Expanded phases formed during low-temperature nitriding of stainless steels.
\r\n\t
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Biometric science is an old science concerning the documentation of the features or bio measurements or identification characteristics of the targets which could be human, animals and even fossils. It has been used to describe and record the measurement and biological data for, both animal and human (tracking of the similarities of life forms). It is based on anatomic uniqueness of an individual and specificity of physiological and behavior characteristics. Biometrics approach based on behavior characteristics is less expensive and less dangerous for the user; while physiological approach offers highly exact of identification. However, both kinds provide high level of identification than others like passwords and cards.
In general, biometrics were applied in different platforms [1] as follows.
Criminalistics (using of biometric identifiers to recognize victims, unknown body and prevent kidnapping for identified children).
Marketing (using of biometrics to identify owners of loyal cards)
Time accounting systems at work, schools, etc.
Security systems (to control the access to the rooms and the internet resources)
Voting system (to identify/authenticate a person who takes a part in voting during the functionality of voting system).
It used as apart in passport informations as an international required by various organizations such as demands ICAO standards which involve biometrics in passport.
Biometrics identifiers are used also for registration of immigrants and foreign workers among immigration Affairs. It allows identifying people even without documents.
In animal, a biometric identifier or measurable could be found as robust and distinctive physical, anatomical or molecular trait that can be used to uniquely identify or verify the claimed identity of an animal [2]. Among the advantages of biometrics usage, it does not cause pain or change in the appearance of organisms. For this reason and others, this chapter focuses on the biometrics in animals particularly aquatic organisms. Their analysis can be considered as a first step to investigate the stock structure with large population sizes. The morphological differentiation of partially-isolated stocks due to environmental differences in the habitats could be known as phenotypic markers [3]. The interactive effects of environment produce morphometric differences within a species, variability in growth, development, and maturation creating a variety of body shapes within a species [4, 5, 6]. Hence, it is necessary to identify specimens correctly and investigate other biological traits as growth, mortality, fecundity, trophic relation, parasite relationship, historical and paleontological events [7]. The biometric measurements could be applied on different aquatic organisms as sharks, Rays, Mollusca, Crustaceans, Protozoa, etc. and even for different organs like teeth, otolith and appendages.
It is well known that morphology is directly related to species life history and habitat use. Thus, fish morphometric analysis represents an important tool to determine their systematic, growth variation, population parameters and environmental relationships [8, 9, 10]. It also, covers several fields of research such as: ecomorphology evaluating the role of environmental pressures on shaping species diet, feeding behavior, ecological strategies, niche partitioning, habitat use and trophic structure population ecology and metapopulations studies, investigating differences in body shape among populations spatially isolated [9, 10, 11, 12]. In addition to that, males and females of the same species may be identified as different species because the intraspecific characteristics, therefore information about morphological sexual variation is important to avoid species misleading identification [13, 14, 15, 16]. Moreover, the sexual dimorphism is an important evolutionary adaptation mechanism, and to diminishing intraspecific competition by increasing niche portioning [16, 17]. It establishes the relationship between morphology and behavior, elucidating possible ontogenetic niche shifts and the evolutionary plasticity of an organism [18].
Many biologists and taxonomists are still studying the external biometrics (morphometric and meristics) of the organisms in various research fields, even with the presence of molecular biology techniques, giving faster, and low-cost results [19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
From another view, the species identification and population discrimination are important in the biodiversity conservation, natural resources, and fisheries management. In certain cases, particularly when we lost some biometric characters for species identification due to sampling and handling processes, we need intensive measurements. So, the modern morphometric technique needed to be applied; as truss network technique (Figure 1); it is applied to provide supplementary taxonomic information to enhance the species identification. It could be used also in case of unclear diagnostic characters available for the identification of species as in ariids species which have overlapped characteristics among several species. This technique was provided by Turan et al. [24] and Abdurahman et al. [25]. In addition, the implementation of biometrics could be applied on the internal parasite and used as species identification of host and as a sexual dimorphism indicator [26], the later author studied the impact of Sacculina sp. parasites, Rhizocephalans (Sacculinidae) on two host crabs
Truss network distances of ariids family. A: snout to first dorsal fin; B: snout to pectoral fin; C: pectoral fin to F. dorsal fin; D: origin of dorsal fin to pelvic fin; E: pectoral fin to end of dorsal fin; F: origin of dorsal fin to E. dorsal fin; G: pectoral fin to pelvic fin; H: end of dorsal fin to pelvic fin; I: end of dorsal fin to F. anal fin; J: pelvic fin to F. adipose fin; K: end of dorsal fin to F. adipose fin; L: pelvic fin to F. anal fin; M: first of adipose fin to F. anal fin; N: first of adipose fin to E. anal fin; O: anal fin to E. adipose fin; P: length of adipose fin; Q: length of anal fin; R: end of adipose fin to E. anal fin; S: end of adipose fin to caudal fin; and T: end of anal fin to caudal fin.
Sexual dimorphism is an important to distinguish males and females. Paiva et al. [30] studied the ontogenetic sexual dimorphism of
a. Photographs showing
In this example, it is another application of biometrics on other category of biota “cephalopoda,” the morphometric characters of male and female
The different morphometric measurements of
The another biometric differentiation was used also for sexual dimorphism of three carangid species (
Schematic illustration of measurements taken on the body of the Three Carangidae Specie considered from the southern Red Sea, Hurghada, Egypt. 1. total length (TL); 2. fork length (FL); 3. standard length (SL); 4. body depth (BD); 5. head length (HL); 6. eye diameter (EyD); 7. snout length (SnL); 8. postorbital length (POL); 9. upper jaw length (UJL); 10. curved lateral line segment length (CLL);11. straight lateral line segment length (SLL); 12. soft dorsal fin base length (SDFL); 13. soft anal fin base length (SAFL); 14. soft dorsal fin height (SDFH); 15. soft anal fin height (SAFH); 16. pectoral fin length (PFL); 17. distance between the first soft dorsal fin ray and the first soft anal fin ray (SDSAFL); 18. distance between anal and dorsal fin insertions (ADFEL); 19. distance between the first spine of the dorsal fin and the first soft anal fin ray (SpDASFL); 20. distance between the first soft dorsal fin ray and ventral fin origin (SDVOFL); 21. distance between the first soft dorsal fin ray and the insertion of anal fin (SDEAFL); 22. distance between the insertion of dorsal fin and the first soft anal fin ray (EDSAFL); 23. predorsal fin length (PRDFL).
The biometric investigations play a role in the field of parasitology and micro examinations. Golemansky and Todorov [34], studied the morphology and biometry of eight marine interstitial testate protozoa, amoebae (
Another example for using the biometrics, is its application for certain parts like fish scales, since its morphology and ultrastructure characteristics are important for fish identification, taxonomy and phylogeny. The biometrics were applied on the scale morphologically and also on the electron scanning picture of
Schematic drawing scale of
(a and b): Scanning electron micrographs show scales of
Jawad et al. [36] applied the biometric characteristics on another part such as otolith of two species of parrotfish, family Scaridae, from the Red Sea coast of Egypt. It was applied to identify the most appropriate taxonomic characters that compare or separate these species. Ontogenetic changes in the otoliths of the two scarid fishes become evident. In the otoliths of
a. Mesial surface of the left otolith of
The understanding of normal morphology of larvae is very important in aquaculture especially in hatcheries, to evaluate culture conditions for the juveniles and adults. The morphology is an indicator of the abnormalities in the larval morphology in relation to water quality, for production the high-quality individuals [37]. The later author described the allometric growth of Sea bream larvae reared under intensive and extensive conditions, and examined the effect of these conditions on their morphometric proportions; they stated that the intensive marine hatcheries may face many rearing conditions that may reduce the quality of the reared fish, compared to that of the wild ones. These may result in the absence of a swim bladder [38]; osteological and morphological malformations [39], and extra……. The abnormalities in aquatic animals can influence the biometric features, from the modern methods is x-ray utilization, it was applied on three fish species collected from Jubail Vicinity, Saudi Arabia, Arabian Gulf [40] and presented in (Figure 9).
