phase is recommended. However, the proportions of fatty acids and triacylglycerols of both pulp and kernel oils do not vary [48]. A very important peculiarity of the macauba fruit is the additional oil synthesis after abscission, which differentiates it from other palm species, including
The acidity index is a measure of the free fatty acids content in the oil. Oils with acidity levels >5% expressed as free fatty acids compromise the later stages of processing and commercialization [49]. The increase in free fatty acids in the oil from the mesocarp is due to the action of lipases (E.C. 3.1.1.3; glycerol ester hydrolases) that hydrolyze triacylglycerols in the presence of water. These enzymes are produced by plants, animals, and microorganisms [50], and the latter are recognized as potential producers of extracellular lipases [51]. Cavalcanti-Oliveira et al. analyzed the origin of lipases involved in the hydrolysis of macauba pulp oil [52]. The results suggested that the oil from the mesocarp is hydrolyzed by lipases produced by microorganisms that contaminate the fruit when in contact with soil, rather than the action of endogenous lipases. Some authors have reported that macauba fruits harvested directly from the bunch or naturally fallen fruits with no contact with the soil can be stored under ambient conditions for up to 20 days, without exceeding 5% acidity [16, 18, 53]. However, a varied microbiota can be found in the epicarp and mesocarp of macauba fruits without contact with the soil [16].
Thus, efficient harvesting methods and rapid fruit processing are required to slow pulp decomposition and oil acidification [54]. Fresh macauba fruit has high-quality mesocarp oil, even when it is dried immediately after harvest, provided that good harvesting and processing practices are applied [55]. Drying the fruit after harvest decreases the moisture content and reduces the hydrolysis efficiency of lipases in addition to facilitating pulping with simultaneous separation of the peel [56]. The combination of drying and autoclaving processes of macauba fruits allowed the storage of crude oil for 180 days, preserving the original acidity and the triacylglycerol profile [52]. It is worth noting that under good harvesting and storage practices, the acidification process of macauba pulp oil is slower than palm oil [55]. Other methods of treating the fruit immediately after harvest have been used to extend the shelf life of the fruit and the oil quality, including the use of ozone gas, irradiation, and different drying methods [53, 57, 58].
Evaristo et al. [16] reported a significant increase in the oil content of the mesocarp after the fruits were detached from the bunch, suggesting that macauba has climacteric behavior. The authors showed that harvesting macauba fruit directly from the bunch and the immediate storage under controlled humidity and temperature conditions, as well as the treatment with fungicides, resulted in higher fruit quality and therefore longer postharvest shelf life [16].
Improvements in fruit processing steps that positively impact the quantity and quality of the extracted oil can increase productivity and make the macauba more commercially competitive [56].
Three important steps should be considered for obtaining the crude oil, which directly affects the oil quality and product yield, including the storage of the raw material, preparation, and extraction of the crude oil. The variation in moisture content and temperature during fruit storage can trigger enzymatic and oxidation reactions, leading to a reduction in the quality of the oil extracted due to the increase in free fatty acids and other degradation compounds, known as peroxides [20].
The proximate composition of the macauba fruit consists of 47.76% and 32.05% lipids in the kernel and pulp, respectively; thus, continuous pressing is the most suitable method for oil extraction due to the high lipid contents [36, 59].
The screw-type press, also known as screw expeller, is a continuous press in which the fruit pulp or kernel is fed into a thick-walled cylinder containing a rotating, polished screw with gradually decreasing size. The oil from the plant cell is in the form of globules covered by a cell membrane. A typical characteristic of plant cells is the presence of thick cell walls; thus, the cell wall should be broken down to get the oil globules out. For that, the pulp or kernel cluster is fed continuously into the press and compressed at high pressure (4–35 MPa). In turn, while the oil is extracted, the compressed fruit cake is discarded at the end of the stretch. The high-energy consumption generated during shearing can considerably increase the temperature of both the oil and cake [20].
