In the clearcut area of the main study site Nordmoen, 48 species/taxa of Oribatida were recorded, and 12 of Mesostigmata.
\r\n\tCities are central locations in which change happens generally at a faster pace than anywhere else. For this reason, they have long drawn the attention of researchers from a wide variety of scientific domains. In this regard, development, spatial evolution, spatial organisation, strategic management and sustainable development of urban forms are major research themes in both urban studies, landscape redevelopment and human geography communities. This scenario contributed to increasing the number of studies on urban agglomeration over the past three decades.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book, while addressing past, present and future conceptions of urban agglomeration, intends to study cities as integrated entities, living organisms in which spatial organisation and internal dynamics are inherently dependent on existing relations between urbanised landscapes and their surrounding countryside, inviting and challenging practitioners, architects, planners, geographers, landscape architects and governments to analyse and study their respective structures, scale of development, competitiveness, interactions level, form and spatial distribution.
\r\n\t
Nowhere else, in nature, organisms are so densely packed as in soil. Combined with a huge number of species, “biodiversity in the dark” has fascinated biologists for long. In concert, soil organisms play a key role in terrestrial ecosystems, being of fundamental importance for plant growth, sustainable crop production, and biogeochemical cycling of nutrients. At the same time, soil biodiversity is vulnerable to human disturbance of different kinds. There is a critical need for understanding soil processes, how soil organisms respond to global change, and to take measures for long-term protection of soil biodiversity [1].
Mites (Acari) represent one of the species rich and abundant soil animal groups. Oribatid mites alone cover five feeding guilds, including the ability to digest chitin [2], and they represent four trophic levels in the decomposition process [3]. Another mite group, Mesostigmata, contains a multitude of predator species which control other microarthropod populations, both in the soil and in vegetation [4, 5]. Forest habitats, especially old forests with a well-developed litter layer, tend to have a high mite density, often with a species-rich fauna of oribatids [6, 7, 8].
Norwegian coniferous forests represent the western outpost of the Eurasian taiga. This giant forest belt, which is dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) and Scots pine (Pinus silvestris L.), typically contains a well-developed raw humus layer which represents a considerable global carbon storage. The slowly decomposing needles, cones, and other litter items in the forest floor create a fungus rich and sometimes deep, humus world, in which several mite groups thrive, including many oribatid species.
The present review is a synthesis of mite studies in coniferous forest soils of Southern Norway, published over a 40-year period [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26]. In the 1970s, extensive studies on soil microarthropods were initiated as part of a large project, “Effects of acid precipitation on forest and soil,” and certain subjects were followed up long after the project was ended. In addition to summing up field and laboratory experiments with liming and artificial acid rain, spotlights will be given on the following topics: density and species numbers of mites, their horizontal and vertical distribution, effects of different pH, vegetation types, soils and substrates, succession in the mite fauna during decomposition, whether mites can influence the humification process, how species within one genus may differ in habitat use, an experiment on the predatory effect of Gamasina mites, and mite activity beneath and within snow.
This was a spruce forest with Vaccinium myrtillus L. vegetation, situated on a flat plain of glaciofluvial sandy deposits, about 45 km N of Oslo. On clearcut areas, Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) dominated. The soil was a stone-free iron podzol with a 3 cm thick organic layer and a correspondingly bleached layer below. Experiments with artificial acidification and liming and decomposition experiments with litter bags were performed here, partly in a young spruce stand, and partly on a clearcut area [14].
Two study areas were chosen for soil sampling in natural forest, each area with a gradient in vegetation types from the poorest pine forest to the richest spruce forest [15, 27]. Area A near Ås, about 30 km south of Oslo, had a cover of marine sediments. In area B in Skrukkelia, NW of lake Hurdalssjøen and about 60 km north of Oslo, the soil was mainly morainic deposits. In both study areas, spruce forest with Vaccinium myrtillus dominated. Listed after increasing soil fertility based on plant associations, the vegetation types were short named as follows:
Cladonia sp.: pine forest on iron podzol soil, with a dense cover of Cladonia lichens. Due to a thin soil layer, conditions were dry, and trees grew slowly (Figure 1).
Calluna vulgaris: pine forest with less Cladonia, and a field layer dominated by Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull. The soil was shallow peat in area A and iron podzol in area B.
Vaccinium sp.: pine forest on iron podzol soil, with a dense cover of Vaccinium myrtillus or Vaccinium vitis-idaea L., but also containing some Cladonia lichens.
Vaccinium myrtillus: spruce forest with Vaccinium myrtillus. Brown earth-like soil in area A and iron podzol in area B.
Small ferns: spruce forest with small ferns, Dryopteris phegopteris (L.) C. Chr. and Dryopteris linnaeana C. Chr. Brown earth in area A and iron podzol in area B.
Small herbs: spruce forest on brown earth, with small herbs like Carex digitata L., Melampyrum silvaticum L., and Fragaria vesca L.
Tall herbs: spruce forest on brown earth, with tall herbs like Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim., Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth., and Aconitum septentrionale Koelle.