The biometrics were used as comparative tools for species from different habitats and evaluate the effect of environmental conditions. Farrag et al. [20] investigated the biometrics and meristics of puffer fish species
Using hard parts as spines; the spines are also used in comparison and identification depending on its biometrics and structure. Jawad et al. [13] described structure of the pectoral fins spine of 4 catfish species
Left and right pectoral fin spine of
The enlarged left pectoral-fin spine of
Biometric methods have therefore been developed to recognize animals based on physical characteristics or behavioral signs. Some of these methods have been used for some time for reliable identification of humans. An animal biometric identifier is any measurable, robust and distinctive physical, anatomical or molecular trait that can be used to uniquely identify or verify the claimed identity of an animal [2].
Sharawy et al. [32] have identified some Penaeid shrimps from Mediterranean, Egypt by different methods. Among them, the authors have applied the biometrics firstly to be correct way to advanced methods or following one. Three penaeid species
a. Carapace of green tiger prawn
The Photographic identification is among biometric methods, it has been used since the 1970s to identify aquatic animals such as dolphins and whales [41]. Individual bottlenose dolphins can be identified by comparing photographs of their fins, which display curves, notches, nicks and tears (Figure 14). Whales can be distinguished by the callosity patterns on their heads [42].
Dorsal fins of bottlenose dolphins displaying unique permanent characteristics used for their identification (© 2007 Dolphin Research Center, 58901 Overseas Highway, Grassy Key, FL 33050-6019, USA.
The photographing and its treatments using technology used in wide range particularly for wild animals. The most obvious biometric marker is the coat pattern of animals which often appears on major body parts as colourations of either fur, feathers, skin or scales. For example, zebras and tigers can be identified from their stripes; cheetahs and African penguins carry unique spot patterns and snakes have colored rings [28]. From another side, the photographing may face some problem. Problems may occur in the field in different light settings or surroundings, but new techniques including digital photography and video filming have reduced these difficulties. Digital images can also be manipulated to make recognition easier. The method is cheap and at its simplest needs no more than paper and pencil. In addition, observations can be made at a distance, reducing the risk of stress and altered behavior.
This is another application for morphometric characteristics used to evaluate the growth of species. This was applied on blue swimming crab
The morphometric measurements in
The application of the morphology and morphometric was also used to characterize the parasites. It was applied on
Line diagram of adult
The biometrics now play an important role in computer analysis of the pictures. The retinal vascular pattern is another biometric trait in animals. The retinal vessels seem to like branching patterns, which are present from birth and do not change during the animal’s life. The blood vessels in the eye of each individual can be detected using a retinal scanner. This pattern can be recorded with a hand-held device about the size of a video camera. Some devices can also measure GPS coordinates that used when marking cattle and can be compared to nose-prints. The method is also relatively cheap. Retinal imaging and nose-prints of sheep and cattle were compared by Rusk et al. [45]. However, the nose-prints are a quicker method than retinal scanning, but retinal scans are easy to analyze for inexperienced operators [46]. Computer software for the analysis of digital pictures from both retinal scana and nose-prints makes analysis faster, cheaper and more reliable.
The movement pattern is sometimes used as identifier for aquatic animals by analyzing their movement patterns using a tri-axial accelerometry device [47]. By measuring the movements of animals in three dimensions, their movement patterns can be stored and these can be used to diagnose aberrant behavioral patterns, such as those associated with infections. Accelometery may have the potential to be a powerful tool to produce maps for conservation purposes, where animal movements can be plotted.
This trend was mentioned by Kumar et al. [48] through recognition systems and this contains different points. For example, the low-Cost Cattle Recognition System Using Multimedia Wireless Network, this system is proposed for verification of individual cattle based on its muzzle point image pattern using wireless multimedia networks. The images are captured using a 20-megapixel camera (system configuration: 14.48 centimeters (5.7-inch) IPS capacitive touchscreen with 1440 × 720 pixels resolution and 283 ppi pixel density, 4GB RAM) and transferred them to the server of cattle recognition using Wi-Fi communication technology. The system performs the image pre-processing on the captured muzzle point image of individual cattle. It mitigates and filter the noise from the captured images and increases the quality [48]. This system could be applied also on the aquatic animals.
The system takes the visual biometric feature characteristics such as coat pattern, body coat pattern, and spot point pattern, and other visual features of species or individual animal. The major issue and challenges of visual animal biometrics-based recognition systems are demonstrated as follows.
How do species or individual animal gets its body coat pattern? [27].
What type of suitable algorithms and animal biometrics recognition systems or frameworks is available to compute the visual features from the body coat pattern of species? [27, 28].
Can detection and representation of visual feature of body pattern of species be possible in their habitats? [28].
How visual animal biometrics-based recognition and framework can monitor animal population? [28].
How visual animal biometrics-based recognition system generates unique templates from stored visual biometric feature of species? [27].
Knowing the variations between different organisms and different shapes, therefore should have measurements according to kind of organisms, (Shark, rays, bony fish, crabs, etc).
It will be better to take the biometric measurements for fresh samples to avoid any error due to preservation or damage in samples. In case of formalin preservation, some changes may happen especially in coloration. So, the more measurements are preferred to be considered.
In case of comparative study between different habitats, it is preferred to fix the measurements and inputs like length range to avoid bias due to changes in ecological conditions.
In case of applying biometrics on the internal parts or using scanning techniques, the accuracy, resolution and magnification should be considered.
In case of using some tools like sensors, it should be easily presented to a sensor and converted into a quantifiable format, should not subjected to changes over time and should differ in the patterns among the general population, the higher the degree of distinctiveness, the more unique is an identifier.
Biometric methods should not cause pain and do not alter the appearance of the animal, having no effect on the behavior and survivability of the animals, except in some necessary as repeated capture and/or handling.
In case of visual patterns methods, some species have external characteristics as color, spots, rings, that are easy to recognize and that are specific for each individual. These patterns can be used by photographing using high resolution of digital camera to avoid the problems that may occur in the field in different light settings or surroundings.
Many common marking procedures also involve tissue damage and therefore cause pain, such as branding (heat, cold or chemicals), tattooing, toe clipping, ear notching and tagging.
Wearing a mark may alter the animal’s appearance, social interaction, other behaviors and ultimately its survival.
In visual animal biometrics for computer treatment purposes, various issues and challenges lie in coping with unconstrained environment such as variable lighting, partial occlusion of animal body, and extr…. the captured data sets, images, videos are required to train various computer vision models, framework, and methods.
The followings are summarized guide for general outer measurements and descriptions that could be taken for various forms and examples of some aquatic organisms including crustaceans, fishes, reptiles and some marine mammals (Figures 17–24).
General morphometric measurement and description of the common form of crabs.
General morphometric measurement and description of the common form of bony fish.
General morphometric measurement and description of the common form of cartilaginous fish.
General morphometric measurement and description of the other form of cartilaginous fish (skates).
Top-down and profile diagrams of entire crocodile (a) and head (b) illustrating measurements taken using Method A (A) and Method B (B). DCL = dorsal cranial length; SEL = snout–eye length; MHW = maximum head width; MCW = maximum cranial width; IOW = inter-orbital width; CH = cranial height; SPL = snout–pelvis length; TaL = tail length; TaL1 = anterior tail length; TaL2 = posterior tail length; SPL + TaL1 = snout–scute junction (SSJ); SPL + TaL1 + TaL2 = total length (TL) [
General morphometric measurement and description of some sea turtles.