Chemically, oils and fats are mixtures composed mainly of triacylglycerols formed from a glycerol molecule esterified with three fatty acids. The crude oil usually contains monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, free fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, terpenes, sterols, tocopherols, and carotenoids as minority compounds [20]. The unsaponifiable matter consists of solubilized minority compounds in oils and fats that are extractable with organic solvents after saponification [60]. Nunes (2013) found 0.76% unsaponifiable matter in crude macauba pulp oil, while Breves (2018) found 2% unsaponifiable matter in crude macauba kernel oil [61, 62].
The macauba kernel oil is characterized by the predominance of oleic acid and lauric acid, and presents a translucent aspect, while the pulp oil has an orange color and is characterized by a high concentration of oleic acid and carotenoids, which may provide high oxidative stability [63, 64]. Table 2 presents the fatty acids profile of macauba pulp and kernel oils.
Fatty acids | Pulp (%) | Kernel (%) | |
---|---|---|---|
C4:0 | Butyric | Traces | 0.91 |
C6:0 | Caproic | 0.22 | 0.27 |
C8:0 | Caprylic | 0.11 | 3.67 |
C10:0 | Capric | Traces | 2.79 |
C12:0 | Lauric | 0.39 | 32.58 |
C14:0 | Myristic | 0.38 | 9.71 |
C16:0 | Palmitic | 24.6 | 8.25 |
C16:1 | Palmitoleic | 4.27 | — |
C18:0 | Stearic | 1.08 | 2.24 |
C18:1 | Oleic | 52.57 | 36.27 |
C18:2 | Linoleic | 13.80 | 3.82 |
C18:3 | Linolenic | 2.26 | — |
C20:0 | Arachidic | Traces | — |
C22:0 | Behenic | Traces | — |
C24:0 | Lignoceric | 0.32 | — |
Ʃ saturated | — | 27.10 | 59.92 |
Ʃ unsaturated | — | 72.90 | 40.09 |
Fatty acid profile of macauba oils (pulp and kernel). Source: Coimbra and Jorge [14].
The low content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic—C18:2 and linolenic—C18:3) can also affect the oxidative stability of the pulp oil, corresponding to 15%. On the other hand, the kernel oil presents a peculiar fatty acid composition, because although it has 32.58% of lauric acid (C12:0), which is a lower level when compared to conventional lauric oils, such as coconut, palm kernel, and babassu, it has more than 35% of oleic acid, an unusual content among all vegetable oils of this class.
The macauba pulp oil presents a smaller range of carbon groups, comprising 48–54 carbon groups. Fourteen distinct triacylglycerols were identified, corresponding to 17.07% OOO, 6.36% OOL, 28.53% POO, and 10.53% PLP [65]. Lieb et al. analyzed macauba pulp oil from Costa Rica and found 20.8% OOO, 10.4% OOL, 13.0% POO, and 1.5% PLP (P: palmitic; Po: palmitoleic, S: stearic; O: oleic; L: linoleic) [48]. This divergence of values is due to the different origins of the fruits and the extraction method used to obtain the crude oil.
Natural antioxidants found in vegetable oils, such as tocopherols and tocotrienols, have four isomers, designated as alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ), depending on the number and position of methyl groups in a chromanol ring. Tocopherols are characterized by a saturated side chain, while tocotrienols present an unsaturated side chain, and they also have a vitamin E activity in humans. They are also recognized for slowing down the lipid oxidation process. The antioxidant activity of tocopherols in food increases progressively for the δ, β, γ, and α isomers. On the other hand, tocotrienols are less effective than their corresponding isomers [66].
Carotenoids constitute a diverse group of lipophilic compounds that provide yellowish to red color to oils and are also known as bioactive compounds with proven health benefits [66].
Coimbra and Jorge characterized the macauba kernel and pulp oils for the concentration of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and tocopherols, and the findings are shown in Table 3 [14].
