Various studies concerned with the post-harvest processes and different cultivars influence on flavonoid content.
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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The chapters cover various aspects of applications ranging from basic biological, biomedical applications to industrial applications. Book chapters analyze new developments in chromatographic columns, microextraction techniques, derivatisation techniques and pyrolysis techniques. The book also includes several aspects of basic chromatography techniques and is suitable for both young and advanced chromatographers. It includes some new developments in chromatography such as multidimensional chromatography, inverse chromatography and some discussions on two-dimensional chromatography. The topics covered include analysis of volatiles, toxicants, indoor air, petroleum hydrocarbons, organometallic compounds and natural products. The chapters were written by experts from various fields and clearly assisted by simple diagrams and tables. 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Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites derived from pentose phosphate, shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways in plants [1], and a wide range of functions including participation in the regulation of growth and developmental processes and interactions with biotic and abiotic environmental stimuli have been attributed to the those phytochemicals [2]. Of those compounds, flavonoids comprise the large and common group of plant phenolics with more than 5000 different described flavonoids in six major subclasses, including flavones, flavonols, flavanones, flavanols, anthocyanidins and isoflavones [3].
Carbon skeleton of flavonoids occurs from combining of two phenyl ring and a propane chain. Rings of 2-phenyl benzopyran consisting 15 carbons are referred as A, B and C-rings [4] (Figure 1). Flavonoids structure’s diversity can be classified according to do both major classification and oxidation level [5]. Additionally type, number and binding positions of substitutions binding to aromatic rings cause flavonoids structure’s diversity [6].
The basic structure of flavonoids.
Since plants are open systems and do not exist in a vacuum, they are continuously interacted with their biotic and non-biotic surroundings. In order to explore what kind of mechanisms underlining the defense against changing environmental conditions and other physiological and biochemical processes for the plant are still great concern of the researchers. Like all living and non-living things in the universe, with each step upwards in the life span, novel properties concerned with quality and quantities of the flavonoid content depending on the environmental, ontogenetic, annual and diurnal variations, which are not present at the current stage of the plant may emerge but it is worthy to underline that these effects are species dependent. The post-harvest practices such as “from wild to domestication,” “from fields to shelves” and “from shelves to pharmacy” are also great interest of the consumers for the sustainable healthier life conditions. Hence, universal and uniform mechanisms with respect to the production, accumulation or secretion of the flavonoid have not been proposed yet (Figure 2). Two aspects of flavonoid content and their individual compounds can be discussed. One is the content which is directly dependent on plant species itself and with its responses against abiotic stress conditions. This can be simplified as “plant health.” The later one is about the changes, which are related to the human consumption. This second aspect can be also simplified as “human health.”
Biotic and abiotic factors affecting flavonoid content and composition in plants.
As sessile organisms, plants are often exposed to various environmental stress factors. Hence, plants must regulate their growth and development in response to ever-changing environmental conditions and their stimuli. Once plants cannot tolerate or overcome the unfavorable environmental conditions, plant growth and development are likely adversely influenced and subsequently significant loss of crop yields [7, 8]. Along with the stress conditions, plant behavior may change with respect to the secondary metabolite synthesis, production, secretion and storage when subjected to the abiotic stress factors [9]. Some secondary metabolite synthesis, enzyme activities and soluble substance accumulation were positively influenced by abiotic stress conditions. These are considered as consequences of plant adaptive strategies concerned with establishment of some changes allowing to the plant to sustain its life under ever-changing conditions.
Many results concerned with total flavonoid and their individual compounds in response to the different stressors. For total flavonoid content, increases were determined [2, 10–14, 16, 17, 19, 20] whereas decreases were found [15, 18, 21] under different stress conditions.
Based on the literature review, we cannot deduce and explain the flavonoid accumulation or their compound profile using one simple sentence. The stress effect is compound specific. A uniform mechanism for compound profile variation cannot be illustrated [22]. Furthermore, the flavonoid accumulation is likely dependent stress factors, frequency, duration and timing.
As previously mentioned, pentose phosphate, shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways are of the three pathways in plants, which are responsible for biosynthesis of phenolic compounds [1]. Shikimic acid is a key intermediate in the synthesis of both aromatic amino acids and phenylpropanoids, and oxidative pentose phosphate pathway is of the precursors for the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids, lignin and flavonoids [23]. Regulation and expression of the genes on the pathways have been well elucidated, but the pathway compartmentation is not yet known [24]. Some of the synthesis-associated genes and enzymes involved in phenolics biosynthesis were characterized in Arabidopsis (
Stressors bring about quantitative and qualitative changes in plant metabolites. Of those, in general, biosynthesis of proteins in the plant leaves is suppressed, triggering the changes at gene expression levels and subsequently the synthesis of new proteins. For the lipid content and composition, the disturbances concerned with fatty acid composition, especially changes in fatty acid carbon chains. The variations in the lipid composition influence membrane lipids and transport functions of membranes. Furthermore, accumulation of the compatible solutes is of the responses against drought, high temperature or high salinity, maintaining the osmotic adjustment and turgor regulation [31].
