European emissions regulations for passenger cars (Category M*), g/km
\r\n\tThis book chapter’s main theme will be focused on transmission dynamics, pathogenesis, mechanisms of host interaction and response, epigenetics and markers, molecular diagnosis, RNA interacting proteins, RNA binding proteins, advanced development of tools for diagnosis, possible development of concepts for vaccines and anti drugs for RNA viruses, immunological mechanisms, treatment, prevention and control.
\r\n\t
Diesel engines due to the better fuel economy have been widely used in automotive area. However, the limited reserve of fossil fuel and deteriorating environment have made scientists seek to alternative fuels for diesel while keeping the high efficiency of diesel engine. Fuel consumption is expected to increase from 86 million barrels per day to 112 million barrels per day by 2035 according to the report published by US Energy Information Administration in 2011 [1]. The limited reserve cannot afford this usage. Another challenge is environmental deterioration and climate change. Excessive emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere are regarded as the leading cause of global warming. In addition, other emissions, such as NOx, SO2, also have a close relationship with other forms of climate change, such as photochemical smog and acid rain. Due to these, the regulations on fuel economy and emission limits are increasingly stringent. Table 1 shows the EU emissions regulations for passenger cars came into force since 1992.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||
Euro 1† | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJul-92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.72 (3.16) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.97 (1.13) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.14 (0.18) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Euro 2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJan-96 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Euro 3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJan-00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.64 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.56 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Euro 4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJan-05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.025 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Euro 5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSep-09 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.18 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Euro 6 (future) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSep-14 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.08 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.17 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.005 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
European emissions regulations for passenger cars (Category M*), g/km
However, it is not a long-term solution even though these measures can help alleviate or reduce the emissions and extend the lifetime of fossil fuel in industry, because one day fossil fuel would run out if the fuel consumption is kept at nowadays’ rate. In addition, the decrease in fossil fuel reserve would lead to the increase of oil price. The rising fuel price raised the cost-competiveness of other energy sources, such as wind energy and solar energy. Hence some sectors, such as industrial and buildings, are driven towards other substitute energy sources when possible, whereas in transportation sector, liquid fuel is still the preferred choice. Consequently, the transportation share of the total liquid fuels increases in the projected period, accounting for 80% of the total increase in liquid fuel production [1].
\n\t\t\t\tTherefore, the efforts have been made to seek the alternative for fossil fuel, especially after the energy crisis in 1970s. People are trying to find a sustainable way to power the engines.
\n\t\t\tAmong the alternatives for fossil diesel, biodiesel has been widely investigated due to its renewability, comparable properties to fossil diesel and the reduction in main emission products.
\n\t\t\t\tBiodiesel is mainly comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids and it was defined in standard ASTM D6751. Normally feedstock such as vegetable oil and animal fat is used to produce biodiesel through transesterification method.
\n\t\t\t\tWith the on-going development of biodiesel, the categorization of biodiesel is developed. Generally biodiesel can be categorised by the readiness of feedstock and produce technologies. The biodiesel made from vegetable oil and animal fats using transesterification method is normally recognised as first-generation biodiesel. The second-generation biodiesel, Biomass to liquid (BTL) fuel is to turn cellulose into fuel components (enzyme fermentation or gasification through Fischer-Tropsch synthesis), and the feedstock theoretically can be any bio mass such as waste agriculture, wood chips etc. Some biodiesel from jatropha, algae, etc., despite being produced by transesterification method, is widely regarded as second-generation due to the technical challenge of feedstock planting and harvesting. Normally the second-generation biodiesel can supplement the drawbacks of the first-generation biodiesel particularly being non-competitive with food.
\n\t\t\t\tDifferent from above definition, another new fuel, Hydro-treated vegetable oil (HVO), using the same feedstock as 1st generation biodiesel, is viewed as second generation biodiesel, and BTL is third-generation [17]. The authors still categorize it into second-generation biodiesel because HVO shares the same feedstock with first-generation biodiesel even though it is made through different way and has better quality than first-generation biodiesel through transesterification.
\n\t\t\t\tVegetable oil has been used in diesel engine long time ago. In 1900 after the invention of diesel engine,), Dr. Diesel used peanut oil to run one of his engines at the Paris Exposition of 1900. Vegetable oils were used in diesel engines until 1920s. The recent use of vegetable oil as the alternative for diesel starts from early 1980s due to the concern about the energy supply. But biodiesel is not commercialised until late 1990s.For the direct use of vegetable oil, several difficulties occur, including the high viscosity, acid composition, free fatty acid content, and gum formation due to oxidation and polymerization during storage and combustion, carbon deposition, and oil thickening (Ma and Hana, 1999). Therefore, the direct use of vegetable oil may not be satisfactory and practical. The technologies to improve the vegetable oil appeared.
\n\t\t\t\tThere are several ways used to produce FAME through vegetable oil, pyrolysis, cracking and transesterification. The common method is transesterification. Figure 1 shows the chemical reaction of FAME production. Triglycerides, the main component in vegetable oil and animal fat, reacts with alcohol in a caustic environment and produce Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) or Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester (FAEE) and the byproduct glycerol. As a result, biodiesel is a mixture of esters, small amount of glycerol, free fatty acids, partially reacted acylglycerol, and residual raw materials. Normally methanol is used for the reaction for the higher reaction rate and lower price. The fuel qualities may be varied in terms of alcohol used. Methyl ester was better than ethyl ester from the point of engine performance: higher power and torque could be achieved.
\n\t\t\t\t\tTransesterification reaction in caustic environment
Different from transesterification, Hydro-treating of vegetable oil or animal fat (HVO) have been developed by several companies, such as Neste Oil, Axens IFP, and Honeywell UOP. In the hydro-treating process, vegetable oil or animal fat is also the feedstock. Hydrogen is added into the plant to remove the oxygen content and saturate the C=C and the final products are paraffin, propane, water and CO2. Propane is also a promising and valuable fuel product. Due to the excellent properties,
\n\t\t\t\t\tProduct routes of transesterification and hydro-treated method
Fischer-Tropsch (FT) method is another way to produce synthetic fuel, using various lignocellulosic feedstock. BTL (biomass-mass-to-liquid) fuel, GTL (Gas-to-liquid) fuel, and CTL (Coal-to-liquid) fuel are produced with this method. GTL and BTL are not sustainable fuels for natural gas and coal are not renewable. However, in this chapter GTL is included later because it shares the similar production process and has similar physiochemical properties with BTL. Figure 3 shows the manufacturing process of FT synthetic fuel. The solid feedstock (coal and biomass ) are initially gasified, then the composition of the syngas and CO2 and sulphur compounds are removed before the synthesis process. After the synthesis process, the products are refined and the refined products includes the synthetic diesel and gasoline blendstock.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFT fuel manufacturing process
Due to the difference in the feedstock and manufacturing process, the FAME products may vary very much. Table 2 lists several main standards used in the world, aiming at reach the satisfaction and the equipment compatibility.