The poorest coniferous forest type: slow-growing pines on a thin soil layer dominated by Cladonia lichens. Certain drought-tolerant, lichen-feeding mites were abundant here. Photo: S. Hågvar.
Dead sporocarps of different wood-living polypore fungi were sampled in an old spruce forest in the Østmarka area, about 20 km east of Oslo [24, 25].
Activity under snow was studied in an old spruce forest with Vaccinium myrtillus vegetation near Veggli in Numedal valley, about 150 km NW of Oslo. Here, at 850 m above the sea level, a snow cover of 1–2 m is common [23]. In the main study area, Nordmoen, mite activity was studied both under and within snow [11].
Each vegetation type in areas A and B was sampled twice, in autumn 1977 and in spring 1978. Using a soil corer of 10 cm2, 20 soil cores were taken both during spring and autumn in each vegetation type. The cores were divided into 0–3 and 3–6 cm depth. In the main study area at Nordmoen, the same sampling method was used. Here, a clearcut area with 0.5 m high Picea abies seedlings was chosen for intense studies. Eight random replicates were established, each 4 × 4 m. Density of mites per replicate was based on 10 soil cores, each 5.3 cm2 and 6 cm deep.
Lime was applied as crushed CaCO3 (3000 kg Ca0 ha−1), and 50 mm of artificial acid rain was applied monthly by adding sulfuric acid to ground water (Figure 2). Treatments were no watering, pH 6 (control), pH 4, pH 3, pH 2.5, and pH 2. The natural pH in the organic layer (upper 3 cm) was 3.9. Liming increased pH about 2 units, and the strongest acid reduced pH about 0.5 units. Only application of acid rain with pH 3 or stronger lowered the pH in the organic layer [14].
Artificial acid rain is applied on a 4 × 4 m experimental plot with small pine trees.
The clearcut area in the main study area was used to study the mite succession during decomposition of spruce needles [19] and birch leaves [12, 13]. Cylindrical litter bags, 3 cm high and with a diameter of 3.4 cm, were filled with 4.2 g (dry weight) of naturally shed spruce needles. The litter bags were then inserted into holes made in the raw humus layer, which had a corresponding depth. This is not a natural position of the litter, but it allowed to study the preference among mites for different decomposition phases. While the litter bags stood in this fixed position, in contact with various depth levels of the organic horizon, all species had a continuous access to the needles. With a mesh size of 0.6 mm, migration to and from the bags was easy for all microarthropods.
Succession in decomposing birch leaves was studied in a similar way in the same site. Cylindrical litter bags with a mesh size of 1 mm, 3 cm high and with a diameter of 6.5 cm, were each filled with 6.85 g (dry weight) of naturally shed birch leaves. These bags also received artificial rain of pH 6, 4, 3, and 2.
In the main study area at Nordmoen, naturally shed spruce needles were sampled on snow and dried. Later, needles were stuck into fine-meshed nylon strips, which were placed on the ground of a 10–20 m high spruce stand. Gradually, needles were covered by new litter in a natural way. Strips with needles were recovered after 4, 12, 16, 24, 35, 38, 40, and 52 months [22].
Dead sporocarps were brought to the laboratory, carefully fragmented, and mites were extracted in funnels, using heat from a light bulb [24, 25].
Specially designed pitfall traps were used [23]. The mechanism allowed sampling without disturbing the subnivean air space near the traps.
This was a greenhouse experiment, where forest soil was kept in large plastic boxes [10]. Microarthropods (and microflora as well) had the opportunity to colonize sterilized soil (raw humus, poor mull, and rich mull) which had been adjusted to three different pH levels. Cylindrical litter bags with a mesh size of 1 mm, 3 cm high and with a diameter of 6.5 cm, were used. The design can be characterized as a preference experiment, where also the ability to reproduce during the four-month period influenced the establishment of each species.
Small microcosms were used, consisting of a cylindrical, open litter bag which was inserted into a lidded plastic container. The litter bag was 3 cm high, 3.4 cm in diameter, and made from a nylon cloth with 0.6 mm mesh size. Holes drilled in the plastic container were covered with nylon cloth of 5-μm mesh size. Before adding microarthropods to sterilized soil, microflora was introduced partly by soil water sieved through 5-μm pores and partly by allowing soil fungi to grow in through corresponding pores for 1–2 months. Then animals were added, either from monocultures or from ordinary soil samples [17]. Raw humus adjusted to different pH levels was used in the microcosms. About 25 microcosms were extracted after 3, 6, and 12 months, respectively. This setup allowed for studying the effect of soil pH on population growth in monocultures of selected species. An interesting by-product was the effect of predatory Gamasina mites, which survived in some microcosms, but went extinct in others [21].
Podzol soil with vegetation type 4 in the main study area contained 48 species of Oribatida and 12 species of Mesostigmata (Table 1). The density of mites was high. In the upper 6-cm soil, the mean numbers per m2, based on eight replicates, were: Prostigmata (Actinedida) 490,000, Oribatida 220,000, and Astigmata (Acaridida) 10,000. The total mite density was 720,000 per m2. The highest total density in one replicate amounted to 1.2 million mites per m2 [14].