Macauba pulp oil (mg kg −1) | Macauba kernel oil (mg kg −1) | |
---|---|---|
Phenolic compounds | 2.21 | 4.38 |
Total carotenoids | 300.1 | 1.82 |
Total tocopherol | 221.95 | 23.10 |
α-Tocopherol | 143.70 | 14.35 |
β-Tocopherol | 3.25 | 0.85 |
γ-Tocopherol | 57.83 | — |
δ-Tocopherol | 8.15 | 7.90 |
Tocopherols, carotenoids, and phenolics concentrations in macauba oils.
Source: Coimbra and Jorge [14].
Factors that affect or catalyze the lipid oxidation include the presence of unsaturated or double bonds in fatty acids, light, temperature, prooxidants and antioxidants, enzymes, and storage conditions. In addition, the oxidative stability reflects the quality of the raw material from harvest to processing, leading to undesirable flavors that reduce the quality and shelf life of oils [67].
Breves [62] studied the oxidative stability of macauba kernel and pulp oils according to ISO 6886, and reported 41.35 and 16.36 min at 110°C, respectively. It is worth noting that the stability of the pulp oil is relatively lower than that of the kernel oil, due to the higher number of unsaturated fatty acids [62].
Refining can be defined as a series of distinct steps aimed at reducing undesirable substances from crude oils that can affect the stability and sensory properties. It removes colloidal substances, phosphatides, free fatty acids, natural pigments, such as chlorophyll and carotenoids, inorganic substances, such as calcium salts, metals, and phosphates, among others, and volatile compounds, such as peroxides, hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and low-molecular weight esters, and water [20].
The selection of the adequate refining process is directly related to the free fatty acid content (%) of the crude oil and can be done through a chemical or physical process. The chemical process is not indicated for high acidity oils since significant losses of neutral lipids may occur due to saponification or soapstock dragging. For acidic oils, physical refining is indicated and should be performed under high temperature and low pressure, volatilizing and removing free fatty acids with reduced loss of neutral lipids [68].
In addition, phospholipid contents are the second factor to be considered before selecting the refining process. Chemical refining is indicated for high phosphorus levels, while the physical refining process is more usual for oils with low phosphorus levels [60]. For macauba pulp oil, both types of refining can be used due to its non-standardization as acidic oil (Figure 2).
Schematic diagram of the typical process for obtaining refined oil from the raw material of interest.
Degumming is the first step for obtaining the refined oil, either for physical or chemical processes, in which phospholipids are converted into oil-insoluble hydratable gums that are easily separated by sedimentation, filtration, or centrifugation through the addition of water and/or acid solution. This step is important for the removal of phospholipids, which can precipitate during the storage, affecting the quality of the oil and the subsequent refining steps. Additionally, it is possible to obtain lecithin, which is a by-product of high commercial value due to its emulsifying effect [20, 60].
Neutralization is carried out during the chemical refining and consists of neutralizing and thus reducing the free fatty acids content by adding an alkaline solution. Diluted caustic soda is usually used in concentrations between 10 and 24° Bé (degrees Baumé). The concentration of caustic soda and its excess is dependent on the free fatty acids (FFA) content of the degummed oil to be neutralized, avoiding saponification of the oil [69].
The next step is known as clarification or bleaching. Its main objective is to remove pigments to obtain clear oils (an important factor for commercialization), in addition to removing other constituents, such as oxidation products, metal traces, phospholipids, and soaps, resulting from the chemical refining. According to Kaynak et al. [70], these impurities, when present in the oil, can contaminate the hydrogenation and interesterification catalysts, darken the oil, and decrease oxidative stability [20, 70].
The efficiency of the process is determined by adding clarifying clays, either natural or activated, via adsorption. Part of the pigments is adsorbed onto the clarifying clay through surface attraction forces, known as “Van de Waals forces.” Other components are chemically bound to the surface of the clarifying clays by covalent or ionic bonds. Part of the impurities present in the oil is removed by trapping their molecules in the pores of the clay. Some minor components, such as oxidation compounds and pigments, are chemically altered during clarification due to the catalytic activity of some clays [69].