Plant secondary metabolites have been considered or often referred to as metabolites which are not fundamentals for sustainability of basic plant life processes. However, the crucial and wide range roles of secondary metabolites have been understood. The accumulation of phenylpropanoids increased in response to the environmental stress including pathogen attack, UV-radiation, high light, nutrient deficiency etc. According to Bryant et al. [32] hypothesis, an exchange occurs between carbon and biomass production or formation of defensive secondary metabolites, proposing that secondary metabolites are involved in protective processes of plants in response to stressors. For example, phenyl amide formation and accumulation of anthocyanin and polyamines have been reported as a response to the environmental stresses [33, 34].
Flavonoids are secondary metabolites synthesized by general phenylpropanoid pathway in plants [35]. They have been considered as a secondary (non-enzymatic) reactive oxygen species scavenging system in plants and humans [36]. Flavonoids exhibit direct scavenging of reactive oxygen species [36] one of the ways scavenging reactive oxygen species, flavonoids can easily donate hydrogen atom. Thus, while reactive oxygen species are inactivated by flavonoids, flavonoids return to phenoxyl radical [37]. Flavonoids phenoxyl radical can react with other free radicals and then acquiring a stable quinone structure [38]. The other way of scavenging reactive oxygen species, flavonoids return to phenoxyl radical by donating hydrogen atom at the first step. At the second step, phenoxyl radical scavenge other high reactive radical (R●) by radical-radical termination. Flavonoid phenoxyl radical is highly stabile radical due to presence of a resonance structure redistributed the unpaired electron on the aromatic core [39]
Scavenging of ROS by flavonoids, reproduced from Pietta [
UV light from sunlight is primarily required to perform photosynthesis as basic function and developmental process such as de-etiolation, phototropism and flowering of the plants [40, 41]. But interestingly, the UV light causes damage to DNA, protein and cell membranes of the plants, because, as sessile organisms, plants are more exposed to the UV-light. Subsequently, normal growth and development of plants are retarded [41]. Short-wavelength UV light is grouped into three categories. Of those, UV-A (315–400 nm) directly reaches the earth’s surface, and UV-B (280–315 nm) and UV-C (100–280 nm) are blocked by the ozone layer. However, a small quantity of UV-B reaches the earth’s surface because of ozone layer depletion and subsequently causes DNA damages [42].
UV-B has highest energy of UV light that reaches the earth surface [43]. Although the high level of UV-B causes damage to biomolecules, low level of UV-B regulates morphology, development, phycology and biochemical compositions [44]. While long wavelengths UV light-induced regulation is provided with photoreceptors including phototropins, neochromes, phytochromes, rhodopsins and cryptochromes [45] (Figure 5), UV-B-induced regulation is provided with UV RESISTANCE LOCUS 8 (UVR8) receptor protein [46]. UVR8 directly absorbs UV-B radiation and induces the transcription of flavonoids biosynthesis genes by orchestrating UV protective gene expression responses [47].
Photochemistry of quercetin pentamethyl ether (A) and photochemistry of flavan-3-ols (B) [
UV light perception, signaling and responses in Arabidopsis (scheme adapted from Li et al. [
Flavonoids are synthesized with phenylpropanoid pathway in plant and the pathway includes enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), 4-coumaroyl: CoA ligase (4CL), Chalcone Synthase (CHS), Chalcone Isomerase (CHI), Flavone Synthase (FS) and Dihydroflavonol-4-Reductase (DFRA) [48]. CHS is key enzymes for flavonoid biosynthesis pathway. CHS catalysis condensation reaction of Coumaroyl CoA and Malonyl CoA.
Upregulation of CHS genes transcription in response to the several stressors was reported to induce flavonoid biosynthesis [49]. UVR8 protein interacts with the WD40-repeat domain of COP1 after perception of UV-B light that is one of the stressors [50]. Consequently, UVR8-COP1 complex leads to activation of HY5 gene expression [47]. HY5 proteins as a transcription factor play an enhancing role for UV-B induced-CHS gene expression during seedling development by binding to a conserved G-box sequence [51, 52]. Thus, flavonoids that accumulate in upper epidermis layer specially absorb a large amount of 280–340 nm wavelengths [53]. Thus, the flavonoids accumulated in upper epidermis layer protect the internal tissues of leaves and stems against UV-B. Since the synthesis of kaempferol is deficient in chalcone flavone isomerase mutant tt4
It is worthy to note that the flavonoids are not unique functional UV-blocker absorbing all UV-B irradiation but the other protective roles of flavonoids cannot be ignored in spite of deficient in absorption of all UV-B irradiation since UV-B induced increase in the quantity of flavonoids has been reported, suggesting that flavonoids may exhibit functions including signal molecules, antioxidant molecules, defensive compounds, allelochemicals [56] after UV-B exposure in plant.