Oribatida | Oribatida (continued) |
Adoristes poppei (Oudemans) | Oppia subpectinata Willmann |
Autogneta parva Forsslund | Oppia unicarinata (Paoli) |
Autogneta trägårdhi Forsslund | Oppia nova (Oudemans) |
Belba cf. compta Kulczynski | Oribatula tibialis (Nicolet) |
Brachychochthonius zelawaiensis (Sellnick) | Palaeacarus sp. |
Caleremaeus monolipes (Michael) | Parachipteria cf. willmanni (V. D. Hammen) |
Camisia biurus (C. L. Koch) | Paraleius cf. leontonycha (Berlese) |
Camisia cf. lapponica Trägårdh | Paulonothrus longisetosus (Willmann) |
Camisia spinifer (C. L. Koch) | Pergalumna nervosus (Berlese) |
Carabodes femoralis (Nicolet) | Phthiracarus sp. |
Carabodes forsslundi Sellnick | Platynothrus peltifer (C. L. Koch) |
Carabodes labyrinthicus (Michael) | Porobelba spinosa (Sellnick) |
Carabodes marginatus (Michael) | Scheloribates laevigatus (C. L. Koch) |
Carabodes subarcticus Trägårdh | Steganacarus sp. |
Cepheus cepheiformis (Nicolet) | Suctobelba subcornigera (Forsslund) |
Ceratozetes sp. | Tectocepheus velatus (Michael) |
Chamobates incisus (V. D. Hammen) | Zygoribatula cf. trigonella Bulanova & Zachvatkina |
Chamobatidae sp. | Mesostigmata |
Eueremaeus silvestris (Forsslund) | Eviphis ostrinus (Koch) |
Eupelops duplex (Berlese) | Gamasellus montanus (Willmann) |
Eupelops geminus (Berlese) | Hypoaspis forcipata Willmann |
Euphthiracaridae | Leioseius bicolor Berlese |
Hemileius initialis Berlese | Parazerkon sarekensis Willmann |
Hypochthonius rufulus C. L. Koch | Pergamasus cf. lapponicus Trägårdh |
Liacarus cf. coracinus (C. L. Koch) | Pergamasus parrunciger Bhattacharyya |
Licneremaeus licnophorus (Michael) | Pergamasus robustus Oudemans |
Nanhermannia cf. forsslundi Karppinen | Prozercon kochi Sellnick |
Nothrus silvestris Nicolet | Trachytes sp. |
Oppia cf. translamellata (Willmann) | Veigaia cerva (Kramer) |
Oppia obsoleta (Paoli) | Veigaia nemorensis C. L. Koch |
Oppia ornata (Oudemans) |
In the clearcut area of the main study site Nordmoen, 48 species/taxa of Oribatida were recorded, and 12 of Mesostigmata.
Comparable data exist from Finland and Sweden. In southern and central parts of Finland, mites were studied in four coniferous forest sites [28]. The localities corresponded to vegetation types 2 and 4 in the present study. The densities of oribatids, 186,000–351,000 per m2, were in the same order of magnitude as in the present study for vegetation type 4. However, their Prostigmata densities, 34,000–80,000 per m2, were only about one tenth of ours. As much as 62 oribatid taxa were recorded in a Finnish spruce site with vegetation type 4. In another Finnish study of spruce forest soil, 35 taxa of oribatids were recorded and a relatively low density, only 70,000 oribatids per m2 [29].
In an old Swedish pine forest of vegetation type 1–2, 52 oribatid species were recorded and very high densities [30]. As much as 425,000 oribatids per m2 were found, which surpasses both the Norwegian and Finnish densities mentioned above. Prostigmata numbers (210,000 per m2) were between Norwegian and Finnish numbers, and total mite numbers (684,000 per m2) approached the high Norwegian number of 720,000. We can conclude that Nordic coniferous forest soils with raw humus have a very rich mite fauna, both in oribatid species and in total mite numbers.
The main study area had very homogeneous soil conditions over a large area. It was a flat plain with stone-free, sandy soil, without visible variations in moisture conditions or vegetation. Still, as shown in Table 2, the horizontal distribution of many species showed considerable local variations [14, 15].
Species | Group | Densities |
---|---|---|
Parazercon sarekensis | M | 1.7–5.2 |
Veigaia nemorensis | M | 0.1–1.7 |
Tectocepheus velatus | O | 20–110 |
Nothrus silvestris | O | 2–95 |
Brachychochthonius zelawaiensis | O | 2–100 |
Oppia obsoleta | O | 0–5.5 |
Oppia nova | O | 0–4.5 |
Paulonothrus longisetosus | O | 0–3.7 |
Brachychthoniidae | O | 20–200 |
Total Oribatida | 80–360 | |
Astigmata (Acaridida) | 3–30 | |
Prostigmata (Actinedida) | 230–850 | |
Total Acari | 400–1200 |
Lowest and highest density of various mites (1000 per m2) in eight random study plots (each 4 × 4 m) on a flat and homogeneous forest area. O = Oribatida and M = Mesostigmata. Mite density in a given plot was the mean of 10 soil cores, 6 cm deep and with a surface area of 5.3 cm2.