Measurement points for the body proportions of Bryde’s whales. Measurement points were selected based on the study by Mackintosh and Wheeler [
General morphometric measurement and description of other marine mammals.
In conclusion, the biometrics in organisms (Morphometric, meristics and description) have widely importance used in various fields’ “taxonomy, species identifications, monitoring of pollution, species abnormalities, comparison, indicator of environmental changes, growth variation, feeding behavior, ecological strategies, population parameters and water quality of aquaculture operations. The scientists are still applying these measurements even with the presence of advanced techniques because it is the principal knowledge and first guide, low cost, faster and more available tools used. The considerations for the biometric implementation should be taken during the analysis considering the specificity of the quality, preservation status, kind, form of organism and main target of analysis. Its recommended to give more attention to care the biometrics outer/ inner organisms in scientific studies using the advanced techniques, this will be more beneficially together with other modern techniques which required in certain cases for the same purposes.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, stainless steel has been developed to improve the corrosion resistance of parts in contact with corrosive and oxidative media. These corrosion-resistant alloys have been used in the chemical, petrochemical, automotive, aeronautical, food, medical, and construction industries. Chromium, above 11 wt.%, grants corrosion resistance by forming a nanometric thin and adherent Cr2O3 passive layer. When exposed to oxygen, whether in the air or water, this layer prevents corrosion by isolating the alloy from contact with the oxidizing media.
However, chlorine and chlorine ions may damage the passive layer favoring stainless steel’s crevice, pitting, and stress corrosion cracking. Mo additions are very effective in improving the resistance to damage of the passive layer by chlorine, although it negatively influences the final price of the stainless steel. On the other hand, N has been thoroughly investigated, since the 1980s, as an alloying element with great potential for protecting the passive layer against damage, being abundant in nature (21 wt.% in the atmosphere), and giving a cost-effective solution for surface protection against corrosion.
Controlled addition of nitrogen to stainless steel has been encouraged over the last three decades due to the possibility of improving the surface properties (not only the corrosion but also the tribological and mechanical properties). High-pressure and powder metallurgy techniques were developed for medium and large-scale fabrication of high nitrogen steels (HNS). Still, in general, these procedures are costly and require sophisticated equipment. Nitrogen-bearing stainless steel is a new class of corrosion-resistant alloys, exhibiting much better surface properties, better corrosion, and wear resistance associated with good bulk mechanical properties: very high strength, good ductility, and toughness. Therefore, considerable emphasis has been placed on liquid and solid-state routes to produce high-performance, low-cost nitrogen-alloyed stainless steels. The liquid state processing routes demand high-pressure metallurgy, which is laborious, demands special equipment, and is costly. In the solid-state production routes, the steel surface and near-surface regions are nitrogen alloyed through thermochemical, implantation, plasma, or laser techniques.
Diffusion surface treatments have been extensively studied and have become, for many applications, current industrial practice. The diffusion of nitrogen and carbon toward the core increases the surface hardness and wear resistance. However, nitrogen and carbon must remain in solid solution. Precipitation of chromium-rich carbides or nitrides reduces the chromium content in the metal matrix, preventing the formation of a continuous passive layer and harming the corrosion resistance of the steel.
Berns [1] proposed, in the first half of the 1990s, carrying out a high-temperature nitriding process by exposing austenite to an N2 atmosphere. Nitrogen dissolves in austenite up to the solubility limit during the high-temperature nitrogen treatment. Nitrogen solubility in austenite is much greater than in the BCC phases. Then, by maintaining stainless steel in a furnace containing a pure N2 gas atmosphere, the nitrogen equilibrium between the furnace atmosphere and the alloy can be attained. According to Sieverts’ law [2], nitrogen can reach contents up to 1 wt.% in solution. Thermocalc [3] phase diagrams considering the N2 gas phase were calculated to predict the N2 content in equilibrium in austenite as a function of temperature and partial pressure, as shown in Figure 1.
The high-temperature nitriding treatment consists of a case hardening that enriches the stainless steel’s surface with nitrogen contents up to 1 wt.%, to a depth of 1–2 mm. Berns [5] named this process solution nitriding (SN). After this pioneer proposal, several research works have followed on studying this solid-state route for introducing high N2 contents in solution in austenite, being called high-temperature-gas-nitriding—HTGN [6] or high-temperature-solution-nitriding HTSN [7].
The amount of nitrogen dissolved in austenite, in equilibrium with pure N2 gas atmosphere, increases with decreasing temperature and pressure, as shown in Figure 2 [6].
TPT diagram relating nitriding parameters (nitrogen temperature and partial pressure) with microstructure, nitrogen content, and martensitic layer depth for 3 h gas nitriding treatments at high temperature for an AISI 410S steel [
Fe—13% Cr—N isopleths (a) not considering the gas phase as an equilibrium one, with N2 isobars overlaid and (b) considering the N2 gas phase as an equilibrium one [
Berns [5] envisaged different possibilities of obtaining tailored engineered stainless steels depending on the composition and surface treatment. Therefore, austenitic stainless steels can be HTGN, obtaining a fully austenitic case with an outermost N content of 0.48 wt.%N and case depths of up to 1 mm, with a hardness variation from 1.95 GPa in the low N core to 3.17 GPa in the 0.48 wt.%N case [8]. Martensitic stainless steels can be HTGN, obtaining a much harder 0.4 wt.%N martensitic cases 725 HV hard [9]. Extra-low carbon (0.017 wt.%C) dual-phase stainless steel (α + Martensite) may form a fully martensitic case 550 HV hard, after HTGN [10]. Finally, an UNS 31803 ferritic/austenitic duplex stainless steel can be hardened by HTGN, achieving a fully austenitic layer near the surface due to enrichment in austenite stabilizer element (N), as shown in Figure 3 [11]. Excess of diffused nitrogen causes a solid solution hardening effect, proportional to its content, reaching a maximum value of 330 HV at maximum concentration, as shown in Figure 4 [12]. It is worth noting that the N absorption and diffusion on the surface during the HTGN process induce phase transformations, resulting in microstructural gradients from the surface to the core and corresponding microhardness gradients.
UNS S31803 duplex stainless steel HTGN at 1200°C [
Microhardness gradient from the low nitrogen duplex ferritic-austenitic core toward the fully austenitic 0.8 wt.%N surface [
Tschiptschin [13], using this concept, proposed a Powder Metallurgy route to enrich a ferritic stainless steel powder (0.02 wt.%C, 16.2 wt.%Cr, and 0.81 wt.%Mo), exposing the powder particles at high temperatures (1100°C and 1200°C) to N2 gas atmosphere. The N enriched austenitic powder transforms during quenching to martensite, becoming very hard. One of the main challenges in this HNS production route is obtaining fully dense components with uniform nitrogen content in volume and excellent surface properties. A uniform nitrogen distribution leads to a more homogeneous microstructure and better mechanical properties. Figure 5 shows the amount of nitrogen as a function of temperature. According to Sieverts’ law [2], increasing temperature decreases the amount of nitrogen content of the obtained alloy. High temperatures are necessary to grant that all the nitrogen is dissolved in austenite, avoiding the precipitation of chromium nitrides.
Nitrogen content as a function of temperature and N2 pressure for an AISI 434L ferritic stainless steel [
Cyclic polarization curves for a 0.66 wt.%N martensitic stainless steel in different stages of fabrication. Solution 0.5 M H2SO4 + 3.5% NaCl. S/N: Sintered/nitrided, HIP: Hot isostatic pressed, HT: Heat treated (quenched and tempered at 200°C) [
In this route, high-nitrogen (0.66 wt.%N) martensitic stainless steel could be obtained by high-temperature gas nitriding an AISI 434L ferritic stainless steel powder, compressing the high nitrogen powder to near net shape parts, followed by hot isostatic pressing and proceeding with a 1200°C quenching and a 200°C tempering treatment. As a result, the obtained hipped material showed high hardness and much better corrosion resistance, measured in potentiodynamic polarization tests carried out in 0.5 M H2SO4 + 3.5% NaCl, as shown in Figure 6.