When the UV light cannot be completely blocked via defense system apparatus of the plants, UV light reaches to DNA, resulting in formation of cyclobutene pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and 6-4 photoproducts (6-4PPs) on DNA [57, 58]. There are two mechanisms repairing the photoproduct that can inhibit transcription and replication and induce mutations [48]: first one is photolyases enzyme, and the other one is nucleotide excision repair mechanism [60]. CPD Photolyase gene expression is regulated by a wide spectrum of light, including far-red, red and blue light [61]. But recent studies reported that photolyase gene expression was regulated by UVR8 receptor protein and the regulation mechanism remains poorly understood [62]. In order to exhibit DNA repair activity, photolyase enzyme needs UV-A light [63] but the light is not required for the activity of dark repair called nucleotide excision repair mechanism. Recently, photolyase and nucleotide excision repair mechanism in
Any direct and indirect biotic or abiotic stressors or their combinations at certain time or simultaneously influence the phytochemistry and subsequently the changes orchestrate the plant protection and plants’ biological activities. Herewith, phytochemistry of a plant can be regarded as protective roles for plants against stressors and health-promoting properties for humans. The quality of the crop plants is a combination attributed to their composition and contents that shape the commodity value for human consumption. Since humans are, in general, considered to be at the top of the food chain, the terminal of the flavonoid-enriched/poor crop plants would be the human, resulting the health standards.
Nothing stays the same as its former form and the changes are inevitable for all living and non-living things. Therefore, numerous studies—as listed in Table 1 but not limited in this chapter—have been performed in order to keep the stability or dynamic changes of flavonoid content and its compound. Of those studies, atmosphere conditions are of great interest for long-term storage and subsequently essential for keeping biological value of the crop. In the study reported on
Storage conditions/cultivars/harvest times | Total flavonoid content | Plant species | Researchers |
---|---|---|---|
Different storage temperatures (0, 2, 4, and 6 + 2°C) + 5%, 10%, 20% or 0.03% CO2 | Total flavonoid content | [54] | |
Storage conditions were at 50, 25, 4, and −20°C | Total flavonoid content | [59] | |
Freeze and thermal drying | Total flavonoid content | [60] | |
Stability testing at different temperatures | Flavonoid glycosides | [61] | |
Storage at 27°C for 9 days | Total flavonoid content | [62] | |
Temperature and storage time | quercetin-3-rutinoside, quercetin-3-glucoside, quercetin-3-d-galactoside | [63] | |
Subunit parts of the rhizome during the thermal drying process under treatment temperatures ranging from 40 to 120°C | Mangiferin, iristectorigenin A, irigenin, irilone dichotomitin | [64] | |
Cultivars and storage conditions | Total flavonoids | [65] | |
Normal atmosphere and 0% CO2 + 21% O2, (2) 5% CO2 + 5% O2, 5% CO2 + 2% O2, 2% CO2 + 5% O2, 2% CO2 + 2% O2 | Quercetin 3,4′-di-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-glucoside (isoquercetin), quercetin 4′-O-glucoside (spiraeoside) | [64] | |
At ambient temperature (about 25 ± 2°C) in a refrigerator (4 ± 0.2°C) and sampling days 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 | Total flavonoid content | [67] | |
Different cultivars | Spiraeoside (quercetin-4′-O-β-d-glucoside), rutin and quercetin | [70] | |
Different plant parts, developmental storage and storage durations (1, 2, 3 and 4 days) | Total flavonoid content | [66] | |
Storage at 6, 16 and 25°C for 6 days. | Flavonol | [68] | |
Different temperatures 25 ± 2°C (room temperature) and 10 ± 1°C (refrigerator) at different time of intervals (1st, 5th and 10th day) | Total flavonoid content | [71] | |
Storage for 0–7 months at 25 and 37°C | Total flavonoid content | [72] | |
Light ((photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) level of 56 ± 0.5 μmol m−2 s−1 (H); 31 ± 0.2 μmol m−2 s(L), or in dark (D). and maturity (0–5% red, 20% red, 50% red, 80% red, 100% red) | Ellagic acid, quercetin, kaempferol and cyanidin 3-glucoside | [69] | |
Storage for 7, 15 and 30 days at 4, 22 and 35°C | Catechin, epicatechin, procyanidins B1-B4 and total flavonoids | Cocoa powder | [73] |
Industrially squeezed, pasteurized, concentrated and stored under refrigeration (4°C) and at room temperature (20°C) | Flavanone-7-O-glycosides, fully methoxylated flavones | [74] | |
Cultivar and storage conditions | Total flavonoid content | [75] |
Various studies concerned with the post-harvest processes and different cultivars influence on flavonoid content.
Furthermore, the influence of different plant parts, developmental storage and storage durations (1, 2, 3 and 4 days) [66], different temperature and sampling days [67], different storage days [68], Light (photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) level and maturity [69] has been examined to indicate that the there is no constant stability or dynamics of flavonoid content and its compounds in quantity and quality.
As a conclusion, since plants are open systems and do not exist in a vacuum, they are continuously interacted with their biotic and non-biotic surroundings. Based on the literatures cited in the present chapter, a universal mechanism with respect to the accumulation behavior of flavonoid cannot be illustrated even the flavonoids commonly exhibit a tendency toward increase in response to the unfavorable conditions. Up to our best research, flavonoid accumulation behavior varies depending on the developmental stage, species and even cultivars of the same species. It also exhibits different reaction to the different stressors.