In another experiment, litter bags with birch leaves were placed in the humus layer of four random blocks. The mite fauna which colonized the litter varied significantly between blocks [12]. The Astigmata species Tyrophagus cf. fungivorus (Oudemans) colonized heavily in Blocks 1 and 2, while Oppia ornata occurred mainly in the other two. Actinedida mites were especially numerous in litter bags of Block 4, while the same litter bags had the lowest number of Autogneta trägårdhi. Block 1 had high numbers of Oribatula tibialis, while Chamobates incisus had its highest numbers in Blocks 2 and 3 (Table 3).
Species | Sample No | Block numbers | Significance | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B 1 | B 2 | B 3 | B 4 | |||
Tyrophagus cf. fungivorus | I | 533.5 | 735.8 | 13.5 | 2.3 | B3 & B4 < B1 & B2 |
Oppia ornata | III | 0 | 0 | 21.7 | 6.3 | B3 > B1, B2 & B4 |
Prostigmata (Actinedida) | II | 46.8 | 77.5 | 211.0 | 343.8 | B4 > B1 & B2 |
Autogneta trägårdhi | I | 56.6 | 45.1 | 55.8 | 21.4 | |
Oribatula tibialis | II | 208.5 | 92.7 | 44.9 | 28.6 | B1 > B2, B3 & B4 |
Chamobates incisus | II | 0 | 2.0 | 4.6 | 0.6 | B3 > B1 & B4 |
Examples of how the number of mites per litter bag with birch leaves may vary between four blocks in a flat and apparently homogeneous forest floor [12].
The study of vertical distribution in mites was restricted to the upper 6 cm. Carabodes species only rarely occurred in the 3–6 cm layer and were to a large degree living in close connection with Cladonia lichens on the surface [25]. In the main study area, there was no sharp change in the mite fauna between the organic layer (0–3 cm) and the bleached mineral layer (3–6 cm). For instance, the large Nothrus silvestris was equally abundant in the two layers. However, the addition of strong doses of lime or artificial acid rain was apparently stressful for several mites, forcing animals to deeper layers. After treatment, the following oribatids moved significantly deeper, shifting from living mainly in the organic layer, to live mainly in the mineral layer: Nothrus silvestris, Suctobelba sp., Brachychochthonius zelawaiensis, and total oribatids. However, Prostigmata mites showed a shift upwards in the soil profile [14]. A frequent natural stress factor in soil is drought. In a Finnish forest, Nothrus silvestris was seen to migrate into deeper layers during warm periods [31].
In the comparative study between different vegetation types and soils, all the six selected mites showed variations in depth distribution, not only between habitats, but also between seasons [15]. On the average, the following percentages of the populations occurred in the upper 3 cm compared to 3–6 cm depth: 85% in Tectocepheus velatus, 65% in Parazercon sarekensis, 60% in Schwiebea cf. cavernicola Vitzthum, 54% in Brachychochthonius zelawaiensis, 52% in Nothrus silvestris, and 51% in Schwiebea cf. nova (Oudemans). The somewhat deeper distribution of Nothrus silvestris compared to Tectocepheus velatus has been confirmed by other studies [32, 33, 34].
Eight mite species were studied systematically with respect to vegetation types and soil characteristics [15, 25]. Five belonged to the oribatids, two belonged to Acaridida, and one to Mesostigmata (Table 4). Most species preferred poor and acidic podzol soils with raw humus (up to vegetation type 4), but S. cf. cavernicola had the highest density in a poor brown earth (type 6). None of the eight species were abundant in the richest soil, a brown earth with mull humus (type 7). The non-Carabodes species in Table 4 were tested for correlation between population size and soil chemical parameters. Soil pH, and the accompanying parameters base saturation and calcium content, turned out to be the strongest explanatory factor.
Species | Group | Vegetation type | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | ||
Carabodes subarcticus | Oribatida | 15.2 | 0.5 | 2.5 | 0.02 | |||
Carabodes willmanni | Oribatida | 37.1 | 43.1 | 4.7 | ||||
Parazercon sarekensis | Mesostigmata | 3.4 | 1.5 | 1.8 | 4.0 | 2.9 | 1.3 | |
Tectocepheus velatus | Oribatida | 175.3 | 66.8 | 99.1 | 47.2 | 7.4 | 11.5 | 0.7 |
Brachychochthonius zelawaiensis | Oribatida | 0.9 | 1.5 | 27.7 | 38.8 | 12.2 | 1.6 | 0.5 |
Nothrus silvestris | Oribatida | 1.8 | 3.5 | 14.8 | 22.0 | 3.7 | 7.3 | 1.9 |
Schwiebea cf. cavernicola | Acaridida | 0.7 | 1.3 | 7.1 | 4.0 | 7.8 | 11.3 | 2.6 |
Schwiebea cf. nova | Acaridida | 0.4 | 0.9 | 1.8 | 12.2 | 3.4 | 0.4 | 0.5 |
Abundance (1000 per m2 in the upper 6 cm soil layer) of some common mite species in seven different vegetation types in coniferous forest.