\n\t\t\t\tDensity at 15°C | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tg/cm3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.86 - 0.90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.86 – 0.89 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.875 - 0.90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.86 - 0.90 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Viscosity | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmm2/s | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t6.5 - 9.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.5 – 5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.5 - 5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.9 - 6.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.50 - 5.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
at 40°C | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(20°C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||||
Flash point | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t°C | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 55 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t120.0°C | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 110 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
(°F) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-131 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-230 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-212 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t-248 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
CFPP | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t°C (°F) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | / | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t |
summer | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0 (32) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0 (32) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
winter | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. -8 (17.6) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | Max. -20 (-4) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
Total sulphur | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmg/kg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 50 mg/kg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 100 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 500 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 10.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Conradson (CCR) at 100% at 10% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax 0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax 0.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||
Cetane number | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 48 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 51 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 49 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 40 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 51 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sulfated ash content | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.03 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Water content | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmg/kg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tfree of deposited water | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | Max. 300 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 500 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Water & sediment | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tvol. % | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Total contamination | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmg/kg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Copper corrosion ( 3 hs, 50°C) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdegree of Corrosion | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t< 10mg/kg sulphur – 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo. 3b max. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
"/ 10mg/kg sulphur – 3 max | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||||
Neutralisation value | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Oxidation stability | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\th | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin 6 @ 110°C | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin. 6.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Methanol content | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ester content | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin 96.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMin 96.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Monoglycerides | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Diglycerides | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Triglycerides | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.20 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Free glycerine | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.03 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.02 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Total glycerine | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.24 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Iodine value | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | / | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 115 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 120 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Linolenic acid ME | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 12.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Polyunsaturated ("/=4db) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t% mass | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Phosphorus content | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmg/kg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 10.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Alkaline content (Na+K) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmg/kg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Alkaline earth metals (Ca + Mg) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tmg/kg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMax. 5.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Biodiesel Standards
The following summarised the advantages of biodiesel:
\n\t\t\t\tRenewable energy source in comparison with traditional fossil fuel
Degradability
Much less sulphur, leading to lower toxic substances in the exhaust
Absence of PAHs and around 10% of oxygen help the reduction of HC and CO
Various feedstock
The use of bio-diesel fuels cannot occur without adopting a series of precautions. Indeed, unless the proper precautions are taken, biodiesel fuels can cause a variety of engine performance problems including filter plugging, injector coking, piston ring sticking and breaking, seal swelling and hardening/cracking and severe lubricant degradation. Bio-diesel also requires special treatment at low temperatures to avoid an excessive rise in viscosity and loss of fluidity.
\n\t\t\t\tLong-term storage problems can be observed as result of the poor oxidation stability of biodiesel fuels. Thus additives may be needed to improve storage conditions. Furthermore, biodiesel is an excellent medium for microbial growth. As water accelerates microbial growth and is more prevalent in biodiesel than in petroleum based fuels, special care must be taken to remove water from fuel storage tanks to avoid operational problems such as sediment build-up, premature filter plugging or storage tank corrosion.
\n\t\t\tAnother reason for the search of alternative fuel is the energy security. The economical growth can promote the demand for energy. Table 3 listed crude oil reliance on imported oil of US and China. The reliance of the two countries are up to 44.8% and 56.54%, respectively. The energy supply can be well alleviated if biodiesel can be produced and used in commercial scale. Further analyses are needed to understand the fuel difference and can help fuel design during the biodiesel production process. The Commission Green Paper (CEC, 2000) reported an ambitious EU programme on the usage of biodiesel that 20% alternative fuel substitution by 2020 in conventional fuel in the road transport sector is set. On another hand, the utilisation of biodiesel leads to concerns of land use, deforestation and negative effect on bio-diversity needs further exploration.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | |||||
US1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t58.2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t57.0% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t51.5% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t49.2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t44.8% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
China | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t47.2% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t49.8% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t52% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t54.8% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t56.5% | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1 US Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, March 2012, Table 3.3a
Crude oil reliance of US and China from 2007 - 2011
Due to the various feedstocks for biodiesel, the fuel composition varies in a wide range. Generally the fats and oils contain 10 common types of fatty acid consisting of 12- to 22- carbon chain, and over 90% are between 16- and 18-carbon chains [11]. Table 4 shows the composition of some common FAME. Some of these are saturated, some are monounsaturated and others are poly-unsaturated. The composition of biodiesel determined the chemical and physical properties, such as the fuel viscosity, surface tension, cetane number (CN), oxidation stability, low-temperature properties, as well as the following combustion and emission characteristics.
\n\t\t\tViscosity is a measure of resistance to flow of a liquid due to internal friction and it is one of the most important parameters in evaluate the fuel quality. Viscosity affects engine working process very much. Higher viscosity would prohibit atomisation and instability of fuel droplets, and promote the formation of deposit. This also explains why neat vegetable oils have difficulty when used in diesel engines directly. The viscosity can be measured according to the standards such as ASTM D445 or ISO 3104. The viscosity of individual saturated fatty acid ester increases with carbon chain length and non-linearly decreases with the increase of number of double bonds [4]. In addition, the position of C=C double bond and the branching in the ester moiety has less effect on viscosity. Biodiesel has a higher viscosity than fossil diesel. At lower blend ratio, the viscosities of diesel and biodiesel/diesel blend are very close. As the blend ratio continues to increase, biodiesels show a much higher value. This can partly explain why biodiesel/diesel blends with lower blend ratio are widely used in diesel engines.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tComposition of common FAME.