Beyond physiological aspect for the plants for their survival mechanism, plants are also sources for other living organisms. The quality and then biological efficacy of the flavonoid containing crops are great issue for human beings. According to the literature cited herein, the fate of the flavonoids containing herbal products including bulbs, leaves, fruits etc is influenced by the storage temperatures, storage time, modified storage conditions, cultivars, different parts and subunit parts of the plant, light and maturity.
As per World Health Organization (2002), The “Traditional medicine” may be defined as health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being [1].
\nAfrica is one of the heritage continent also known as cradle of human being and the concept of traditional medicine in africa is existed long back with out documentation as a hidden evidence less practices for human beings who have been struggling with various unknown diseases. African people have their own ancestral practices to heal using different methods [2].
\nAccording to World Health Organization report more than 80% of the people in Africa depend on traditional medicine for their health care needs (WHO, 2003). The African people have been depending on various plants and animals source for their drug to treat various physical and mental illness. Nearly, 4000 medicinal plants have been documented towards their various Pharmacological activities [3].
\nAny Traditional medicine consists of medical treatment with an ancient roots that has been passed over generations to maintain health, as well as to prevent, diagnose, improve or treat illnesses. Various cultural and historic conditions have been influenced in the development of traditional medicine.The common basis for any Traditional medicine concept is a holistic healing to maintain life equilibrium between the body, mind and soul with external environment. Even the Traditional African Medicine is not an exception from this universal holistic approach.
\nSome of the Traditional healing systems and concepts have been supported by huge volume of literature and are in transition towards evidence healing concepts. However Traditional African Medicine is still has not been documented and under process of documentation as from generations to generations, this was hidden as secret concept of healing. Still to date, in most parts of the africa, the major population have been continue to rely on traditional medicine to meet their primary health care needs [4].
\nIn Africa, Traditional medicine is a healing belief system having its own health and disease concept. This is considered as a hidden treasure or knowledge that will pass from father to his only one beloved son of that family. The various healing concepts in Traditional African medicine (TAM) includes herbalism, surgery, bone setting, spinal manipulation, psychotheraphy, hydrotherapy, occultism, hydrotheraphy etc. However, lack of indepth scientific validation of these african traditional medicine and their documentation is a greatest lacuna and very much attention is required by the modern herbalists to safegaurd this healing concept. In the herbalism, vegetable, animal, and mineral substances have been used. In the metaphysical healing concept, Spirtualism concepts like prayers, invocations, or incantations have been offered to some mysterious and powerful forces in the various belief concept system like exorcism, divination, libation etc., were also been practicing to heal several diseases, how ever, scientific validation and documentation is still challenging [5, 6]. Some of plants used in herbalism by traditional african healers are
As per the Traditional African Medicine, Illness is considered as disorder that having both natural and supernatural causes. This must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using various procedures like divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. It is a type of holistic health care system based on three levels of basic principles known as divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The health care services provided by the healers are based on culture, religious background, knowledge attitudes, and their community beliefs.
\nThe historical Development of African Traditional Medicine consists of two periods/Eras:
Colonial Era
Modern Period
In this era, the traditional medicinal practices have been considered as primitive and backward. Under colonial rule, traditional healers and their practices were not recognized by the scientific world as they were wrongly predicted as witchcraft and black magic. These practices in this era was considered by many nations as an illegal by the colonial authorities. Even in this period, attempts have been made to control the sale of herbal medicines. With the spread of colonaialism and christianity, christian missionaries built private ones and allopathy system of medicine is on widespread to treat various diseases [11].
\nHowever, in this era, the modern world showed more interest in some of the medicinal plants that have been using in the african traditional healing systems as a bioprospecting tools towards discovery of drug leads and drugs. Still there are many hidden mysteries that need to be learnt from traditional african practices by the modern world. In the writings of Dr. T. Adeoze Lambo, a Nigerian psychiatrist, stated in 1979, always there is a mystery in the african traditional healing concepts especially in the treatment of neurosis [12].
\nThe pricinples involved in African traditional medicine is organized into three levels namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. It is a holistic approach that considers illness may be due to both physical and spirtual means that can be healed by using the concepts of divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Traditional healers in the africa have been occupied prime position in the living community that uses herbs, minerals, animals and other spirtual and cultural belief to cure various diseases.