Numbers are mean value from two localities, each sampled during spring and autumn. Vegetation types 1–7 are described in Material and Methods. Soil fertility increased from left to right. For complete vegetation data, see [27].
Some other Carabodes species were so rare in all soils that they have been excluded from Table 4, but further mentioned under the next point.
Comparable data from Finland and Sweden confirm that Nothrus silvestris and Tectocepheus velatus occur in many different plant communities of coniferous forest, but typically in acid raw humus, and with low densities in richer soils [31, 33, 35, 36]. Although preferences exist, it has been concluded on a general basis that many oribatid species are able to persist in a wide range of humus forms and vegetation types [37].
The combined study of mites in different coniferous forest types and mites in decomposing polypore fungi illustrated that closely related species within a genus (Carabodes) can fill quite different niches in the forest ecosystem [25]. The most common Carabodes species in soil were rare in sporocarps and vice versa. The first two species in Table 5 were considered Cladonia-feeders on the ground and were able to live in a dry forest floor. The third species on the list is also a lichen-feeder, which often climbs tree stems. Then, we have three fungal feeders which decompose dead sporocarps and may achieve high densities in these patchy and temporary habitats. Their relative numbers were rather similar in dead sporocarps of five different fungal species, including annual and perennial sporocarps, soft and hard. Although being tolerant to different fungal species, these specialists were considered vulnerable in forests with little dead wood and few sporocarps [25]. The five lower species have been found in low numbers, both in sporocarps, in dead wood, and in soil. They are either generalists or have unknown preferences.
Species | In sporocarps | In dead wood | In soil | Remark |
---|---|---|---|---|
C. willmanni Bernini | (+) | ++++ | Cladonia-feeder on the ground | |
C. subarcticus Trägårdh | (+) | + | ++ | Cladonia-feeder on the ground? |
C. labyrinthicus (Michael) | +(+) | + | +(+) | Lichen-feeder, common on tree stems |
C. femoralis (Nicolet) | ++++ | ++ | + | Polypore specialist |
C. areolatus Berlese | +++ | ++ | (+) | Polypore specialist |
C. reticulatus Berlese | +++ | + | Polypore specialist | |
C. marginatus (Michael) | (+) | + | + | |
C. forsslundi Sellnick | + | + | + | |
C. rugosior Berlese | + | + | (+) | |
C. tenuis Forsslund | + | + | (+) | |
C. coriaceus Koch | + | + | (+) |
Simplified overview on the occurrence of various Carabodes species in different forest habitats, compiled from several sources. From [25].
Very high abundance is subjectively indicated by ++++ and very low abundance by (+). Short remarks are given for some species.
Three approaches were used to test whether soil pH was an important environmental factor for mites. First, a “preference experiment” was arranged in the laboratory [10]. Here, mites were allowed to colonize soils adjusted to different pH levels. Second, we studied responses to artificial pH changes in soil through liming and artificial acid rain, both in the field and in the laboratory [13, 14]. Third, mites were sampled in natural soils of varying pH, to check if there were species that occurred mainly at certain pH levels [15].
Table 6 gives the most consistent results from the first two approaches. Clear responses were found in three oribatid species, in total Oribatida, and in the Acaridida species Schwiebea cf. nova. Raised pH due to liming reduced densities of these taxa, while acidification usually led to higher densities. The third approach from natural soils of different pH supported the pattern: species which increased in numbers during artificial acidification were often numerous in naturally acid soils [15]. It was concluded that soil pH was a highly relevant environmental factor for certain mites. Among them was the rather large oribatid species Nothrus silvestris (Figure 3).
Species | Effect of liming | Effect of acidification | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Colonization experiment [10] | Field experiment [14] | Colonization experiment [10] | Field experiment [14] | Birch leaves [13] | ||
Field | Green- house | |||||
Nothrus silvestris | — | — | + | |||
Tectocepheus velatus | — | — | + | + | + | + |
Brachychochthonius zelawaiensis | — | — | + | + | — | |
Total Oribatida | — | + | + | + | ||
Schwiebea cf. nova | — | + | + |
Significant effects of liming and acidification on mite densities. Compiled from several studies.
Nothrus silvestris is an oribatid species that is typical for acid raw humus and declined after liming. Photo by courtesy of SNSB—Zoologische Staatssammlung München.
In field experiments with application of artificial rain, the structure of the mite community changed in a characteristic way. Figure 4 shows how the dominance structure was influenced by liming and application of “rain” with pH 2.5 and 2. Watering with pH 6 was considered as control. The dominance of Oribatida increased with increased acidification. Changes were mainly due to reactions in the sensitive species from Table 6.