Conventional gaseous or liquid nitriding processes are traditionally carried out at temperatures above 520°C. However, this process temperature is a limiting factor, considering that when the nitriding of stainless steels is conducted above 500°C, intense precipitation of chromium nitrides and carbides occurs in the diffusion zone, which, despite substantially increasing the hardness, greatly compromises corrosion resistance [14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
The diffusion temperature is the main control parameter to prevent chromium nitrides and chromium carbides precipitation. Precipitation of chromium carbides and nitrides requires substitutional diffusion, which only occurs at temperatures higher than 500°C. Zhang and Bell [14] and Ichii et al. [19] pioneered the study and development of stainless steel’s nitrogen and carbon diffusion processes in low temperatures. The process temperature must be selected, not too low, to allow intense diffusion of the C and N interstitial elements but not high enough to permit substitutional diffusion. At these low temperatures, the chromium substitutional element’s mobility is sufficiently reduced to inhibit the nucleation and growth of nitrides and/or carbides. Under these conditions, the matrix becomes continuously and increasingly enriched by the interstitial element, promoting a non-equilibrium saturation of the crystalline lattice and stabilizing expanded phases formed in the diffusion layer.
Interstitial supersaturation in the diffusion zone contributes to: (i) formation of interstitially supersaturated phases, (ii) intense interstitial hardening, as a consequence of the colossal amount of interstitial element and its stress fields, contributing to increasing the wear resistance without compromising corrosion resistance [20, 21, 22, 23, 24], and (iii) generation of residual compressive stresses in the expanded layer as a result of the restrictive effect of the diffusion-free substrate, which improves fatigue properties [24, 25].
When performing the X-Ray Diffraction of these supersaturated layers, it is observed that the matrix peaks are shifted to lower 2θ angles and show a greater FWHM - full-width at half-maximum height than the peaks of the unenriched matrix phase. This displacement and broadening of the peaks indicate elastic deformation due to the expansion of the crystalline lattice. Zhang and Bell [14] named this phase “Expanded Phase” due to the expansion of the lattice parameters of the crystalline unit cell. On the other hand, Ichii et al. [19] called this phase S-Phase due to the “shifting” to lower angles of the XRD peaks.
Bell and Chen [26] and Sun [27] presented a limit curve for precipitation of chromium nitrides and carbides as a function of temperature and time of plasma diffusion process for an austenitic AISI 316 L stainless steel. “Nitrogen Expanded Austenite (γN)” and “Carbon Expanded Austenite (γC)” are formed during nitriding or carburizing for temperatures and times below the limit curves shown in Figure 7.
Expanded phases obtained at diffusion temperatures between 350°C and 430°C are responsible for surface hardening [20, 21, 28, 29, 30, 31]. This hardening can be obtained in all stainless steel families with the formation of different phases expanded by nitrogen and/or carbon [20, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Table 1 shows the different expanded phases formed by low-temperature plasma diffusion surface treatment and their hardening characteristics for different families of stainless steels.
Limit curves for precipitation of chromium nitrides or chromium carbides in austenite as a function of temperature and time of plasma diffusion process [
A passivating Cr2O3 film formed on the surface of the parts to be nitrided prevents nitrogen or carbon from entering stainless steel. Thus, the passive film’s mechanical or chemical removal process should be employed before diffusion. The chemical removal of the passive film by acid pickling may compromise the surface finish of the parts or maybe potential damage to the operators’ health or equipment. Currently, modern low-temperature gas nitriding processes still use acid pickling [37] for depassivation of the Cr2O3 layer during exposure of the parts’ surface to atmospheres containing halides (NF3 or HCl) has been carried out in Low-temperature gas carburizing [38]. Activation of the parts’ surface by nickel plating to prevent repassivation by catalytic decomposition of NH3 gas [39] has also been used.
Activation of the surface by “sputtering” in H2, under high voltage and low pressure—[40], use not only the kinetic energy of the ions but also the reducing character of hydrogen [41], preserving the surface quality of the parts being nitrided.
The behavior of nitriding at high temperatures, above 500°C, and at low temperatures, below 420°C, mainly affects the corrosion resistance of the nitrided surface [14]. Austenitic stainless steels cannot be nitrided conventionally at temperatures close to 500–550°C due to intense precipitation of CrN and Cr2N chromium nitrides in the diffusion zone [42, 43, 44, 45]. The precipitation of these nitrides increases the surface hardness but greatly decreases the corrosion resistance due to chromium removal from the solid solution in the matrix. Nitriding must be carried out below 430°C in order to avoid precipitation of nitrides. In this low-temperature nitriding process, generally between 380°C and 420°C, the diffusion kinetics of the chromium substitutional element is significantly reduced, which inhibits the formation of chromium nitrides. The increasing diffusion of nitrogen in the austenite generates a supersaturated solid solution that expands the CFC crystalline lattice and forms the metastable phase called Expanded Austenite—(γN) [46, 47, 48]. The formation of expanded austenite promotes an increase in surface hardness without compromising corrosion resistance [20, 49, 50].
Figure 8 shows the microstructures obtained by Bruno et al. [50] for AISI 316 L steel after nitriding at temperatures of 550°C (a) and 380°C (b). When this steel is nitrided at 550°C, the nitrided surface becomes dark and severely etched, which denotes the loss of corrosion resistance in this region under the action of Villela’s reagent. When nitriding is carried out at 380°C, the nitrided surface appears as a white layer, and the non-nitrided matrix shows a microstructure very similar to a typical austenitic steel microstructure. In this low-temperature nitriding condition, the Marble metallographic reagent does not etch the nitride layer, only the matrix, which indicates a better corrosion resistance of the nitrided surface. This corrosion resistance behavior against metallographic reagents results from the formation mechanism of expanded phases on the nitrided surface. The X-ray diffractograms in Figure 9 show the non-nitrided condition after nitriding at 380°C (a) and 550°C (b). In the non-nitrided condition, only FCC austenite peaks are present. When nitriding at 380°C, FCC austenite peaks are shifted to the left and become broader, resulting from residual compression stresses and distortion of the crystalline lattice caused by nitrogen supersaturation. When expanded austenite is formed on the surface of the nitride specimen, the corrosion resistance is maintained or even improved compared to the non-nitrided specimen. On the other hand, when nitriding is carried out at 550°C, several CrN and Cr2N diffraction peaks show up. Chromium nitride precipitation induces depletion of the Cr content of the metallic matrix and is responsible for the loss of corrosion resistance of the nitrided surface.
Images of the nitrided surfaces after nitriding at (a) 380°C and (b) 550°C. Bruno et al. [
The expansion of the FCC crystal lattice and the increase of the lattice parameter, which occurs when expanded austenite is formed, are shown in Figure 9. Expanded austenite peaks are shifted to the left, and the volume variation is close to 10% [20]. Strain-free FCC austenite has a lattice parameter equal to 0.359 nm (ICDD® Card 00–033-0397). After plasma nitriding, the lattice parameter in expanded austenite increases to 0.375 nm, corresponding to a calculated nitrogen content at a supersaturation equal to 34.6% atomic or approximately 8.5% by mass. These estimations do not consider the contribution of the residual stresses in shifting the diffraction peaks to the left) [51, 52]. Expanded austenite is responsible for the increased surface hardness up to 7 times over the original hardness, as shown in Figure 10 [20].