\nIt is the spirtual healing process which is an act to contact between spirtual world and the mundane world for getting the guidance to heal [13]. The traditional healers were known as diviners. As per the belief systems, divination is a part of witchcraft and is a sign of metaphysical curses to block ones living energy. The local tribes in Africa have strong belief in metaphysical healing systems incompare to western medicine with respect to some ailments which are not clearly understood by the allopathy system of medicine. These type of ailments were considered as spiritual illnesses. The healing protocols in divination includes following of ancestor instructions and sacrifices to the spirtual world. Sometimes the diagnosis in divination protocol includes dream interpretations like apperance of ancestors, nightmares, omens, owls in diseased patients. The traditional healers through the secret knowledge of divination and interprets the dreams through the communication to spirtual world and the healing process will be done as per the spirtual communication by the healer which includes secret recipes of herbal bath, herbal decoctions, sacrifices, incantations and wearing of herbal parts as a protective medicine in form of talisman[14, 15]. However clear scientific validation over divination healing is still unclear and lack of scientific evidences. The traditional healers never expose their herbo-magical remedies to the other people. The different procedures in the divination includes tarot card and readings, celetic ogham, Norse Runes, tasseography or tasseomancy, Pendulum readings, osteomancy, lithomancy, fullmoon water scrying, pshycic automatic writing. To understand divination, it is always better to watch a documented video (Video 1; Available from (can be viewed at) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZpqdICyq UM.).
\nThe spiritualism or spirtual healing is an important healing practices in traditional african medicine and includes the following healing procedures.
Spirtual protection
Africans believe that some unknown illness are may be due to an attack by the evil spirits. In this case the spirtual healer prescribes talisman, charm, amulets, specially designed body marks, and a spiritual bath to drive evil spirits away. These rituals are helpul in driving off evil and dangerous dark spirtual forces or elements to ward off the evils or dangers that may have befallen a individual or family or community [16].
Sacrifices
Sacrifices are also part of spirtual healing process, sometimes offered at the request of spirits, gods, and ancestors which includes the sacrifice and burrial of various animals like dogs, cats, buffaloes etc. which are burried alive at midnight to save the individual from the evil attacks. Even these sacrifices includes some secret herbs, in which the healers believe that without these herbs, the process of sacrifices is incomplete. In some parts of Africa like Southafrica, this sacrifices also includes human sacrifices which is known as muti or ritual murder, which includes in identification of young child and sacrifices by spirtual healers for various beleifs [17].
Spirtual cleanising
This is also a part of spirtual healing also known as spirtual bath. This remedy is prescribed to the disease person with procedure and how many times per day. This includes secret herbal bath, holy water bath, and animal blood poured from head to toe and these practices are common in the african countries like Ghana.
\nAfter this bath, the diseased individual is required to offer certain items for sacrifice or libation like dove, dog, cat, got, fowl etc., along with local gin, cola nut, eggs, and plain white, red, or black cloth. It is belief that these items after sacrifice will be taken by the Gods.
\nThe Gods guide the traditional healer for specific bath and specific item for sacrificing. All the specified things will be tied in cloth and thrown into flowing river after sacrifice and left to degrade. Sometimes, these things will left at the cross roads at the outskirts of community depending on the nature and severity of the case.
\nIn somecases these spirtual cleansing techniques also known as a Ritual sacrifice baths. The Hausa-Fulani women of Zaria, Nigeria during cold or respiratory illness, they practices these type of ritual bath with hot water splashes along with the twigs of tamarind or neem tree [18, 19].
Exorcism
This is also a part of spirtual healing practising in several parts of the Africa. This includes expelling demons or evil spirits from the person with illness. Africans believes that certain diseases are may be due to possession of evil spirits. The diseases like mental illness is considered due to these evil possessions. The skill of exorcism is only be performed by the traditional leader or preist in that community. This includes various rituals like rosary chanting, dances, drums, music, songs, bibilical verses, touches the ill person with animal tails, and other objects [20].
\nThe other healing techniques in the spirtualism includes libation, which is defined as the pouring of some liquids like gin, aromas on to the ground as an offering to get release from the illness due to karmic events. This can be practised through various techniques like invocation, supplication, and conclusion. The process of libation is to win over the evil wishes and curses by enemies. This includes pouring or offering various liquids to the ground along with prayers and chants [21]. It is always better to watch a documented video (Video 2; available from (can be viewd at) https://youtu.be/lKZeDWpcoEw) to understand more about the spirtualism practices.
\nEven use of herbal remedies is a part of Traditional African Medicine since ancient times. However, In Africa, the herbalism is in transition towards modernisation. It is the study, standardization, quality control and use of different herbs with evidences or non evidences. The herbalism existed since ancient times. The modern medicine is also evolved from herbalism for eg: Aspirin (from willow bark), Quinine (From cinchona bark).
\nThe herbal practitioners will take an extensive questionarrie consists of case histories and examines the patient physically. The patient medical history and symptoms will also be given an attention by the traditional healers. This includes the examination of every day physiological process like appetite, digestion, urination, defacation, and sleep.
\nThe prescription includes individualized herbs or combinational herbs, usually in form of tinctures, extracts, fractions, decoctions, distillates, snuffs, gruels, teas, syrups, pills, ointments, polutices, etc. [22].