Effect of liming and acidification (the two most extreme treatments, pH 2.5 and 2) on the relative dominance among mites. Watering with pH 6 was considered as “control.” The dominance of Oribatida mites, indicated by double arrows, increased with increased acidification [14]. Actinedida = Prostigmata and Acaridida = Astigmata.
Finnish [38] and Swedish [39] experiments conformed well with these data, as well as other studies referred to in [14].
Soil acidity is, of course, only one of many factors that modify the abundance of these species, and the relation is not absolute. Even if the pH level is favorable, other limiting factors, for instance drought, may depress populations. The experiments support the following conclusion: a high abundance in certain species can only be achieved within a certain pH interval (and only if other factors are not limiting), while within another pH interval, high abundance cannot be achieved. In soils of the latter pH interval, the acidity level (or correlated factors) seems to be limiting [16].
Relations between abundance of mites and soil acidity are difficult to explain. Soil pH is a measure of the H+ activity of the soil solution. This parameter may have a direct importance for the water-living part of the soil fauna (such as Protozoa and Rotifera), and to other groups living in contact with the soil solution, as Nematoda [40, 41]. Both Enchytraeidae and Lumbricidae prefer relatively high moisture in the soil [42]. The survival of the Enchytraeidae species Cognettia sphagnetorum Vejdovsky decreased rapidly when the animals were submerged in diluted sulfuric acid of pH below 4 [9]. Many Enchytraeidae species show distinct relations to soil pH, both in experiments and in the field [10, 39, 43, 44]. The dependence of Lumbricidae species upon soil pH is well documented [45, 46, 47].
Microarthropods, on the other hand, have a hydrophobic cuticula and are restricted to the air-filled pore spaces of the soil. The relations described are probably indirect. Several possibilities have been discussed [16]: changes in ground vegetation due to artificial acid rain, direct effects of lime or sulfuric acid, various factors correlated to soil pH, changed predation pressure, availability of fungal hyphae as food, or fecundity. After having refuted several hypotheses, the following laboratory experiment pointed toward competition as a possible explanation [18].
Some microcosms were added a full soil fauna, while others were monocultures of selected species. The acidophilic Acaridid mite Schwiebea cf. nova (later named S. cf. lebruni Fain) thrived in monocultures. Starting with 30 specimens, populations increased to around 2000. Surprisingly, population growth in monoculture was lowest in the most acid soil. In the “full fauna” microcosms, however, the species revealed its typical acidophilic character and achieved the highest populations in the most acid soil. Quite parallel results were achieved for the acidophilic springtail Mesaphorura yosii (Rusek) [18]. These species have an optimum at a high pH when being alone. However, by some reason, they seem to be good competitors at low pH. They were winners both in natural soils with a low pH and in various experiments with artificial acid rain. Also the acidophilic oribatid Nothrus silvestris reproduced best in limed soil when alone [18].
For Collembola, other laboratory studies on population growth, with or without other species present, have illustrated that competition occurs [48, 49]. In most cases, the presence of another species reduced population growth. The most common mechanism was disturbance during oviposition. A classic study about competition among oribatid mites was performed in microcosms with natural soil. Two species with overlapping niches, Hermaniella granulata (Nicolet) and Nothrus silvestris, were first bred in monocultures. When put together, both species underwent significant shifts in their use of space and food. Their vertical distribution changed so that Hermaniella moved upwards into the litter layers, while the Nothrus population increased in the deeper fermentation layer [50].
Competition may attain many forms, and the topic is not easy to disentangle. However, since species live so densely packed in soil, one can imagine that disturbance or limited space or food may have an influence. If competition is a key factor regulating population size in soil, a general study of competition in microarthropods might be rewarding. Although a species may have its set of preferences, the key quality may be its ability to compete under suboptimal conditions.
While the function of soil mites is often focused on their role in decomposition, predatory Mesostigmata mites have the potential to control the density of little sclerotized prey of various taxa. The evolution of strongly sclerotized bodies in many oribatid species obviously has an antipredator role.
The microcosm experiment described above illustrated the predatory effect of large Gamasina mites. At the start, 96% of the cultures contained predatory Gamasina mites, mainly Veigaia nemorensis. This percentage was reduced to 73% after 3 months, 62% after 6 months, and 50% after 12 months. The local extinction of these predators often resulted in very high densities of springtails or mites. For instance, after 1 year, the number of Schwiebea mites in certain predator-free microcosms could amount to several hundred, while predator-containing cultures usually had numbers below 30. Also for springtails, the highest populations were recorded in cultures where predatory Gamasina mites had gone extinct [21].
From the literature, another laboratory experiment illustrated well this top-down control of microarthropods. The addition of predatory mites to isolated soil cores containing a natural microarthropod fauna reduced the density of small and less sclerotized oribatids, as well as Collembola and Protura [5].
In agroecosystems, edaphic Mesostigmata have been shown to be important predators of Collembola and Nematoda, and those living on plants may efficiently control pests like spider mites [4].