CN is used to evaluate fuel ignition quality determined by the time between start of injection and start of combustion. Higher CN indicates shorter time after the injection. CN is mainly determined by the fuel composition and can affect engine startability, noise and emission characteristics. Generally, biodiesel has a higher CN than mineral diesel. This can be attributed to the longer carbon chain length of biodiesel. Unsaturation and carbon chain length are the most two influential factors of CN [16, 12, 22]. Higher saturation degree and longer fatty acid chain length can lead to a lower CN. The positions of chemical group may also influence the CN. The CNis the highest when the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon chain and lowest in the middle of the carbon chain. In addition, a higher level of hydroperoxides increases CN and a shorter chain length of the alcohol moiety may also increase CN [12, 22].
\n\t\t\tDiesel engines may encounter the start-up and performance problems at low temperatures. As ambient temperatures decrease towards the fuel saturation temperature, high-molecular-weight compound begin to nucleate and form was crystals. The existence of was crystals may affect the fuel supply and engine performance. Three parameters, cloud point (CP), pour point(PP), and cold filter plugging point (CFPP) are used to describe low-temperature properties. The temperature at which crystals become visible is called CP because the crystals lead to a cloudy suspension. if the temperature continues to decrease, the crystals would fuse together and form larger agglomerates. The temperature at which crystal agglomeration is large enough to prevent free pouring of fluid is called PP. A more complicated test procedure is involved in order to obtain CFPP. The test uses a vacuum to draw a 20 cc fuel sample through a 45 micron screen within a 60 seconds. The lowest temperature that the fuel can still flow through the filter is called CFPP.
\n\t\t\t\tThis is an very concerning issue in application of biodiesel into diesel engines. Neat biodiesel has poorer low-temperature performance than conventional diesel. Therefore, when biodiesel is used in cold condition, the biodiesel crystafdl may block the fuel pipe and the fuel filter, and even abrade the high-pressure fuel pump, shorting the lifetime of vehicle engines. Research has shown that the cold flow property is associated with the saturated FAME in vegetable oil based biodiesel. The higher the proportion of saturated FAME and the longer chain FAME in saturated FAME, the poorer the cold temperature performance is [31].
\n\t\t\t\tGenerally, the low-temperature properties can be improved by following methods:
\n\t\t\t\tBlending with fossil diesel
blending with additives
Crystallization fractionation by decreasing the saturated alkyl ester content in the biodiesel.
Employing branched esters
The engine performance fuelled with biodiesel is crucial for the application of biodiesel. The mainly involved problems may include corrosion, material degradation, injector coking, filter plugging and piston ring sticking, engine deposits etc. therefore, in the following section, the studies focusing on these issues were introduced.
\n\t\t\tInjection spray is the process that fuel is injected from nozzle, and it is associated with following fuel atomisation, interaction with surrounding gas, mixture formation and combustion. Regarding to a new fuel applied into the diesel engine, the spray process is different due to the different properties from diesel, and the control strategy should be changed accordingly in order to achieve the optimum performance. Viscosity, surface tension and density are the three main parameters, which influence fuel spray characteristics. Higher viscosity and surface tension will prohibit the atomisation and instability of fuel droplets. Due to the different biodiesels properties from diesel, studies on the spray characteristics are necessary.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the near-field of nozzle, the spray is dominated by the injection dynamics while the spray is affected by the ambient conditions in the far field. According to Hiroyasu’s model, before the
Sequence of spray images in a single time-resolved ULSD spray (Pinj=120 MPa, Pamb =3.0 MPa and tdur=1.5 ms)
Spray tip penetration length evolution against time ASOI (Pinj=120 MPa, Pamb =3.0 MPa and tdur=1.5 ms)
Normally, biodiesel shows a longer penetration and narrower spray angle than fossil fuel due to the higher viscosity, surface tension and density. The penetration length of biodiesel increases with the blend ratio, higher biodiesel content requires longer breakup time [15]. The difference between the two type fuels can be varied at different conditions. Senatore et al. [24] experimentally studied biodiesel spray characteristics at different ambient pressures. The authors showed that little difference can be observed at the ambient pressure of 1.2 MPa while the penetration length significantly increased in contrast to diesel spray at the ambient pressure of 5.0 MPa. In addition, biodiesel may have a lower penetration velocity due to the negative effect of fuel density on spray velocity [9].
\n\t\t\t\tSMD is one of the parameters to evaluate fuel atomisation quality and represents the ratio of total droplet volume to surface area. Smaller SMD indicates more small fuel droplets and the larger contact area with surrounding gas. Due to the high viscosity and surface tension, SMD of biodiesel is higher than fossil diesel. Allen et al. [3] conducted the comparative analysis on 15 biodiesels and a larger SMD, between 5%-40%, can be observed and concluded an empirical equation to estimate SMD:
\n\t\t\t\t\twhere \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 6 compared diesel with neat RME and GTL at different injection pressure along the spray axis in terms of SMD. It can be seen that the injection pressure has a significant impact on droplet size. The SMD decreases dramatically when the injection pressure increases from 80 MPa to 120 MPa. GTL has the lowest SMD among all the three measured fuels at the given conditions while RME has the largest droplet size. The SMD evolution also decreases with the increase of the axial distance downstream of the nozzle even though there is a slightly increase from 40 mm to 50 mm at the 80 MPa condition. This may be caused by the droplet coalesce.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSMD distribution along the spray axis under injection pressure of 80 MPa (Left) and 120 MPa (Right)
In diesel engines, the engine parts are lubricated by the fuel itself. In order to meet diesel engine emission standards, Ultra-low sulphur diesel (ULSD) are produced, which has a maximum sulphur content of 15 ppm. However, the relatively poor lubricity of ULSD may lead to the failure of engine parts, such as fuel pumps and injectors. The inherently greater lubricity of Biodiesel can offset the drawback of ULSD, and a small percentage of biodiesel can restore the lubricity of diesel [28].