\nVarious parts will be used in herbalism like roots, bulbs, and rhizomes from various healing herbs like
The first recorded epidemic that occurred in Ethiopia dates back to 849 during the rule of Abba Yohannes as the head of the Ethiopian church. The disease and famine in those days was perceived as God’s punishment for Yohannes’ misdeeds. In the documented letter to Abba Yohannes, from the Ethiopian emperor and it was wrote that “great tribulations have come upon our land, and all our men are dying of the plague and all of our beasts and cattle have perished.” [24]. However prediction of pinpoint of the birth of medicine in Ethiopia is impossible due to lack of clear document evidences. However the Ethiopian traditional medicine (ETM) is poorly documented. In Ethiopia, the traditional healers usually follows herbalism, spirtual healing, bone setting and minor surgical procedures in treating disease. The ETM is highly complex and diverse because the principals of healing will vary from one ethnic group to others. The Ethiopian traditional medicine beleives that disease is mystical and natural imbalance concept and follows holistic approach in the treatment [25].
\nDespite Western medicine becoming more widespread in Ethiopia, Still today Ethiopians trust and highly depend on traditional healing principles because of the easy and cheap access in urban parts. The first traditional elixir in Etthiopia is holy water and holy oil (Tesbel in Ahmaric) and moslems called as zemzem. Ethiopians beleives that holy water heals every ailment, when it is drunk or had bathed in. Even the orthodox christians in Ethiopia believes in the healing actions of holy annoited oil for treating minor ailments, this gave the concept of herbalism and spirtuality in Ethiopian traditional medicine [26, 27].
\nThe traditional medicine in Ethiopia is a combined concept of spiritualism and herbalism. The ETM IS a perceptive and own generational understanding of healing concept but scientific explaination and validation is yet to be explored. Traditional practitioners are wide with different concepts and they includes bonesetters, birth attendants, tooth extractors, (called ‘Wogesha’ and yelimd awalaj’ respectively in amharic) herbalists, as well as ‘debtera’, ‘tenquay’ (witch doctors), and spiritual healers such as ‘weqaby’ and ‘kalicha.’ Like other african medicine, Ethiopian medicine also believes that some diseases like mental illness is due to evil curses and healing concepts like exorcism also present in TEM.
\nTraditional Healing in Ethiopian traditional medicine is not only concerned with curing of diseases but also consists of protection and promotion of human physical, spiritual, social, mental and material wellbeing. The concept of Ethiopian medicine is kept hidden and considered as a hidden treasure, which will be passed orally from father to his favorite child.
\nThe various traditional practices includes herbal medications, medications for pshyco social conditions like Exorcisms for Zar, Aganint, Buda, Ayene Tilla etc., Fumigation (inhalation), and Holy water or blessed water. The traditional practices includes Bone setting, Surgery, Cauterisation, Counter-irritation, Bleeding, Cupping, Steam Bath, Vapor Bath (woushba) and Moxibustion.
\nThe Ethiopian traditional medicine includes Orthodox Christian literate healer (debetera), Orthodox Christian astrologer (Metsehaf Gelach), Mystique spiritual healer (Bale Zar), Divine healer (Psychi, Tenquay), Bone-setter (Woggesha), Kitab ketabi (Amult maker), Islamic Literature healer (Kabir), Islamic medical teacher (Sheki), and Cushitic healer (Qaalluu, Qaallicha, Argessa). the practices in ETM consists of preventive, curative, and surgical care. Traditional Ethiopian medicine includes several elements or disease prevention.
\nThe best example of preventive care in ETM is the prevention of diseases like small pox. It was prevented by the traditional healers in following the social distance protocol and people were vaccinated through innoculating by taking pus from sick person during special rituals. Incase of preventive practices, the following protocols like Sweeping or covering floors with particular plants is another traditionally practiced disease preventive measure. The other methods of prevention include kitabs, which are also used for the purpose of protecting an individual against evil eye, as well as snake and scorpion bites. As healers beleive that contagious disease is an evil act or causing by evil eye. The traditional healers also suggest Amulets, arm rings, hair style and eye make-up (antimony or kool) are also supposed to protect from the evil eye.
\nThere are some secret herbs that are useful as charms against an enemy. In addition, cultural rituals and sacrifices are commonly involved in preventive care. In curative practices of ETM, the diseases like gastrointestinal disturbances, respiratory disorders, sexually transmitted infections, tuberculosis, impotency, hemorrhoids, rabies, intestinal parasites, skin problems, liver diseases, mental disorders, hypertension, diabetes, gynecological conditions rheumatism, malaria etc. will be treated using knowledge of traditional herbalism.
\nOne of the well recognized groups of these healers are the secular medhanit awakis (kitel betashs) herbalists using plants as their primary means of providing treatment. All these awakis have their own traditional pharmacopeias.
\nThe surgical practices includes Traditional practices like bone-setting, uvulectomy, circumcisions, bleeding and cupping, cautery, scarification and tooth extraction. The setting of bones is regarded as an important surgical procedure which requires a certain degree of skill and experience on the part of the healer. In most places, the healer involved in bone-setting is the local wogesha. How ever these practices are crude and aseptic with or without the application of medicines.
\nThe documentation of Ethiopian traditional medicine is resitricted only to the scientific literature and the knowledge of traditional pharmacopeia is not published and it was secret/hidden with the healers and practitioners. The ethiopian ethnophamacological information of medicinal plants is fast disappearing and this is more happening in industrialized countries, the erosion of popular information on plants is much faster than in developing ones.