In the main study area at Nordmoen, the clearcut area was used for litter bag studies, as described above. Litter bags with birch leaves were placed out in July 1975. There were four samplings: September 1975, April 1976, September 1976, and November 1978. The number of leaf-containing litter bags harvested at each sampling was 32, 68, 128, and 78, respectively.
Litter bags with spruce needles were placed out in September 1977, and samplings were made after 7 weeks, 8 months, 1 year, 2 years, 5 years, and 10 years. All samplings, except for the second one, were taken at the same time of the year. There were four replication sites, and 5–15 litter bags were harvested from each replication at a given sampling. Detailed results were given for birch leaves [12] and for needles [19]. Here, the main trends shall be presented and compared.
In both litter types, a gradual change in the mite community was observed during the decomposition process. However, the succession pattern differed in spruce needles and birch leaves. It means that mites in the surrounding soil were selective about which litter they colonized, at which rate, and at which decomposition stage. For instance, two oribatid species which were common in the soil, Tectocepheus velatus and Nothrus silvestris, never became abundant in litter bags. On the other hand, certain low-density species in soil could achieve very high densities in the bags. In such cases, a high density was only seen in one of the litter types. Examples in spruce needle bags were high density of Eremaeus sp. after 1 year, Steganacarus sp. after 5 years, and Oppiella nova after 10 years.
A considerable number of spruce needles were decomposed from the inside by certain specialized oribatid mites [22, 26]. Smaller, deeper-living species became abundant after 5–10 years, when the needles had been more or less fragmented. The fragmentation created new microhabitats and perhaps allowed for a more intense microfloral colonization.
While colonization of needle litter was slow, and no species or group achieved its maximum abundance within 8 months, colonization of birch leaves was much faster. Here, certain mites, which had a low density in the surrounding soil, appeared very numerous already after 7 weeks. Examples were three oribatid mites: Oribatula tibialis, Eupelops duplex, and Autogneta trägårdhi, and one Acaridida (Astigmata): Tyrophagus cf. fungivorus. Studies of the gut contents of these four species revealed a mixture of fungal spores and hyphae, and some guts contained mainly spores. This indicated an intense grazing, probably due to a temporal “flush” of fungal activity. The same was seen for certain springtail species [12]. It is, of course, important for soil microarthropods to detect such spatial and temporal food sources, and it is reasonable to assume that animals were attracted from surroundings by smell. Also other studies have documented a rapid migration of microarthropods into decomposing deciduous leaves [51, 52, 53]. Such species can be characterized as mobile opportunists. An abundant food source may allow a high number of species and specimens to coexist in a substrate with a low structural diversity. The body of Eupelops duplex, but also other species, was often covered by fungal spores or hyphae, promoting the spread of microflora to all parts of the litter. The study also indicated that several species did not reproduce in the substrate, but only visited it during the adult stage for feeding purpose.
Table 2 shows that litter-dwelling pioneer mites in birch litter had a very uneven horizontal distribution, within 20–50 m. It meant that the succession pattern in the early decomposition phase varied widely, even within an apparently homogeneous forest floor. In later decomposition stages, however, the microarthropod community was less variable and more predictable.
In both litter types, large, surface-living species were among the early colonizers, while smaller, usually deeper-living species, took over the dominance in later decomposition stages. Since the litter bags had continuously contact with the whole organic layer in the actual soil, the succession studies confirmed that deeper-living, and often small species, preferred a more decomposed material.
While this experiment demonstrated that species often had different preferences for litter type or decomposition stage, it also showed that many species had wide tolerances and could survive, sometimes in low densities, under rather different circumstances. In an English study of oribatid mites in decomposing leaves of beech and chestnut, the 12 most abundant species were present in the litter bags throughout the 20-month study period. During this time, species were able to remain by changing their feeding habits [51]. Another example of high tolerance among oribatid species to different decomposition stages of leaf litter is from Central Amazonas. During the one-year long study, there was no successional changes in the species composition [54].
Few decomposition studies last long enough to describe the late stages of the microarthropod succession. For instance, in a study of root litter decomposition, it was found that oribatid mites showed a preference for the late stages of decomposition [55]. A general challenge in litter bag studies is how to simulate natural conditions. And even if natural conditions are achieved, the result may only have local value. Anyhow, due to a high species number and an ecological flexibility in many species, mites do in several ways contribute in transforming litter to humus. This is exemplified in the next chapter.
Juveniles of certain specialized mites excavated cavities in about 40% of newly fallen spruce needles. Their activity reduced the decomposition rate of the actual needles, at least temporarily, probably because their excrements decomposed slowly [22, 26]. The adult mites, which hatched after about 2 years, attacked other needles from the outside and fragmented these (Figure 5). Their “inert” excrement pellets may contribute to a stable humus layer and perhaps to carbon sequestration [26]. Also other studies have pointed to the fact that fecal pellets of oribatids decompose slowly and may contribute significantly to humus production [56, 57]. Even pine needles can be tunneled by phthiracarid mites [57].
Two spruce needles that have been fragmented by adult “box mites” (Steganacarus cf. striculus) kept in culture. Two ellipsoide-shaped animals are seen. Excrement pellets are numerous. Photo: S. Hågvar.