\n\t\t\t\t\tIt is also necessary to study the engine endurance in order to fully apply biodiesel into vehicle operation. Graboski et al. [14] reviewed previous studies and concluded that nitrile rubber, Nylon 6/6 and high-density polypropylene exposed to methyl soyester and D-2 blends exhibited changes in physical properties and fluorinated elastomer must be adopted for biodiesel application. Terry et al. [30] examined the durability of a set of five commonly used elastomers in automotive fuel systems in different biodiesel blends (B5 and B20) and the effect of a highly oxidized biodiesel blends on the elastomers was studied. The results demonstrated that it appeared to be compatible with these elastomers, for highly oxidized and unoxidized B5 and unoxidized B20, but B20 prepared from highly oxidized biodiesel shows the potential for significant problems.
\n\t\t\t\tThe adaptability of biodiesel in diesel engines has been well studied from low blend ratio to neat biodiesel. Due to the potential damage of biodiesel on vehicle, normally biodiesel blended with diesel were mostly studied. In general, typical heating value for biodiesel is lower than that of fossil diesel. A greater amount of fuel is subsequently required to maintain the same engine output. Greater fuel consumption of up to 13% with heavy-duty engines over the United States Federal Test Procedure (US-FTP) cycle was observed. Due to the lower heating value, engine power loss is expected and the loss increases with the blend ratio of biodiesel in diesel [25, 33]. Figure 7 shows the output power of an 4-cylinder common-rail diesel engine with different biodiesel blends at two engine speeds. With the increase of biodiesel blend concentration, maximum out power was gradually reduced, especially in the higher blend ratio. Figure 8 presents the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) corresponding to the condition of Figure 7. The obvious increase in fuel consumption has been observed using higher biodiesel/diesel blends. From Figure 7 and Figure 8, it can be found that the output performance and fuel economy of biodiesel/diesel blends are very close to those of diesel when the blend ratio is under 20%. Therefore, biodiesel/diesel blends with lower blend ratio are preferred.
\n\t\t\t\tOutput power of different biodiesel blends at two speeds [
BSFC of different biodiesel blends at two speeds [
In diesel engines, combustion is to release energy contained in fuel, then impart work on piston, and power the engine. Factors affecting combustion characteristics include fuel properties and in-cylinder conditions. Biodiesel has a higher CN and the effect of CN on combustion has been discussed in previous section. The average peak cylinder pressure increases when biodiesel or its blends are used. For the application of biodiesel into diesel engines, advanced injection timing and increased injection pressure have been normally used. This is due to their differences in density and bulk modulus of compressibility. Combustion and emissions characteristics have been investigated by Chuepeng et al. [7] using different RME blends from B0 to B50 in a single-cylinder diesel engine in terms of engine load, EGR (Exhaust gas recirculation), and injection timing. At the same engine load, the proportion of fuel burnt in the premixed phase increases and the start of combustion is advanced as the proportion of RME in ULSD increases. With the same operating conditions, increase in EGR rate of up to 20%, slightly reduces the peak pressure and increases ignition delay.
\n\t\t\tA number of studies on the engine emissions of engines powered by biodiesel or blends have been carried out. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States correlated the biodiesel ratio with the changes in pollutants using statistical regression analysis and also the average effect of biodiesel on heavy-duty diesel engines [10]. The NOx emissions increased with the concentration of biodiesel and the increase is by 10% at B100 while HC, CO and PM were greatly reduced. The significant reduction of emissions of HC, CO and PM can be attributed to the oxygen content in biodiesel.
\n\t\t\t\t\tIt has been widely reported that NOx increases as biodiesel is used in diesel engines. A number of efforts have been made in order to understand the formation mechanism and eliminate this penalty. There are several main reasons have been suggested:
\n\t\t\t\t\tAdvanced injection timing
Oxygen content in biodiesel
Double bond
Radiative heat transfer
Higher adiabatic flame temperature
An advanced injection timing due to the higher bulk modulus of biodiesel in pump-in-line injection system leads to the earlier start of combustion, resulting in higher in-cylinder temperature, which can increase NOx emission [29, 2]. However, it is well understood that advanced injection timing increases NOx emission in diesel engine [20], and this seems not to be the main contribution to NOx increase as broad application of common rail injection system, which can well control the injection timing. Schmidt et al. [23] experimentally studied the effect of concentration of oxygen in intake gas on NOx emission, and found that NOx emission increases with the oxygen content in mixture. However, the effect of oxygen content in air on combustion is different from that of oxygen content in biodiesel itself. The radiative heat transfer may also play a role in the NOx increase. Soot radiation is the primary way of heat loss from in-cylinder flame and biodiesel can reduce this heat loss and will increase the flame temperature and produce more NOx [6]. The double bond in biodiesel composition is another potential to increase NOx emission. The double bonds lead to higher adiabatic flame temperature, and the biodiesel with higher unsaturated ester percentage corresponded to higher NOx emission [27, 19]. Ban-Weiss et al. [5] also revealed that slight difference in the adiabatic flame temperature can lead to a measurable increase in NOx. Mueller et al. [20] suggested that NOx increase in biodiesel-fuelled engine is the result of a number of mechanisms, and the relative importance of each mechanism may vary under different operating conditions and indicated that air/fuel mixture close to stoichiometric at ignition and in the standing premixed auto-ignition zone near flame lift-off length may be the key factors in explaining the NOx increase, whose effect could cause higher local and average in-cylinder temperature and lower radiative heat losses.
\n\t\t\t\t\tTherefore, three main strategies to alleviate the NOx emission can be proposed: one is to determine the biodiesel compound that can lower NOx emission or use a proper base fuel and additives, another is to design the combustion system to prohibit NOx production by lower the combustion temperature, and the third one is to recalibrate the engine by tuning the injection strategy.