\nIn view of the rapid loss of such knowledge, its documentation as well as a better understanding of its botanico-historical and holistic roots has become an essential task to preserve and restore ethno-allied disciplines [28].
\nSome of the famous examples in the herbalism of Ethiopian Traditional medicine are as follows
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Ghanians have developed an unique indigenous healing traditional knowledge which was adapted and defined from their culture, beliefs, and environment, which satisfied their health needs over centuries.
\nIn Ghana, people depends on the traditional knowledge as primary source to heal from various ailments especially in rural areas due to lack of sphisticated medical facilities and being western medicine is an expensive task. The traditional healers and patients ratio in Ghana is 1: 200 approximately. Hence Traditional medicine plays an important role in Ghanian health care. The traditional knowledge is in the hands of spiritual healers but every family have some sort of traditional healing knowledge which was inherited from many generations as folklore medicine.
\nThe healing in Ghanian traditional system includes physical and spirtual aspects. The traditional healers are also known as herbal spiritualist collectively known as “bokomowo”, who having occult knowledge towards divination, exorcism and spirtual herbalism. There are various local names for the Ghanian traditional healers like “gbedela” (Ewe), “kpeima” (Dagomba), “odunsini” (Akan), and “isofatse” (Ga). These healers have their own different concepts and principles of understanding the concept of disease. Today The modern herbalism is a major part of Ghanian health care and having their own traditional medicine directorate eastablished by the Ministry of health to provide validated traditional medicine which is quality, safe, and efficacious.
\nThe Ghanian excellence in traditional and alternative medicine have reached to the level of a standardized herbal medicine which is an essential part of modern herbalism. The ministry of health has been established various research centers to validate herbal medicine and incorprated herbalism as a part of university curriculum. There are various degree - awarding medical schools and training many students to graduate them as certified traditional medical doctors. The Ghanian traditional herbal pharmacopeia is also an important acheivement in the journey of Ghanian herbalism [39, 40]. Some of the important herbs in Ghanian herbalism are
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Traditional Medicine is a part of everyone life in South Africa. Wide variety of concepts and beleifs existed in south african traditional healing system. The herbalism plays an important role in the traditional healing, The combined herbs use in traditional medicine is known as muti and the market where these herbs will sold is known as muti-market. Herbs, animals, mineral drugs will be available in this market. Eleven herbs are very important in muti market and plays a crucial role in isicakathi (Herbalism) and they are as follows
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Eritrea is one of African country and has been known for its traditional medicine practice. They use different plants for different diseases. In Eritrea plant called
The folks of Uganda as other Africa countries have rich in traditional health care knowledge for addressing various health problems and 80% people uses medicinal herbs atleast once in daily life.For instances in northern sector of kibale national park, the folks have been using
In Africa, Traditional medicine is one of the important health care system till today. The traditional african medicine is now evolved as an evidence based healing system and serving as a good prime element in reverse pharmacology and drug discovery. Hence Traditional african medicine is a break through in the drug discovery process.
\nEven now a days, serious attention has been made on the quality, Safety, and efficacy from the evolved african countries like South Africa, Ethiopia, Ghana, and kenya and there is a paradigm shift from non- validated traditional herbalism to validated modern herbalism which is even accepting by the modern doctors about the magical healing effects of these herbs in diseases like cancer, Covid-19, HIV, and tuberculosis. The current demand for African traditional healing concepts like spiritualism, humanisim, and herbalism towards the disease preventive care and African herbalism has been became an important bioprospecting tool in drug discovery of new drug molecules.
\nThe main lacuna of this traditional medicine in Africa are documentation evidences regulation, Quality control, and standardization. This is possible only by integrating the traditional medicine with modern medicine. Hence the current chapter is focused on the importance of Traditional african medicine in terms of herbalism and belief based healing system.To make the chapter for easy understanding, video materials, \nTable 1\n and \nFigure 1\n were incorporated.