The interstitial supersaturation of the matrix may be due to nitrogen diffusion in nitriding or carbon diffusion [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54] upon plasma carburizing. The surface treatment may comprise both nitrogen and carbon diffusion, and the plasma treatment is called nitrocarburizing or just carbon for plasma carburizing. These treatments may be carried out at low temperatures, below 430°C for nitrocarburizing and below 500°C for carburizing, avoiding carbide or nitride precipitation. Figure 11 shows the microstructures after (a) nitriding, consisting of a monolayer of austenite expanded by nitrogen (γN); (b) nitrocarburization consisting of a double layer composed of austenite expanded by nitrogen (γN) in the outer region and carbon expanded austenite (γC) between the first layer and the matrix; and (c) carburizing consisting of a carbon-expanded monolayer of austenite (γC).
XRD spectra for AISI 316L steel before and after nitriding [
In nitrocarburizing and carburizing, colossal interstitial supersaturation leads to expansion of the crystalline lattice, generating the expanded phases “γN” and “γC.” Table 2 shows the expansion characteristics of the austenite FCC crystalline lattice under each condition and the dissolved nitrogen content in the supersaturated condition. The volume expansion of the FCC lattice, indicated by the ratio ∆
Surface hardening due to the formation of expanded austenite after plasma nitriding AISI 316L stainless steel at 400°C [
Microstructures of austenitic stainless steel after (a) nitriding, (b) nitrocarburizing, and (c) carburizing at 400°C. scanning electron microscopy [
Steel | Classification | Expanded phase | Symbol | Typical hardness (HV) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Austenitic | AISI 316 | Expanded Austenite | γN | 1400 |
Martensitic | AISI 420 | Expanded Martensite | α′N | 1000 |
Precipitation-hardening | 17-4PH | Expanded Martensite | α′N | 1000 |
Ferritic | AISI 410S | Expanded Ferrite | αN | 1200 |
Duplex | AISI F51 | Expanded Ferrite | αN | 1000 |
Expanded Austenite | γN | 1000 |
Expanded phases formed during low-temperature nitriding of stainless steels.
Phase | ∆ | Concentration, N-C (calculated) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Non-nitrided | γ | 0.3589 | — | — |
Nitrided (400°C) | γN | 0.3924 | 9.32 | 37.2 at.%N |
Nitrocarburized | γN | 0.3916 | 9.11 | 36.3 at.%N |
(400°C) | γC | N.D. | N.D. | N.D. |
Carburized (400°C) | γC | 0.3627 | 1.05 | 6.2 at.%C |
Carburized (480°C) | γC | 0.3684 | 2.64 | 13.9 at.%C |
Lattice parameters, lattice expansion, and calculated interstitial content at supersaturation for the expanded austenite layers in AISI 316L steel.
Carbon pickup and compressive residual stresses on the surface of AISI 316L stainless steel after low temperature carburizing to colossal carbon enrichment [
Figure 12 shows the relationship between carbon supersaturation in the FCC crystalline lattice and residual stresses in the case-hardened surface of AISI 316 L austenitic stainless steel. Both parameters gradually decrease toward the nucleus [53] due to supersaturation and the generation of residual compressive stresses on the treated surfaces. Figure 13 shows the high potential for surface hardening for the three types of treatment [54].
Maximum hardness on AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel surface upon plasma nitriding, nitrocarburizing, and carburizing at 400°C [
Martensitic stainless steels behave similarly to austenitic stainless steels concerning the formation mechanisms of the nitrided surface at different process temperatures. Figure 14 shows the microstructures of AISI 420 steel after plasma nitriding at 380°C and 550°C. At 550°C, the diffusion zone is heavily darkened due to a severe etching by Villela’s reagent, but when nitriding is carried out at 380°C, the diffusion zone practically remains unchanged compared to the tempered martensite matrix. The darkening of the nitrided layer denotes loss of corrosion resistance due to the nitriding process, while the unetched nitrided layer indicates that the corrosion resistance is maintained in low-temperature nitriding [33].
Microstructures of nitrided surfaces at (a) 550°C and (b) 380°C [
In Figure 15, the X-ray diffraction maps show AISI 420 steel before and after plasma nitriding [33]. After quenching and tempering, only the peaks referring to the tempered martensite (α′) are observed. When nitriding is carried out at 380°C, the tempered martensite peaks give way to the expanded tempered martensite peak (α′N). Peaks corresponding to iron nitrides, Fe3N, and Fe4N are also observed. This result shows that this temperature is low enough to inhibit the diffusion of chromium, preventing the precipitation of CrN and Cr2N nitrides. Avoiding the precipitation of chromium nitrides at low temperatures is responsible for maintaining corrosion resistance. The CrN and Cr2N chromium nitrides diffraction peaks that appear after nitriding at 550°C show intense precipitation of chromium compound and chromium depletion of the matrix, responsible for the decrease in the corrosion resistance of the nitrided surface.
XRD spectra for AISI 420 steel before and after nitriding [
Figure 16 shows the corrosion rate of a 380°C nitrided AISI 420 steel specimen when subjected to an immersion test in an aqueous solution with 10% HCl for 120 h. In the quenched and tempered condition, the corrosion rate after nitriding is lower than the non-nitrided material due to the higher nitrogen concentration on the nitrided surface.
While hardening occurs due to the precipitation of chromium nitrides, in the 550°C plasma nitriding treatment and in the 380°C nitriding treatment, the nitrided surface hardens due to the formation of expanded tempered martensite (γ′N), which induces compressive residual stresses.
Figure 17 shows that, compared to the quenched and tempered matrix, with 590 HV, the low-temperature nitriding plasma treatment (380°C) promotes hardening near 1000 HV. For the 550°C nitriding, the hardening nearly reaches 1300 HV. Despite the lower hardening in the nitriding treatment at 380°C, this condition should be preferentially used, as it combines hardening and good corrosion resistance.
The corrosion rate of AISI 420 steel in aqueous solution with 10% HCl for 120 h before and after plasma nitriding at 380°C for 20 h. Author: Unpublished.
Maximum hardness after plasma nitriding of AISI 420 steel. [
Transverse hardening profiles after plasma nitriding of AISI 420 steel at 380°C and 550°C [
Scratches made under constant load on the surface of an AISI 410 steel in the (a) quenched and tempered and (b) after plasma nitriding at 400°C conditions [
Another important factor related to the hardening characteristic is the transverse hardness profile obtained in these two conditions, Figure 18. For the 550°C nitriding treatment, the transverse hardening profile shows a maximum hardness level throughout the diffusion zone with an abrupt drop at the matrix interface [32, 55, 56]. A very steep hardness gradient is not appropriate to withstand mechanical shear stresses found during sliding. Furthermore, exposing the steel to high nitriding temperatures causes a decrease in core hardness by an over-tempering effect [32]. When low-temperature nitriding is carried out, despite the lower maximum hardness, the transverse hardening profile is diffuse, with no decrease in core hardness, and suitable for most different applications.
The surface hardening promoted in the low-temperature plasma nitriding treatment is responsible for increasing the tribological properties [57]. Figure 19 compares the scratch resistance of an AISI 410 martensitic stainless steel: (a) non-nitrided, quenched, and tempered to a 40 HRC hardness; (b) plasma nitrided at 400°C. The scratch path in the non-nitrided condition is thicker and more profound than in the nitrided condition and presents deformation in its surroundings. Table 3 shows that the scratch severity is at least half of the non-nitrided condition for the scratch track’s depth and thickness in the nitrided condition.
Figure 20 compares the cavitation resistance of non-nitrided and 400° plasma nitrided AISI 410 stainless steel in a test [58]. One can see that the mass loss of the low-temperature plasma nitrided specimens lost 40 times less mass than the non-nitrided specimen.