\n\t\t\t\tFor other unregulated emissions from an engine fuelled with biodiesel, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) and nitro PAH compounds are substantially reduced, as well as the lower levels of some toxic and reactive HC species [26]. The PM composition (i.e. volatile material and elemental carbon) from the combustion of RME-based biodiesel blend (B30) in a turbo-charged engine with EGR operation was studied using thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) [8]. Generally, total PM mass from B30 combustion was lower than that for diesel in all engine operating conditions. Elemental carbon PM mass fractions were slightly lower for the B30. The volatile material portions of the B30 particulates are greater than those of diesel particulates irrespective of engine operating condition. For both fuels used in the test, volatile material was observed to be higher at idle speed and light load when exhaust emissions were at low temperature.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tIn previous regulations on PM, mass is the only concern. With the increasing concern on exhaust emissions, the PM size and number are to be limited by future emission regulations. [32] studied the particulate matter characteristics of RME10 and GTL10. It was found that the application of RME10 and GTL10 leads to a reduction in both total particle number and non-volatile part number over the test conditions. The obtained images from SEM (Scanned Electronic Microscopy) for the three test fuels are shown in Figure 9. The images show the morphology of PM at two magnifications. The authors found that PM from diesel combustion has more clusters than those from RME10 and GTL10 from Figure 10 (a), (c) and (e), indicating that primary particle size of the tested fuels is around 20 mm Figure 10. (b), (d) and (f).\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tExhaust particulate number concentration (total)
Particle morphology (captured under engine mode of 1800 rpm, 30 Nm): (a) Diesel magnification of 10000; (b) Diesel magnification of 65000; (c) RME 10 magnification of 10000; (d) RME magnification of 65000; (e) GTL10 magnification of 10000; (f) GTL10 magnification of 65000
Two popular methods have been used to reduce the engine out emission for biodiesel-fuelled engines: injection strategy and EGR. For the former, the combustion process can be controlled by injection timing and injection pressure. For the time being, the common rail injection system has been widely used and multiple injections up to of 5 times can be realised. Through this way, the fuel injection rate is controllable. The NOx can be reduced through pre-injection with small amount fuel; this prevents a long period of ignition delay and therefore leads to a lower peak pressure; for the latter, EGR is always an effective way to reduce NOx emission. Due to the induction of exhaust gas, the global in-cylinder temperature is reduced, avoiding the thermal conditions favoured by NOx formation. Ladommatos et al. [18] also revealed that the reduction in combustion temperature is a consequence of the reduced peak rate of the premixed phase combustion due to the lower oxygen availability.
\n\t\t\tBiodiesel is the most promising fuel in the near future as an alternative to fossil diesel. Despite of its advantages, it still has some disadvantages such as source for massive feedstock, relatively poor low-temperature properties, increase in NOx emissions, etc. These issues should be sorted out before biodiesel is applied into diesel engines in a large scale. Therefore, in-depth studies on the application of biodiesel into diesel engines are necessary. The research on alternative feedstocks is also an important area and the second-generation biodiesel is more promising made from algae and the genetic modification is a potential way to solve this problem of source of massive feedstock. The low-temperature fuel properties can be improved by additives or the production routine. In addition, diesel engines should also be optimised in order to achieve the optimal performance and emissions.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
ASOI | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tAfter start of injection | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BTL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tBiomass-to-liquid | \n\t\t\t\t\t
BSFC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tBrake specific fuel consumption | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CCD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCharge-coupled device | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CN | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCetane number | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCarbon monoxide | \n\t\t\t\t\t
CTL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCoal-to-liquid | \n\t\t\t\t\t
EPA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tEnvironmental Protection Agency | \n\t\t\t\t\t
FAME | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tFatty acid methyl ester | \n\t\t\t\t\t
GTL | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tGas-to-liquid | \n\t\t\t\t\t
HC | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tHydrocarbon | \n\t\t\t\t\t
HVO | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tHydro-treated vegetable oil | \n\t\t\t\t\t
NOx | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tNitric oxide | \n\t\t\t\t\t
PAH | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon | \n\t\t\t\t\t
RME | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tRapeseed methyl ester | \n\t\t\t\t\t
ULSD | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tUltra-low sulphur diesel | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Metabolomics is the study of metabolites within biofluids, cells, tissues, or organisms [1]. Whereas collectively, metabolites and their interactions are known as metabolome [2].
Metabolites are small molecules produced by metabolic reactions; these molecules are intermediate or end products of metabolic reactions. The metabolic reactions are catalyzed by naturally occurring enzymes within the organisms’ cells [3]. Compounds derived from primary and secondary metabolism are known as primary and secondary metabolites, respectively.
Primary metabolites are indispensable compounds used by organisms for their growth, development, and reproduction; these compounds are synthesized by the cells as a result of metabolism during the growth phase. Primary metabolites are referred to as central metabolites due to their key role in maintaining normal physiological processes. Primary metabolites include vitamins (B2 and B12), lactic acid, amino acids, polyols, alcohols such as ethanol, nucleotides, organic acids, etc. [3, 4].
The current chapter discusses the meaning and origin or sources of some important classes of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, phenolic compounds, etc., the economic impacts of secondary metabolite compounds including their role in improving human and animal health and well-being (as antibiotics, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antifertility, antidiabetics, pain relievers, growth promoters, etc.). The chapter addresses the role of secondary metabolites in enhancing agricultural productivity (as pesticides, insecticides, preservatives, etc.); it also discusses the important present-day drugs derived from secondary metabolites, as well as some important biological/pharmacological effects or activities of different classes of the secondary metabolites and their folkloric usage based on reliable sources of information and genuine scientific investigations.
Secondary metabolites also known as phytochemical constituents, bioactive compounds, specialized metabolites, secondary products, or toxins are organic compounds produced by organisms such as plants, fungi, or bacteria as a result of secondary metabolic processes that lead to production and accumulation of diverse chemical compounds known as secondary metabolites. These compounds are not required for primary metabolic processes by the organisms [3, 4, 5]. Secondary metabolites are formed toward the end of the growth phase; thus, they are not directly involved in the normal physiologic processes of the organism such growth and development as well as reproductive processes. Instead, they increase the organism’s survivability through mediation of ecological interaction, to the organism, this serves as a selective advantage [4, 5]. Interspecies defenses such as defense against herbivory by plants are part of the important roles of secondary metabolites. However, humans use secondary metabolites as medicines, recreational drugs, flavorings, pigments, etc. [6].
Secondary metabolites are classified commonly based on their vast structural diversity, biosynthesis, and function. According to the literature, over 2140, 000 secondary metabolites are known; however, the main classes of secondary metabolites are five, which include alkaloids, terpenoids and steroids, nonribosomal polypeptides, polyketides and fatty-acid-derived substances, and enzyme cofactors [7].
Secondary metabolite is a term coined in 1910 by a Medicine and Physiology Nobel Prize laureate, Albert Kossel [8]. Friedrich Czapek, a Polish botanist, 30 years later described them as metabolic nitrogenous end products [9].