\nS.no | \nScientific name | \nFamily name | \nLocal name | \nAfrican location | \nParts of used | \nTraditional uses/ Folk remedies | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \n\n | \nAmaryllidaceae | \nkleinbloulelei | \nSouth Africa | \nLeaf, Root | \nTo treat various ailments related to pregnancy. They use as leaf or root decoction Orally or rectally, to facilitate easy delivery and a healthy child | \n
2. | \n\n | \nAlliaceae | \nShigueti tseada | \nEritrea | \nbulb | \nHypertension,Malaria and Asthma | \n
3. | \n\n | \nSapindaceae | \nOdwendwena | \nGhana | \nbark | \nhemorrhoids and as lactogenic | \n
4. | \n\n | \nAloeaceae | \nTsebir | \nEritrea | \nLatex | \nImpotency, Malaria & easing labor | \n
5. | \n\n | \nBromeliaceae | \naborobe | \nGhana | \nFruit and Root | \njaundice | \n
6. | \n\n | \nBrassicaceae | \nSenafitch | \nEthiopia | \nLeaves, seeds | \nStomach disorders, wound healing, and abortifacient | \n
7. | \n\n | \nAsteraceae | \nGyinantwi | \nGhana | \nWhole plant | \nDecoction to treat jaundice and hypertension | \n
8. | \n\n | \nSolanaceae | \nkara or berebere | \nEthiopia | \nFruits | \nCulinary herb, dysentry and vomiting | \n
9. | \n\n | \nCaricaceae | \npapayo | \nEritrea | \nseed | \nDiabetes, Amoeba and Typhoid fever | \n
10. | \n\n | \nCelastraceae | \nChat | \nEthiopia | \nLeaf | \nStimulant, mental illness, gonorrhea and common cold | \n
11. | \n\n | \nLauraceae | \nQuarafa | \nEthiopia | \nBark | \nMicrobial infestations, aphrodisiac | \n
12. | \n\n | \nRutaceae | \nAnka | \nGhana | \nFruit juice | \nTreating urinary tract infection | \n
13. | \n\n | \nAsparagaceae | \nHen-en-kuikens | \nSouth Africa | \nRoot/ stem | \nProtective charm or as an aumlet during pregnancy time against evil spirits for both mother and child | \n
14. | \n\n | \nCommelinaceae | \ngeeleendagsblom | \nSouth Africa | \nRoot | \nMicrobial infestations, venereal diseases, and to treat women with menstrual cramp | \n
15. | \n\n | \nFabaceae | \nOsenafo | \nGhana | \nFruit | \nAntidiarroheal | \n
16. | \n\n | \nSapindaceae | \nTaheses | \nEritrea | \nleaves | \nWorm infestation and dandruff | \n
17. | \n\n | \nAsteraceae | \nAfrican daisy | \nSouth Africa | \nAerial parts | \nLocal folks used to prevent miscarriage and tooth ache | \n
18. | \n\n | \nAsteraceae | \nImpepho | \nSouth Africa | \nAerial parts | \nAntiseptic and wound healing | \n
19. | \n\n | \nRubiaceae | \nIkhubalo Elimnyama | \nSouth Africa | \nRoot | \nRoot infusion as an emetic | \n
20. | \n\n | \nHyacinthaceae | \nSouth African scilla | \nSouth Africa | \nAerial parts | \nTreatment of pregnancy, diarrhea, influenza, backaches, skin irritations and wounds. | \n
21. | \n\n | \nLinaceae | \nTelba | \nEthiopia | \nSeeds, husk | \nDietary fiber, purgative, immunomodulatory, anti hyperlipidemic, and wound healing. | \n
22. | \n\n | \nRanunculaceae | \nTiqur azmud | \nEthiopia | \nLeaves, seeds | \nBronchitis, rheumatism and related inflammatory diseases. | \n
23. | \n\n | \nLamiaceae | \nBesobila | \nEthiopia | \nWhole plant / Leaves | \nMalaria, head ache, a common herb in treatment of various microbial infestations and mosquito repellant. | \n
24. | \n\n | \nLamiaceae | \nmme | \nGhana | \nLeaf decoction | \nTreatment of poisoning and malaria. | \n
25. | \n\n | \nSalicaceae | \nAstrotoa | \nGhana | \nLeaf and Root | \nTreatment of cough and wounds. | \n
26. | \n\n | \nLamiaceae | \nFashadima | \nEritrea | \nLeaves | \nTonsillitis arthritis and Endo parasite. | \n
27. | \n\n | \nSapindaceae | \ntwentini | \nGhana | \nRoot and leaf | \nRheumatism, Sexual weakness, and stroke. | \n
28. | \n\n | \nPhyllanthaceae | \nBomagueakire | \nGhana | \nLeaf | \nTuberculosis | \n
29. | \n\n | \nPlantaginaceae | \nPlantain | \nSouth Africa | \nAerial Parts | \nMucilage in the treatment of wounds, inflammations, and eye irritations | \n
30. | \n\n | \nCarryophllaceae | \nHareg bait | \nEritrea | \nRoot | \nSnake bite, tonsillitis, eye disease | \n
31. | \n\n | \nFabaceae | \nTemer musa | \nEritrea | \nPods | \nLactation, digestion disturbance. | \n
32. | \n\n | \nRanunculaceae | \nIsijojokazane | \nSouth Africa | \nAerial parts | \nFolks uses this herb in treatment of cures for headaches, urinary complaints, throat ulcers and coughs | \n
\n | \n\n | \nAsteraceae | \nIndlebe Yebokwe. | \nSouth Africa | \nSeeds | \nTo get rid of public lice. | \n
34. | \n\n | \nAcanthaceae | \nSwartoognooi | \nSouth Africa | \nLeaves | \nFolks uses the herbal infusion as an antiseptic wash in the treatment of sores and swellings | \n
35 | \n\n | \nAnnonaceae | \nHwenetia | \nGhana | \nSeed | \nChicken pox, stomachache,bladder trouble | \n
Some common medicinal plant used in different parts of Africa.
Traditional African medicine.
We would like to thank Department of pharmacy, Dilla university, Dilla, Ethiopia for providing necessary resources and encouraging, we would like to thank Mrs. Pavithra Motamarri for her support in preparing the photo materials with traditional african healer Mr. Lulama at pretoria.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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