Deodorization is the last step of chemical refining, with the elimination of volatile compounds such as remaining free fatty acids and peroxides that give the oil an unpleasant aroma and flavor. The deodorization is done through steam distillation, removing volatile substances through a high vacuum [69].
In physical refining, the last step consists of distillation, with oil deacidification through the removal of free fatty acids, volatiles, and oxidation products [69]. The process is carried out through the association of high temperature and low absolute pressure, favoring the acceleration of distillation and preserving the oil from atmospheric oxidation [61].
According to the CODEX Alimentarius CXS 210-199 for vegetable oils, refined oils should have a maximum acidity of 0.6 mg KOH/g oil and up to 10 mEq O2 kg−1 [71].
It is estimated that a great amount of industrialized vegetable products, corresponding to 15–20%, are not used. The volume of these residues can reach even higher levels depending on the raw material, the processing applied, equipment used, and process yield, among others. All these factors induce the generation of by-products for food, fertilization, and feed production. Researchers have attempted to use by-products from the processing of vegetable raw materials, including vegetable oils, and once besides adding value to the by-products, it reduces the disposal in nature, helps in the environmental preservation, and promotes the integral use of the vegetable sources [72].
In addition to the refined oil, the distillate is obtained during the refining process, known as vegetable oil deodorization distillate (VODD). It is a by-product of the industrial processing of vegetable oils and is considered a low-cost source rich in health-giving components, such as tocopherols and phytosterols, in addition to FFA with numerous industrial applications. The distillates from physical refining have FFA contents above 70% and lower levels of unsaponifiable materials [73].
The research team of the Laboratory of Oils and Fats of the Faculty of Food Engineering—UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil, studied the distillates from the deodorization of macauba kernel and pulp oils from physical refining. The kernel distillate presented 14.49 mg/100 g of γ-tocopherol and 0.79 mg/100 g of γ-tocotrienol. In turn, the pulp distillate presented 80.27 mg/100 g of γ tocopherol, 25.84 mg/100 g of β tocopherol, and 5.64 mg/100 g of γ tocotrienol (unpublished data).
According to Tay et al. [74], the free fatty acid content of palm oil deodorized distillate ranged from 72.7% to 92.6%. The author studied the co-product of palm oil refining and found VODD content of 86.4% [74]. These valuable components can be used in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic formulations [73].
The great potential of macauba has led to the development of several processing technologies for kernel and pulp oils. Favaro et al. studied the aqueous extraction of oil from fresh macauba pulp using the commercial enzyme Cellic® CTec3 and reported that the aqueous extraction was effective for obtaining high-quality oil [75]. Rosa et al. evaluated the effectiveness of ethyl acetate as a solvent in macauba kernel oil extraction by ultrasound-assisted extraction. Increasing the amount of solvent, the higher temperatures, and longer extraction times led to a higher amount of oil extracted [76]. Trentini et al. extracted macauba pulp oil by low-pressure solvent extraction and reported higher yields by using isopropanol as a solvent [77]. Prates-Valério et al. [78] studied different mechanical extraction conditions for obtaining pulp oil, aiming to produce an extremely productive raw material. The fruit pressed at 34°C resulted in higher oil quality when compared to other temperatures studied [78]. Favaro et al. evaluated the extraction efficiency and quality of pulp oil extracted using aqueous media from wet fruits and reported an acidity of 0.45% oleic acid [79]. Malaquias et al. estimated macauba yield by regression models using the variables bunch volume, length, and length/diameter ratio [80]. Colombo et al. studied the physicochemical characteristics of macauba and reported the high potential of this fruit [5].
To meet market demands and provide varied and uniform raw materials, lipid modification processes allow flexibility and contribute to reducing the gap between production site, demand, and availability. The most commonly used modification processes include hydrogenation, fractionation, and interesterification, using analytical or computational methods to ensure process efficiency [20, 69].