Martensitic stainless steels can also be nitrocarburized or carburized [59, 60, 61, 62]. Nitrocarburization of 420 martensitic stainless steel carried out at 450°C for 4 h can achieve a surface hardening close to 1280 HV with a layer composed of nitrogen and carbon expanded martensite (γ′NC) and Fe3C/Fe2–3(CN) type precipitates. Nitriding at lower temperatures avoids these precipitates in the layer. Figure 21 shows the hardness profile of the martensitic stainless steel after plasma hardening at 450°C for 4 h, with a maximum hardening potential of 800 HV and a hardening depth in the diffusion zone close to 0.040 mm [61].
Condition | Hardness (HV0.01) | Width (μm) | Depth (μm) |
---|---|---|---|
Non-nitrided | 388 | 90 | 26 |
Nitrided | 1275 | 43 | 12 |
Scratch width and depth for non-nitrided and 400°C plasma nitrided AISI 410 stainless steel.
Mass loss during cavitation tests of an AISI 410 steel in the quenched and tempered and 400°C plasma nitrided conditions [
Hardness profile for a 450°C (4 h) plasma nitrided AISI 420 martensitic stainless steel [
The plasma nitriding process for PH precipitation-hardening stainless steels should preferably be carried out at temperatures equal to or below the aging temperature of the steel part. PH steels are aged at different temperatures, specified according to the final desired mechanical properties. A proper selection of the nitriding temperature allows for reaching the desired surface hardness without compromising the quenched pus tempered hardness achieved during aging. The plasma nitriding treatment of PH steel components may be carried out at lower or higher temperatures depending on the application and the operating conditions.
Figure 22(a) shows the nitrided layer and the resulting hardening of aged 17–4PH steel after 4 h at 550°C plasma nitriding treatment. For this condition, the nitrided layer is composed of a diffusion zone formed by the precipitation of iron and chromium nitrides. The precipitation of these nitrides promotes an intense surface hardening, capable of raising the surface hardness to values close to 1300 Vickers [34]. Figure 22(b) shows that the 35.3 HRC hardness of the substrate, previously aged for 4 h at 552°C, condition H1025 (AMS 5643 2013), practically remained unchanged after nitriding at 550°C/4 h with a measured value of 34.4 HRC [34]. Figure 23 shows a gentle hardness profile and a nitriding depth close to 0.65 mm.
Nitriding of PH steels can also be performed at lower temperatures so as not to affect corrosion resistance [63]. Figure 24 shows the nitrided layer of 17–4PH steel after plasma nitriding at 400°C using the active screen technique. It is observed that the nitrided layer is white and not etched by Villela’s reagent, unlike the nitrided layer at 550°C, which is dark and severely etched by Villela’s reagent. This difference in behavior is related to the nitriding mechanisms. As hardening in nitriding at 550°C occurs with the precipitation of chromium nitrides, corrosion resistance decreases as the matrix is depleted in chromium. When plasma nitriding is carried out at 400°C, hardening occurs by forming a nitrogen supersaturated layer of expanded martensite (α′N) without nitrides precipitation, reaching 1130 Vickers.
Nitrided layer (a) and hardening characteristic (b) of 17–4PH steel after plasma nitriding in DC-plasma at 550°C [
Transverse hardening profile of 17–4PH steel after DC plasma nitriding at 550°C [
Low-temperature plasma nitriding of ferritic and duplex stainless steels is still being developed and is not commercially available yet. However, many reports promise good results for use in most different components and applications. When ferritic stainless steels are nitrided at low temperatures, precipitation of chromium nitrides is avoided [35, 64]. Figure 25 shows the microstructure of a plasma nitrided AISI 410S stainless steel with a layer of expanded ferrite (αN) containing Fe3N iron nitrides. Shifted to the left, expanded ferrite (αN) peaks appear on the X-ray diffraction pattern of the nitrided layer, Figure 26. Vertical dashed lines indicate the positions of ferrite peaks in the matrix. Besides, Fe3N peaks were also detected. The absence of chromium nitrides in the nitrided layer grants the corrosion resistance of the nitrided surface. Figure 27 shows the hardening obtained in the nitriding by comparing the maximum surface hardness obtained and the transversal hardening profile of the nitrided surface.
Hardness variation after plasma nitriding of 17–4PH stainless steel α′N expanded martensite layer and Vickers hardness before and after ASPN at 400°C. [
Microstructure of the nitrided surface after plasma nitriding AISI 410S stainless steel at 400°C [
XR diffraction pattern of the surface after plasma nitriding AISI 410S stainless steel at 400°C. [
Surface hardness and hardness profile of an AISI 410S stainless steel after plasma nitriding at 400°C [
Corrosion resistance testing carried out by immersion in 3% FeCl3 aqueous solution, for 88 h, at room temperature showed a better performance of the nitrided specimens concerning the non-nitrided ones, Figure 28. When the steel is nitrided at a low temperature (N400°C), the corrosion properties are not changed compared to the non-nitrided condition. However, high-temperature nitriding (N530°C) promotes a significant loss of corrosion resistance compared to the other two conditions [65].
Mass loss and corrosion rates of non-nitrided and plasma nitrided AISI 410S stainless steel during immersion in 3% FeCl3 aqueous solution for 88 h at room temperature [
Microstructure of 2205 duplex stainless steel, after low-temperature plasma nitriding. Expanded ferrite and expanded austenite [
Duplex stainless steels’ microstructure is composed of austenite and ferrite in approximately equal proportions. In this condition, low-temperature nitriding leads to the formation of expanded austenite (γN) and expanded ferrite (αN) on top of ferrite and austenite strings, respectively [36, 66, 67]. Figure 29 shows the microstructure on the surface of type 2205 duplex stainless steel after plasma nitriding at 400°C. The austenite and ferrite bands and the formation of the respective expanded phases on the nitrided surface are observed in the photomicrograph [67]. The X-ray diffraction pattern in Figure 30 shows the initial phases’ peaks and shifted to the left, the respective peaks of the nitrogen-expanded phases. Fe3N iron nitrides were also detected [67]. Consequently, the formation of expanded austenite and expanded ferrite on the surface led to an intense hardening of the nitrided surface, as shown in Figure 31.
XR-diffraction pattern of 400°C plasma nitrided 2205 duplex stainless steel. [
Hardness of ferrite and austenite and expanded ferrite and expanded austenite in 400°C plasma nitrided 2205 duplex stainless steel. [
Duplex stainless steels can also be subjected to a duplex nitriding treatment consisting of a combination of high-temperature and low-temperature diffusion treatments. Firstly, an HTGN—high-temperature gas nitriding is carried out at 1200°C, followed by a 400°C LTPN—low-temperature plasma nitriding aiming for a better load-bearing capacity. In the high-temperature nitriding treatment, nitrogen is introduced on the surface of the steel, shifting the phase equilibrium so that ferrite stringers are transformed to austenite, thus forming a 100 μm thick fully γ layer, raising the hardness from 280 to 330 HV. Subsequently, the LTPN—low-temperature plasma nitriding diffusion treatment leads to a continuous and homogeneous layer of expanded austenite (γN), 1200 HV hard, on top of the austenite layer [11]. Figure 32 shows the microstructure of the duplex nitrided 2205 steel. This microstructure grants greater load-bearing capacity than the single plasma nitriding treatment, and the alloy’s performance under cavitation-erosion is much better, as shown in Figure 33.