Secondary metabolites are produced by plants, fungi, or bacteria as well as many marine organisms such as snails, corals, tunicates, and sponges [10]. There are 150, 000–200, 000 bioactive compounds derived from the plant kingdom, 50, 000–100, 000 from animal kingdom, and 22,000–23, 000 from microbes [11].
Plants are the major sources of secondary metabolites; they produced 80% of the known secondary metabolites occurring in nature [10]. Secondary metabolites are used by carnivorous plants to attract, capture, digest, and assimilate the prey [12]. One of the early known plant secondary metabolites is morphine, isolated in 1804 [11].
In 1928, Alexander Fleming while working at St Mary’s Hospital in London discovered the most known secondary metabolite, the penicillin. Penicillin was discovered experimentally from a mold, the
Oligosaccharide, b-lactam, polyketide, non-ribosomal pathways, and shikimate are the main secondary metabolite production pathways in bacteria [15]. Although bacterial secondary metabolites have some beneficial effects, many are toxic to mammals through secretion of exotoxin, botulinum toxin secreted by
The name alkaloid was introduced by Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Meißner, in the year 1819. The name was derived from Latin root alkali, rooted from Arabic word al-qalwi meaning plants ashes. The wide usage of the word alkaloid came after J. Oscar’s publication in the year 1880 in Albert Ladenburg, the chemical dictionary [16].
A large variety of organisms produced alkaloids; these chemical compounds are derived from plants, bacteria, fungi, and animals [17]. Morphine was the first individual alkaloid isolated in 1804 from the opium poppy plant (
The ancient Romans, Syrians, and Egyptians used cardiac glycosides contained in plant extracts for medicinal purposes, the plant extracts from
Early writings of 1250 BC mentioned
Plant is main source of cardiac glycosides; however, bufadienolide was isolated from frogs and mammalian tissues that are rich sources of endogenous digitalis; this show that animal species are also good sources of cardiac glycosides [20].
Flavonoids or bioflavonoids are yellow compounds derived from the Latin word Flavus, meaning yellow, their natural coloration [21]. Albert Szent-Györgyi and some group of scientists in the 1930s discovered that crude yellow extracts from lemons, oranges, etc., were more effective at preventing scurvy than vitamin C. They referred to these compounds as citrin or vitamin P, which were later discovered to be hesperidin, neohesperidin, etc., belonging to flavonoids rather than the vitamins [22].
Flavonoids are compounds belonging to polyphenolic structural class of secondary metabolites. They are widely found in vegetables, fruits, flowers, wine, tea, grains, roots, bark, and stem [23, 24]. Flavonoid compounds are found in several parts of plants, they are products extracted from plants using various extraction techniques such as chromatography [25].
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites produced by the secondary metabolic pathways of plants [26]. They are derived from pentose phosphate and shikimic acid of plants through metabolization of phenylpropanoid [27, 28]. The composition of phenolic substances or polyphenols includes tannins, flavonoids, lignans, coumarins, and phenolic acids [26], colored anthocyanins [29]; these compounds are naturally found in vegetables, fruits, leaves, and roots among other products of plant origin [26, 27].
Tannins are group of astringent and complex polyphenolic compounds found in plants, which can bind and precipitate proteins; the word tannin was derived from the usage of this compound in tanning animal hides and skins to make leather [30]; the term was first introduced in 1796 [31]. Commonly, tannins are found in wood, buds, fruits, leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and in the bark of trees [32]. Condensed tannins are the most abundant polyphenols, which are virtually found in plant families [33].
Unique structural diversity is provided by natural products when compared with standard combinatorial chemistry; these give opportunities for discovering novel lead compounds with low molecular weight. The world’s biodiversity evaluation of natural products for potential biological activity is less than 10%; thus, a lot of useful novel natural lead compounds await discovery [37].
Terrestrial plants are the major source of secondary metabolites; other sources include fungi, bacteria, as well as several marine organisms [10].
Natural antibiotics are secondary metabolites produced by microbes that inhibit bacterial growth by targeting essential cellular processes such as the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, DNA/RNA, and proteins. They are not essential for the growth of the organism (and usually produce at the end of the exponential phase of their growth). They have diverse roles, such as in cellular differentiation, nutrient sequestration, metal transport, ecological interactions, and defense [38, 39].
Between 1935 and 1968, 12 classes of antibiotics were launched and approved for use as drugs. However, between 1969 and 2000, the number dropped markedly, with only two classes introduced. Out of the 30 antibiotics launched between the year 2003 and 2015, 16 belong to natural products and their derivatives. They include three new classes of natural antibiotics—two actinomycete: the lipopeptide daptomycin in 2003 and fidaxomicin (of the tiacumicin family) in 2010. The third is a fungal product: retapamulin derived from pleuromutilin and approved in 2007 for topical use [38, 40].
Newman and Cragg reported the introduction of several natural secondary metabolites that have been reported to possess potent antibacterial activity including: anthrasil, omadacycline, dalbavacin, plazomicin, ceftaroline fasamil acetate, lefamulin, sarecycline, eravacycline imi-cilast-relebactam, etc. [41].
Inflammation is a normal biological process that occurs as a response to microbial infection, chemical irritation, or tissue injury. It is usually initiated by moving the immune cells from blood vessels and release of mediators to the damage site. It is then followed by reinforcement with inflammatory cells, release of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and proinflammatory cytokines to fight the foreign pathogens and repairing the injured tissues. In general, normal inflammation is rapid and self-limiting, but unresolved and prolonged inflammation causes various chronic disorders. As a pathologic condition, inflammation can include a wide range of diseases such as rheumatic and immune-mediated conditions, diabetes, cardiovascular accident, etc. [38, 42]. Aswad and coworkers reported the use of moupinamide, capsaicin, and hypaphorine—natural products—with high scores in their indexing of potential anti-inflammatory drug candidates [43]. Mona et al. also reported more than 15 herbs, where their anti-inflammatory effects have been evaluated in clinical and experimental studies including
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death (second to cardiovascular diseases) in the world, despite the availability of wide range of anticancer drugs. The estimated cancer burden in the world as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) is 18.1 million new cases and 9.6 million deaths as at 2018 [38, 44]. Presently, research efforts are directed toward the discovery of natural products with anticancer potential [45]. Several secondary metabolites have been reported to possess anticancer potential; some of these compounds have the capacity to prevent oxidative stress and inflammation that causes damage to DNA, which in turn leads to carcinogenesis [45]. Natural products such as irinotecan, vincristine, vinblastine, etoposide, and paclitaxel from plants, actinomycin D and mitomycin C from bacteria as well as marine-derived bleomycin are widely used in the treatment of various cancers [44].