The fractionation process consists of a thermomechanical separation in which the lipid material is separated into two or more fractions with different physical and chemical properties, due to the difference in the melting point of triacylglycerols. A fraction called olein is obtained, composed of a greater amount of triacylglycerols with a lower melting point, which is present in liquid form, and a semisolid fraction called stearin, composed of triacylglycerols with a higher melting point [81, 82]. Magalhães et al. [83] performed the fractionation of macauba kernel oil and evaluated the olein and stearin fractions for thermal behavior and consistency. The authors concluded that fractionation allowed obtaining fractions with different degrees of oxidative stability and different physical properties for various applications [83].
The presence of double bonds interferes with the chemical and physical properties of oils and fats. The hydrogenation reaction is a physicochemical process that leads to the saturation of the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids through the addition of hydrogen atoms [20, 69].
Hydrogenation takes place in hermetic tanks, in which hydrogen gas is mixed with the raw material in the presence of a nickel catalyst, at high temperatures and high pressure. During partial hydrogenation, part of the double bonds of fatty acid is saturated, while some
Various harmful effects have been associated with the consumption of
The interesterification of liquid oils and fully hydrogenated vegetable oils has been the main alternative to produce fats with specific properties [84]. During the reaction, although the fatty acids remain unchanged, there is a redistribution of fatty acids in the triacylglycerol molecules, leading to changes in the triacylglycerol composition [88].
Two technological processes can be used for the interesterification of oils, including chemical and enzymatic interesterification. The chemical interesterification uses an alkaline catalyst, with no control over the fatty acid distribution, that is, it has a random nature. In turn, the enzymatic interesterification uses lipases with specific activities and selectivity, thus with greater control over the fatty acid distribution in triacylglycerol molecules [89]. Our research group developed interesterified fractions from macauba oil, which led to a patent application with the National Institute of Intellectual Property (INPI), registered under the number BR 102020 026665 9 [89].
The macauba potential for industrial applications is due to the high productivity and quality of pulp and kernel oils and can be grouped into four industrial segments, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and energy [15].
Both the macauba pulp and kernel are edible and have high nutritional value, allowing their insertion into the food industry [15]. The pulp can be added directly to food or as flour [92]. Other parts of the fruit can also be used. The biomass resulting from the macauba oil extraction is pressed to form cakes as an alternative for animal feed, as they do not present toxic components [93]. The pulp cake contains 9% protein, while the kernel cake has 32% [15]. Residues from the oil extraction from the macauba endocarp have been used for the production of higher quality vegetable carbon when compared to carbon from eucalyptus, with wide application in the steel industry [5, 94].
The differential composition of macauba pulp and kernel oils concerning the fatty acid profile and minor components (tocopherols, carotenoids, antioxidants, and phenolic compounds) provides a differentiated market for both products [15]. Pulp oil has a higher content of oleic and linoleic acids, with a recognized role in disease prevention and health promotion, including the role of oleic acid in the prevention of breast cancer and linoleic acid in the cognitive abilities of the elderly [95, 96]. Additionally, the macauba pulp oil has a higher content of carotenoids and tocopherols when compared to kernel oil. Traesel et al. reported no cytotoxic, genotoxic, or mutagenic effects of macauba pulp oil in rats [97].
Studies have shown that pulp oil, both in its raw and microencapsulated form, has diuretic and anti-inflammatory potential. It was also found that the microencapsulated pulp oil maintained the stability of the active ingredient and exhibited antiedematogenic activity [98]. Recent research has suggested that macauba pulp oil can be a promising high-quality raw material for the production of functional ingredients and foods with nutraceutical properties [99].
The kernel oil presents high content of saturated fatty acids (74%) with a predominance of lauric acid (44%) [99], which can be a promising approach for use in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [9]. Studies have shown the hypoglycemic effect of kernel oil in rats with type 2 diabetes when administered orally [100]. Dario et al. showed that kernel oil can be an alternative adjuvant in the development of a nanocarrier, enhancing the photoprotective activity [101]. Macauba kernel oil has also shown potential for use as a lipid ingredient in margarines and mayonnaises [102].