Microstructure of duplex treated 2205 duplex stainless steel (HTGN + LTPN) [
Mass loss during a cavitation-erosion test. 2205 duplex stainless steel non-nitrided, HTGN, and duplex nitrided (HTGN + LTPN) [
Duplex treatments (HTGN + LTPN) can considerably increase the tribological properties of the surface. Figure 33 shows the mass loss results during a 2205 duplex-stainless-steel cavitation-erosion test. The mass loss decreases after (HTGN) high-temperature gas nitriding, forming a thick high-nitrogen austenite layer. In the duplex treatment, the mass loss is almost null for testing times up to 64 h due to forming a 1300 HV hard expanded austenite layer sustained by a harder substrate [11].
A plasma diffusion technology, which combines a plasma nitriding treatment with a subsequent solubilization treatment, was proposed in pioneering work by Pinedo et al. for solid-state alloying [68, 69]. A 1 mm thick sample of AISI 316 L austenitic stainless steel, plasma nitrided at 470°C for 12 h, in a 1N2:1H2 gas mixture, formed a 60 μm deep, 1290 HV hard nitrided layer composed of γ + CrN + Cr2N. After nitriding, the material was solubilized at 1150°C and cooled in water to promote the diffusion and homogeneous redistribution of nitrogen through the sheet’s cross-section. After solubilizing, a 0.80 wt.%N, homogeneous nitrogen content was found throughout the thickness, consistent with Thermocalc© predictions. Figure 34 shows the nitrogen enrichment profile on the nitrided surface, reaching a maximum content of 10 wt.%. Figure 35 shows the hardness profile along the sheet thickness showing a homogeneous increase in hardness from 200 to 300 HV, achieving complete hardening of the cross-section.
Compositional profile of nitrogen obtained by GDOES after plasma nitriding of AISI 316 L steel [
Transverse hardening of AISI 316 steel nitrided under plasma and solubilized at 1150°C [
Recently [70] Berton et al. applied the same principle for an AISI 409 ferritic stainless steel. AISI 409 specimens 0.8N2:0.2H2 plasma nitrided at 510°C for 2 h and later solubilized at 1100°C for 1 h for nitrogen diffusion in the ferritic matrix. Once the steel was solubilized, it was subjected to quenching and tempering treatments to obtain a high surface hardness tempered martensite layer. Figure 36 presents the nitrogen profile along the cross-section for the solubilized (NS) and tempered conditions from 950°C (Q950) and 1050°C (Q1050), showing a maximum effective enrichment of the order of 1% by mass. This enrichment after the complete quenching and tempering cycles promotes a maximum rise in surface hardness close to 4x the core hardness at transverse hardening depths of up to 600 μm, as shown in Figure 37.
Compositional profile of nitrogen determined by WDS in the diffused condition (NS) and after quenching from 950°C (NS-Q950) and 1050°C (NSQ1050) [
Transverse hardening profiles of AISI 409 steel under conditions; solubilized (NS) and after quenching at 950°C (Q950) and 1050°C (Q1050), and tempering for 1 h at 250 (T2), 450 (T4), and 650°C (T6). The untreated condition is shown for comparison [
Although stainless steels are designed to sustain distinctly superior corrosion resistance in a wide range of aggressive environments, these steels do not show enough wear resistance in many highly demanding tribological conditions, harming performance and service life.
Diffusion-based surface hardening processes are an alternative to increasing the wear resistance of stainless steel without compromising its corrosion properties. Accordingly, different thermochemical solutions of diffusion surface treatment of stainless steels were presented; (i) high-temperature gas nitriding, (ii) low-temperature plasma or gas nitriding, nitrocarburizing, or carburizing, (iii) duplex treatment combining high and low-temperature nitriding treatments, and (iv) solid-state annealing, to promote surface hardening and maintain or even raise, the corrosion resistance of these materials.
Surface hardening by diffusion thermochemical processes is an efficient strategy to produce tailor-made surfaces with improved mechanical strength and wear resistance, applicable to all classes of stainless steel.
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Guadalajara International Book Fair
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Attama, Mumuni A. Momoh and Philip F. Builders",authors:[{id:"142947",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Attama",slug:"anthony-attama",fullName:"Anthony Attama"}]},{id:"67939",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85991",title:"Molecular Docking in Modern Drug Discovery: Principles and Recent Applications",slug:"molecular-docking-in-modern-drug-discovery-principles-and-recent-applications",totalDownloads:3890,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"The process of hunt of a lead molecule is a long and a tedious process and one is often demoralized by the endless possibilities one has to search through. Fortunately, computational tools have come to the rescue and have undoubtedly played a pivotal role in rationalizing the path to drug discovery. Of all techniques, molecular docking has played a crucial role in computer aided drug design and has swiftly gained ranks to secure a valuable position in the modern scenario of structure-based drug design. In this chapter, the principle, sampling algorithms, scoring functions and diverse available software’s for molecular docking have been summarized. We demonstrate the interplay of docking, classical techniques of structure-based design and X-ray crystallography in the process of drug discovery. In addition, we dwell upon some of the limitations faced in docking studies. Finally, several success stories of molecular docking approaches in drug discovery have been highlighted, concluding with remarks on molecular docking for the future.",book:{id:"7867",slug:"drug-discovery-and-development-new-advances",title:"Drug Discovery and Development",fullTitle:"Drug Discovery and Development - New Advances"},signatures:"Aaftaab Sethi, Khusbhoo Joshi, K. 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It describe the bioactive compounds derived from natural resources, its phytochemical analysis, characterization and pharmacological investigation. It focuses on the success of these resources in the process of finding and discovering new and effective drug compounds that can be useful for human resources. From many years, natural products have been acting as a source of therapeutic agents and have shown beneficial uses. Only natural product drug discovery plays an important role to develop the scientific evidence of these natural resources. Research in drug discovery needs to develop robust and viable lead molecules, which step forward from a screening hit to a drug candidate through structural elucidation and structure identification through GC–MS, NMR, IR, HPLC, and HPTLC. The development of new technologies has revolutionized the screening of natural products in discovering new drugs. Utilizing these technologies gives us an opportunity to perform research in screening new molecules using a software and database to establish natural products as a major source for drug discovery. It finally leads to lead structure discovery. Powerful new technologies are revolutionizing natural herbal drug discovery.",book:{id:"8290",slug:"pharmacognosy-medicinal-plants",title:"Pharmacognosy",fullTitle:"Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Akshada Amit Koparde, Rajendra Chandrashekar Doijad and Chandrakant Shripal Magdum",authors:[{id:"268668",title:"Dr.",name:"Akshada",middleName:"Amit",surname:"Koparde",slug:"akshada-koparde",fullName:"Akshada Koparde"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49459",title:"Pharmacokinetics of Drugs Following IV Bolus, IV Infusion, and Oral Administration",slug:"pharmacokinetics-of-drugs-following-iv-bolus-iv-infusion-and-oral-administration",totalDownloads:15480,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"4491",slug:"basic-pharmacokinetic-concepts-and-some-clinical-applications",title:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Tarek A. 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It describe the bioactive compounds derived from natural resources, its phytochemical analysis, characterization and pharmacological investigation. It focuses on the success of these resources in the process of finding and discovering new and effective drug compounds that can be useful for human resources. From many years, natural products have been acting as a source of therapeutic agents and have shown beneficial uses. Only natural product drug discovery plays an important role to develop the scientific evidence of these natural resources. Research in drug discovery needs to develop robust and viable lead molecules, which step forward from a screening hit to a drug candidate through structural elucidation and structure identification through GC–MS, NMR, IR, HPLC, and HPTLC. The development of new technologies has revolutionized the screening of natural products in discovering new drugs. Utilizing these technologies gives us an opportunity to perform research in screening new molecules using a software and database to establish natural products as a major source for drug discovery. It finally leads to lead structure discovery. Powerful new technologies are revolutionizing natural herbal drug discovery.",book:{id:"8290",slug:"pharmacognosy-medicinal-plants",title:"Pharmacognosy",fullTitle:"Pharmacognosy - Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Akshada Amit Koparde, Rajendra Chandrashekar Doijad and Chandrakant Shripal Magdum",authors:[{id:"268668",title:"Dr.",name:"Akshada",middleName:"Amit",surname:"Koparde",slug:"akshada-koparde",fullName:"Akshada Koparde"}]},{id:"48805",title:"Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics",slug:"biopharmaceutics-and-pharmacokinetics",totalDownloads:26159,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"4491",slug:"basic-pharmacokinetic-concepts-and-some-clinical-applications",title:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications",fullTitle:"Basic Pharmacokinetic Concepts and Some Clinical Applications"},signatures:"S. Lakshmana Prabu, T.N.K. Suriyaprakash, K. Ruckmani and R.