Also, fruits and vegetables are plant sources that are known to contain vitamins, minerals, folate, plant sterols, carotenoids, and various phytochemicals such as flavonoid and polyphenols—natural product compounds that are associated with reduced cancer mortality and risk [46]. The critical relationship of fruit and vegetable intake and cancer prevention has been thoroughly documented. It has been suggested that major public health benefits could be achieved by substantially increasing consumption of these foods [38].
Herbs and spices such as ginger, capsicum, curcumin, clove, rosemary, sage, oregano, and cinnamon are very rich in antioxidants due to the high content of phenolic compounds and have been shown to counteract reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated damage in different human cancers [47]. Many cyclic peptides and their derivatives obtained from marine organisms have been shown to possess anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and antihypertensive properties [46]. Furthermore, lactoferrin, a multifunctional protein found in bovine and camel milk, has also been reported to possess anticancer effect [48].
Natural compounds are an important source for the discovery and the development of novel antiviral drugs because of their availability and expected low side effects. Naturally occurring compounds with antiviral activity have been recognized as early as 1940s. The search for effective drugs against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the need of hour. Most of the work related with antiviral compounds revolves around inhibition of various enzymes associated with the life cycle of viruses. Structure-function relationship between secondary metabolites and the HIV enzyme inhibitory activity has been observed [38].
Diseases of the liver have been classified as high priority areas of health care, as an estimate by the World Health Organization shows approximately 500 million people of the world are suffering from a severe form of liver disorders that may lead to chronic hepatitis. Hepatic disorders can be caused by exposure to agents such as drugs, viruses, parasites, and toxins. Such an exposure usually may result in degeneration and inflammation of the liver; furthermore, it results in fibrosis and cirrhosis [49]. In addition, different chronic diseases such as diabetes may lead to development of hepatic clinical manifestations.
Several flavonoids such as catechin, apigenin, quercetin, naringenin, rutin, and venoruton are reported for their hapatoprotective activities [38]. Muhammad and coworkers review studies conducted on the composition, pharmacology, and nature of some selected plants in the light of possible mechanism deduced from experimental trials [49]. Also, a comprehensive review by Meng et al. [50], listed several plants and products that have been used in the prevention and treatment of chemically induced liver damages [50].
Many drugs with wide range of pharmacological activities were derived from alkaloids [51]. Some of the important drugs derived from alkaloids include:
Quinine—antimalaria [51]
Morphine—analgesic [52]
Codeine—analgesic, antitussive [53]
Ephedrine—antiasthma [51]
Galantamine—cholinomimetics [54]
Homoharringtonine—anticancer [50]
Quinidine—antiarrhythmic [52]
Vincamine—vasodilator [52]
Chelerythrine—antibacterial [55]
Piperine—antihyperglycemic [56]
Atropine—anticholinergic [57]
Pilocarpine—cholinergic agonist [58]
Paclitaxel—anticancer [59]
Ergotamine—anti-migraine [60]
Reserpine—antihypertensive [60]
Vinblastine and vincristine—anticancer [60]
Physostigmine—anti-mydriatic, etc. [60]
The effects of cardiac glycosides mainly for increasing heart muscle force of contraction and reducing heart rate are beneficial for treating cardiac arrhythmias and congestive heart failure; cardiac glycosides have long been used to manage these ailments. The commonest cardiac glycosides used clinically include digoxin, digitoxin, ouabain, and bufalin [61]. Other forms of cardiac glycosides are antiarin, thevetin A and B, peruvoside, neriifolin, thevetoxin, ruvoside, theveridoside, cerberin, convallarin, convallamarin, convallatoxin, glucoscillarene A, proscillaridine A, scillarene A, scilliglaucoside and scilliphaeoside, marinobufagenin, oleandrin, folineriin, adynerin, digitoxigenin, marinobufagenin, telocinobufagin [62]. Among these substances, literature has also reported the therapeutic uses of acetyldigoxin, digitoxin, digoxin, gitoformate, gitoxin, lanatoside C, metildigoxin (β-methyldigoxin), ouabain (strophanthin-g), peruvoside, proscillaridin, strophanthin-k [63], apart from digoxin, digitoxin, ouabain, and bufalin earlier mentioned [61].
From plants, over 8000 phenolic compounds have been reported [64]. Interestingly, flavonoids make up half of these phenolic compounds [64]. Effectively, flavonoids and several other phenolic compounds have been reported to possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidants, anticancer, cardioprotective, immunomodulatory, and skin radioprotective effects from UV light. More so, these compounds are good pharmaceutical candidates for medical application [65]. Several flavonoids including apigenin, galangin, flavone and flavonol glycosides, isoflavones, flavanones, and chalcones have been shown to possess potent antibacterial activity [38].
Certain carcinogenic incidences, such as esophageal cancer, have been related to tannins-rich foods consumption, especially the herbal tea and betel nuts. However, several reports showed that tannins’ carcinogenic effects are not due to tannins themselves but likely due to components associated with the tannins [66]. Many literatures revealed negative association between cancer incidences and consumption of tannins components and tea polyphenols, suggesting their anticarcinogenic effects [66].
The antimutagenic and antimicrobial activities of tannins have been documented. Tannins inhibit the growth of viruses, bacteria, yeast, and many fungi. It has also been reported that propyl gallate and tannic acid inhibit aquatic bacteria and foodborne bacteria; this action is not reported for gallic acid. In food processing industry, catfish fillets’ shelf-life can be enhanced using the tannic acid antimicrobial property. The antihypertensive, hypolipidemic, coagulative, and immunomodulatory effects of tannins have been reported [66].
Terpenoids being the most abundant compounds in natural products have been reported to possess antibacterial, antimalarial, antiviral, hypoglycemic, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities. Furthermore, literatures have also documented the effects of terpenoids in treating and preventing cardiovascular diseases, antioxidation, immunoregulation, and promotion of transdermal absorption of substances [67].