The macauba mesocarp oil is a promising raw material for biodiesel production due to the predominance of unsaturated fatty acids (±73%), mainly oleic acid (±52%) [14]. Biodiesel is defined as methyl esters of long-chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oils or fats [103]. As reported by Coimbra and Jorge, biodiesel derived from
Xavier and Costa [15] performed a scientific and technological mapping on the characteristics and applications of macauba oil, showing the important contribution of Brazil in this area, and the participation of Brazilian universities in the valorization of native raw material. The technological segments most represented in this analysis of patents were energy, cosmetics, and agriculture [15].
Macauba is an emerging species with scientific interest concerning the distribution and genetic diversity of the species, plant development, oil production, crop management, harvest techniques and fruit treatment, extraction, processing, and modification of oils to obtain more plastic lipid bases for various applications. The high productivity of the macauba and the resilience of the crop along with the need to search for vegetable oils with potential use as alternative raw materials for biofuel production have encouraged further studies on this species. Although it is a very promising plant for the sustainable production of vegetable oil on a large scale, there are still scientific and technological challenges. The main challenges include obtaining commercial varieties, developing sustainable cultivation models, efficient fruit processing techniques, standardized refining protocols, and effective analytical techniques for oil characterization. This chapter summarizes the recent studies on
This study was supported by grants of CNPq, 310936/2021-7, and the Post-graduation Program in Food Technology—Oil and fats Laboratory—of Campinas State University, Capes Code 001.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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I am giving examples from my developmental psychology research where the split-sample analysis by gender showed amazing and often unexpected effects.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Chris Lange-Küttner",authors:[{id:"190245",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Lange-Küttner",slug:"chris-lange-kuttner",fullName:"Chris Lange-Küttner"}]},{id:"53721",doi:"10.5772/66093",title:"Professional Women's Experience of Autonomy and Independence in Sindh-Pakistan",slug:"professional-women-s-experience-of-autonomy-and-independence-in-sindh-pakistan",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter summarises the part of findings of my doctoral studies at the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK. In this case study, there are elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches; the former is the principal approach to this research while the latter works as complementary. Participants of the research were divided into two categories: academic and non‐academic. Forty semi‐structured interviews (20 from each category) and 100 survey questionnaire (50 from each category) were collected. This research argues that existing concepts of ‘autonomy’ and ‘independence’ may not be useful indices/indicators for measuring the social status or position of women in Sindhi society, due to variations in understanding or the meanings attributed to these concepts across the globe. Findings argue that these professional women perceived concepts of ‘autonomy’, ‘independence’ and ‘individuality’ categorically different than those of Westernised understandings. This research asserts that Sindhi society, similarly to that of Tamil society, emphasises social groups rather than individuals. Hence, ‘collective identities’ are the essence of Sindhi society; however, individuals find their autonomy, independence and individuality in the context of ‘others’, which means to be more responsible for group's interests.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mukesh Kumar Khatwani",authors:[{id:"196384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Khatwani",slug:"mukesh-khatwani",fullName:"Mukesh Khatwani"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52503",title:"Gender and Leadership",slug:"gender-and-leadership",totalDownloads:4125,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The topic of leadership has been addressed and applied for millennia. Yet, it is only within the past 80 years that leadership has been a topic of serious discussion. It is important to understand variables relevant to effective leadership. Gender is one such variable that must be examined with regard to optimizing leadership effectiveness. The topic of gender and leadership deserves serious and thoughtful consideration and discussion because of professional, political, cultural, and personal realities of the twenty‐first century. Women and men have been, are, and should be leaders. Gender must be considered to determine how each leader can reach maximum potential and effectiveness. The FourCe‐PITO conceptual framework of leadership is designed to help guide leadership development and education. The present chapter uses this conceptual framework of leadership to discuss how consideration of gender may affect and optimize leadership development and effectiveness. It is the goal of this chapter to lay out the issues that educators of leaders, potential leaders, and “practicing” leaders should be aware of, to achieve success for the good of the groups and individuals they have the responsibility to lead.