\nThirumurugan",authors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",middleName:null,surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"},{id:"128690",title:"Dr.",name:"Suriyaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"Tnk",slug:"suriyaprakash-tnk",fullName:"Suriyaprakash Tnk"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"219",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81857",title:"Use of Oral Ketamine in Palliative Care",slug:"use-of-oral-ketamine-in-palliative-care",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104875",abstract:"Ketamine, an N-methyl-D-Aspartate receptor antagonist, has been used for more than 50 years. From its initial potential as an anesthetic drug, its use has increased in the fields of pain medicine, psychiatry, and palliative care. It is available in different formulations, of which oral use is promising due to its active metabolite, norketamine which reaches 2–3 times higher levels when administered orally in comparison with parenteral use. Oral use is also more feasible and easier to use in settings, where medical staff is not that present, such as home care or hospices. Oral solution of ketamine has not yet been officially licensed for use although there have been several reports which recommend its use in neuropathic pain, severe depression, airway obstruction, and anxiety. Palliative care is defined as total care for patients whose diseases do not respond to curative treatment. It encompasses good control of physical symptoms, and psychological, social and spiritual problems. Patients often experience pain, despite high doses of opioids, depression and anxiety, and dyspnea. Oral ketamine does not have the side effects of opioids therefore it represents a good alternative. It may also reduce the need for high opioid doses and be more suitable for patients who wish to avoid the necessary sedation.",book:{id:"11036",title:"Ketamine Revisited - New Insights into NMDA Inhibitors",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11036.jpg"},signatures:"Mateja Lopuh"},{id:"81722",title:"Ketamine for Chronic Pain",slug:"ketamine-for-chronic-pain",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104874",abstract:"The treatment of chronic pain is a chronic problem for many specialities. It is generally based on an approach with antidepressants, anti-epileptics and opioids as drugs of first choice. It has been worked by many different protocols. Ketamine, which is known as a good anaesthetic, has been used for chronic pain. When the pain has a neuropathic component, ketamine is a promising treatment for pain management. Ketamine: by inhibiting the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor and having some other effects like enhancement of descending inhibition and anti-inflammatory effects at central sites, takes part in chronic pain management. Besides having analgesic effects, there are some concerns about the side effects of ketamine. Some psychedelic symptoms as hallucinations, memory defects, panic attacks, nausea and vomiting, somnolence, cardiovascular stimulation and sometimes hepatoxicity may be seen in patients. Ketamine is generally well-tolerated in clinical settings. Close monitoring of patients receiving ketamine should be mandatory in order to be aware of central nervous system, haemodynamic, renal and hepatic symptoms as well as abuse.",book:{id:"11036",title:"Ketamine Revisited - New Insights into NMDA Inhibitors",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11036.jpg"},signatures:"Cigdem Yildirim Guclu"},{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11036",title:"Ketamine Revisited - New Insights into NMDA Inhibitors",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11036.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81561",title:"Ketamine and Low-Resource Countries",slug:"ketamine-and-low-resource-countries",totalDownloads:51,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104651",abstract:"Safe anaesthesia and surgery are piloted to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with anaesthesia and surgery, and improve surgical outcomes. This goal is far-fetched in developing countries as a result of limited manpower, poor operation theatre infrastructure, unavailability of equipment, life-saving drugs, and anaesthetic agents. Postoperative pain is also widely undertreated in this environment, mostly due to financial constraints patients and their relatives face and the unavailability of analgesics. Sometimes the physicians face problems associated with their resource-limited working environment, such as unreliable electricity, unavailability of compressed oxygen and other gases, sophisticated machines, and modern drugs. Thus, easy adaptability and proper utilisation of available resources have been described as a resounding quality required of anaesthetists working in developing countries, to thrive and provide anaesthetic services. Ketamine is readily available in resource-limited environments, and adaptability to the use of this drug has made it possible for the anaesthetist to provide anaesthesia, pain care services, sedation, and save lives.",book:{id:"11036",title:"Ketamine Revisited - New Insights into NMDA Inhibitors",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11036.jpg"},signatures:"Chimaobi Tim Nnaji"},{id:"81236",title:"The Role of Ketamine in Trauma",slug:"the-role-of-ketamine-in-trauma",totalDownloads:52,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103655",abstract:"Early and effective pain control in trauma patients improves outcomes and limits disability, but analgesia is often missed in the unstable patient, or hemodynamically depressing medications are avoided for fear of losing stability. This chapter outlines the role of ketamine in managing traumatic emergencies in both out-of-hospital and hospital environment, and beyond. Low-dose ketamine also called a sub-dissociative dose is safe, efficient and effective analgesic that can be considered for trauma patients, pediatric or adults, as an alternative to opioids or in combination with opioids for on additive or synergistic effect, with minimal impact on hemodynamic stability. Ketamine at higher doses is also an excellent drug for induction of anesthesia in rapid sequence induction (RSI), post-intubation sedation maintenance or procedural sedation in the trauma patient. Also, can be used for acute agitation and excited delirium. In this chapter, we are describing this drug focusing on a deeper understanding of the safety and efficacy of this agent and, if supported, to encourage physicians to consider ketamine for pain control in trauma and beyond. Also, we are presenting the current literature surrounding ketamine’s evidences in the trauma condition to establish its utility and profile of safety for these patients.",book:{id:"11036",title:"Ketamine Revisited - New Insights into NMDA Inhibitors",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11036.jpg"},signatures:"Mihai Octavian Botea and Erika Bimbo-Szuhai"},{id:"81029",title:"Uses of Ketamine in the Paediatric Population",slug:"uses-of-ketamine-in-the-paediatric-population",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103658",abstract:"General anesthesia in pediatric patients can vary from light sedation to complete anesthesia with unconsciousness, amnesia and muscle relaxation. A wide variety of procedures are done under general anesthesia in children ranging from surgeries done for correction of congenital defects, cardiac surgeries, scoliosis surgery, hernia surgery etc. to procedures done outside the operating room (OR) for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Non-Operating room Anesthesia (NORA) may include painless procedures like CT scan, MRI, radiotherapy for cancer treatment etc. or painful procedures like biopsy, lumbar puncture, securing IV access, insertion of central line etc. done in ICU which requires a cooperative child. Ketamine has an important role in the pediatric population, both as an induction agent and as a sedative-analgesic drug especially in countries where newer drugs are not readily available. Ketamine helps to alleviate separation anxiety. Even procedures done under regional techniques in some older children require use of sedation. Ketamine can be administered through various routes-IV, IM, intranasal etc. It can be used along with other groups of drugs like Benzodiazepines, Barbiturates, Alpha 2 agonists, Propofol etc. Thus Ketamine is a versatile drug with various indications for use in the pediatric population which will be discussed in the current chapter.",book:{id:"11036",title:"Ketamine Revisited - New Insights into NMDA Inhibitors",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11036.jpg"},signatures:"Bhagyalakshmi Ramesh"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"