The beginning was the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming from penicillium mold; penicillin is one of the most known antibiotics in use, and the beta lactam antibiotics penicillin and cephalosporin were all derived from fungus [68]. Other antibiotics derived from fungus include alamethicin, brefeldin A, aphidicolin, citromycin, fumagillin, cerulenin, eupenifeldin, fusidic acid, fusafungine, itaconic acid, usnic acid, helvolic acid, nigrosporin B, verrucarin A, vermiculine, etc. [68]. Tiamulin, retaparmulin, and valnemulin are antibiotics derived from pleuromutilin [68].
Antifungal griseofulvin is a derivative of penicillium species [69], azoxystrobin, echinocandins, strobilurin, micafungin, anidulafungin, and caspofungin are all antifungal agents originally derived from fungus [70].
Bredinin, cyclosporin, mycophenolic acid, myriocin, endocrocin, and gliotoxin are all immunosuppressants isolated from fungus [71].
Compounds from several mushrooms such as
Pharmaceutical agents of bacterial origin include antibiotics, immunomodulators, nematicides, antitumor agents, coccidiostatic agents, enzyme inhibitors, and insecticides. Interestingly,
The resistance against herbivores and pathogens is a role played decisively by the chemical protection nature of plants, the secondary metabolites; they are plant features important especially for protection against a wide range of microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, arthropods, herbivores, and vertebrates [88]. Soil decomposition is influenced by plant secondary metabolites by increasing nitrogen immobilization in the soil; cycling of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) is affected by terpenes and tannins [89].
Exudates from plants roots contain secondary metabolites that can attract, kill, or deter underground microbes, herbivorous insects, and nematodes, competing plants and underground injuries are also inhibited [90]. Plants secondary metabolites contain potential toxic substances used for defense against insects; these chemical compounds can be utilized for design of future insecticides with multiple or specific targets [91]. A good example of an insecticidal compound of such nature is pyrethrin derived from the flowers of Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium plant; pyrethroids are the synthetic analogs of pyrethrin [92].
In terms of animals’ productivity, animals that ingest forages containing different plants secondary metabolites get their meat and dairy products enhanced in terms of biochemical richness making them good for human consumption [93].
In today’s food industries, plants secondary metabolites are used extensively as flavoring, coloring, and texturizing agents. Preservation and anti-browning are done with metabolites possessing antioxidative properties [94].
The fact that animals and humans have been in existence before the advent of orthodox medicine is a proof that plants have been quite effective in treating diseases. The folkloric use of plant medicine has a long history [95]. From the earliest times, man acquired knowledge of the adverse and beneficial effects of plants from observations on animals. To distinguish edible from poisonous plants, grazing animals were observed and the plants not eaten were considered poisonous [96]. About 80% of the rural population today depends largely on medicinal plants for primary health care [97]. About 25% of all prescription drugs in developed countries are obtained directly or indirectly from plants [98].
Plants produce valuable organic compounds, some of which have potentials in treating ailments in both animals and humans [99]. Of the 252 drugs considered as basic and essential by the WHO, 11% are exclusively of plant origin and a significant number are synthetic drugs obtained from natural precursors [100]. In 1997, the world market for phytomedicinal products was estimated at US$10 billion [101]. This prompted the WHO to consider phytotherapy in its alternative or complementary health program. Locally produced plant medicines can be cheaper than imported synthetic drugs. One striking example is an herbal wound powder (Himax®) in Sri Lanka that was found to be as effective as an imported powder (Neomex®) and comparatively 80–90% cheaper [102].
The most easily accessible, affordable, and inexpensive sources of treatment in the primary healthcare system throughout the world are medicinal plants; there is a long history for the therapy of various disease conditions traditionally in various regions of the world [103].
Natural products’ earliest records were depicted on clay tablets from Mesopotamia (2600 BC) in cuneiform; there are documented evidences of the folkloric of the use of oils derived from
Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological effects including antimalarial (quinine), antiasthma (ephedrine), anticancer (homoharringtonine), vasodilatory (vincamine), antiarrhythmic (quinidine), analgesic (morphine), antibacterial (chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g., piperine) [37].
Huang et al. [105] and other teams clearly demonstrated that anthraquinones, such as emodin, aloe-emodin, and rhein, inhibit the growth and proliferation of various cancer cells, such as lung adenocarcinoma, myelogenous leukemia, neuroblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, bladder cancer, and others through cell death and survival’s modulation. Several anthraquinones are able to inhibit the replication of viruses or even directly kill enveloped or unenveloped strains [106]. Senna, cascara, frangula, rhubarb, and aloe are commonly used for their laxative effects [107].
Flavonoids have various health-promoting effects such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antimutagenic. Flavonoids have antioxidant effects associated with various diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, atherosclerosis [108].
The most important use of the cardiac glycosides is its effects in treatment of cardiac failure. In cardiac failure, or congestive heart failure, heart cannot pump sufficient blood to maintain body needs. During each heart contraction, there is an influx of Na+ and an outflow of K+. Before the next contraction, Na+, K+-ATPase must reestablish the concentration gradient pumping Na+ into the cell against a concentration gradient. This process requires energy, which is obtained from hydrolysis of ATP to ADP by Na+, K+-ATPase. Cardiac glycosides inhibit Na+, K+-ATPase, and consequently increase the force of myocardial contraction [109].
Saponins exhibit a biological role and medicinal properties such as anti-inflammatory [110], antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, insecticidal, anticancer, cytotoxic, and molluscicidal action [111].
Terpenes include substances such as floral fragrances, which serve as insect attractants, pine oil, growth inhibitors, plant hormones (gibberellic acid and abscisic acid), and some of which are insecticidal. About 30,000 terpenes have been identified; they all possess repeating five-carbon isoprene units (a five-carbon ring) [112].
Artemesinin is a sequiterpene, which originated from the Chinese medicinal plant Quinhao (
Secondary metabolites are known for their angiogenic or wound healing activity, new compounds such as the new alkylresorcinols isolated from the lipophilic extract of Urginea indica L. bulbs have been reported to possess wound healing activity following experimental trauma [115].
Authors declare no conflict of interest.
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This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/177223",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"177223"},fullPath:"/profiles/177223",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()