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Kathryn E. Eklund, Erin S. Barry and Neil E. Grunberg",authors:[{id:"191531",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil E.",middleName:null,surname:"Grunberg",slug:"neil-e.-grunberg",fullName:"Neil E. Grunberg"},{id:"191532",title:"Dr.",name:"Erin S.",middleName:null,surname:"Barry",slug:"erin-s.-barry",fullName:"Erin S. Barry"},{id:"191533",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kathryn",middleName:null,surname:"Eklund",slug:"kathryn-eklund",fullName:"Kathryn Eklund"}]},{id:"52349",title:"Gender Differences in PTSD: Susceptibility and Resilience",slug:"gender-differences-in-ptsd-susceptibility-and-resilience",totalDownloads:2708,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is anxiety disorder that has been estimated to affect individuals who are exposed to traumatic events. Women are diagnosed with PTSD approximately twice as often as men. In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3430,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. Women’s life expectancy is higher than men’s, but research on differences in morbidity has proved less consistent than on the differences in mortality. These differences vary in terms of the type of health indicator used, the life cycle period analyzed, and even the country where research is conducted. Generally, men have more life-threatening chronic diseases at younger ages, including coronary heart disease, as well as more externalizing mental health problems and substance use disorders. Women present higher rates of chronic debilitating conditions such as arthritis, frequent or severe headaches, gallbladder conditions, and also more internalizing mental problems such as affective and anxiety disorders. Results of research on the differences between women and men in self-rated health have also highlighted the complexity of gender differences in health. Although several studies have shown that women have poorer self-rated health than men, this is not the case in all countries. Also, differences in self-rated health vary depending on other psychosocial and demographic variables. The present study reviews the main differences in women’s and men’s health as well as the most relevant factors that may account for them.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"María Pilar Matud",authors:[{id:"189729",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Matud",slug:"m.-pilar-matud",fullName:"M. Pilar Matud"}]},{id:"53212",title:"Broken Dreams—Balancing Self and Family Well-Being: The Experiences of Women Immigrants to Hamilton, ON",slug:"broken-dreams-balancing-self-and-family-well-being-the-experiences-of-women-immigrants-to-hamilton-o",totalDownloads:1512,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the preliminary analysis of a study conducted in Hamilton, ON. It explores the intersection of women’s immigration, integration and mental health. Their perceptions of what is needed from them in relation to the various challenges/changes that moving to a new country entails is a particular focus of this research. To begin with, the term “women immigrant” (WI) is used, rather than immigrant women as commonly used—as the participants were women long before they became immigrants. Indeed immigration is one of their many experiences and it is a significant marker in their lives, but it does not define their identity.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mirna Carranza",authors:[{id:"189735",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirna",middleName:null,surname:"Carranza",slug:"mirna-carranza",fullName:"Mirna Carranza"}]},{id:"52314",title:"Gender Difference in the Perception of Guilt in Consumer Boycott in Brazil",slug:"gender-difference-in-the-perception-of-guilt-in-consumer-boycott-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1804,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to analyze consumer boycott from the perception of men's and women's guilt on a specific case involving Nike company through partners in its supply chain in China. The study was conducted with 281 consumers in the city of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 2012. In the process of validating a scale of consumer boycott in Brazil, the 13 items of the original scale were kept, but were grouped in different factors. The emerged factors were perception of guilt, influence from others, boycott efficiency, and purchase frequency. Testing relationship among demographic variables and these factors, only gender was significant on perception of guilt. In this sense, we seek in psychology, psychoanalysis (also briefly in anthropology and history), features that could explain the reasons why women feel guiltier than men, and thus are more likely to boycott.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Breno de P.A. Cruz, Ricardo José Marques Pires-Jr. and Steven D. 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Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/179583",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"179583"},fullPath:"/profiles/179583",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()