Individual spruce needles may show quite different decomposition patterns, even if situated close to each other in soil. While some are heavily transformed to excrement pellets, others remain morphologically intact for years. Needles which happen to come in close contact with fine roots may be rapidly “dissolved.” These “individual fates” of needles may explain the heterogeneous structure of deep humus [26].
Norwegian coniferous forest is covered by snow for several months each year. When the snow layer exceeds about 20 cm, the temperature at the soil surface stabilizes around 0°C [58]. At this temperature, several surface-living invertebrates are active in the subnivean air space and even feeding [23]. Among these are several species of springtails and mites. During two winters, pitfall traps were operated under 30–150 cm snow in a high altitude spruce forest with bilberry vegetation in Southern Norway. Traps were emptied and replaced at least monthly during the snow-covered period from October/November to April/May.
Twelve taxa of Oribatida were trapped and 10 of Mesostigmata. A number of Prostigmata were also taken (Table 7). The Oribatida material was dominated by one species, Platynothrus capillatus. All developmental stages of this species were active under snow, and fungal hyphae and spores in their guts proved winter feeding. It was assumed that they were grazing on certain fungi known to decompose litter beneath snow (snow molds) [23]. Also other species of Oribatida, as well as some Prostigmata, had visible gut content.
ORIBATIDA | Stage | Number trapped | Gut contents observed? |
---|---|---|---|
Camisia biurus | Ad | 3 | No |
T | 2 | Yes | |
P | 3 | No | |
L | 2 | No | |
Carabodes labyrinthicus | Ad | 2 | Yes |
Carabodes marginatus | Ad | 1 | No |
Carabodes sp. | T | 1 | No |
Chamobates pusillus (Berlese) | Ad | 1 | No |
Eobrachychthonius borealis Forsslund | Ad | 3 | Yes |
Oppiella neerlandica (Oudemans) | Ad | 12 | Yes |
Oppiella sp. | Ad | 1 | Yes |
Oribatella calcarata (C.L. Koch) | Ad | 1 | No |
D | 7 | Yes | |
P | 5 | Yes | |
Platynothrus capillatus (Berlese) | Ad | 10 | Yes |
T | 9 | Yes | |
D | 14 | Yes | |
P | 8 | Yes | |
L | 2 | Yes | |
Steganacarus sp. | Ad | 1 | Yes |
Belba sp.? | Ad | 2 | No |
T/juv | 5 | Yes | |
MESOSTIGMATA | |||
Mixozercon serlachii Lehtinen | 1 | ||
Zercon curiosus Trägårdh | 1 | ||
Zercon colligans Berlese | 2 | ||
Holoparasitus sp. | 1 | ||
Lysigamasus lapponicus (Trägårdh) | 4 | ||
Vulgarogamasus kraepelini (Berlese) | 14 | ||
Veigaia nemorensis | 6 | ||
Trachytes aegrota (C.L. Koch) | 2 | ||
Urodiaspis tecta (Kramer) | 1 | ||
Uropodina sp., nymph | 2 | ||
PROSTIGMATA (ACTINEDIDA) | 115 | Yes | |
TOTAL | 244 |
Mites (Acari) caught in pitfall traps under snow during two winter seasons in a high altitude spruce forest, central South Norway. Modified from [23].
Numbers per 12 functioning traps. Only periods with a continuous snow cover are included. Ad = adults, T = tritonymphs, D = deuteronymphs, P = protonymphs, and L= larvae.
In the main study area at Nordmoen, microarthropod activity both beneath and within snow was studied [11]. Most surface-living springtails were winter active and even migrated up into the snow layers. Among mites, four predacious Mesostigmata mites and one oribatid species (Adoristes poppei Oudemans) were taken in small numbers in pitfall traps, together with numerous Prostigmata. Mites were also found within the snow layers: some Prostigmata, seven taxa of predacious Mesostigmata, and six taxa of oribatids, of which Adoristes poppei was the most numerous. It was suggested that microarthropods went into snow to escape possible harmful water logging or ice formation in late winter [11].
Several mite species showed a high tolerance for different plant communities, soils, humus types, litter type, and succession phase. Both birch leaves and spruce needles in litter bags were colonized by a high number of oribatid species. Several of them occurred in both substrates, although colonization was much slower in needle litter. Birch leaves represented an uncommon substrate at the actual site, but probably offered a flush of fungal food. Furthermore, at least some individuals of most species participated in various decomposition phases, where the substrate underwent significant changes. Except for pH, mites seemed to have few strong relations to soil chemical parameters [15].
Each mite species continually adjusts its vertical position, as far as narrow pores allow, to optimize its survival, food access, and reproductive ability. Such changes were seen also in the horizontal distribution. A more fixed vertical or horizontal position of each species could reduce interspecific competition but would be a disadvantage as soon as adverse or favorable conditions developed in certain layers or sites.
The present documentation [12] showing that many springtails and mites change their food habits through the different successional stages is in good accordance with other observations [51].
Within both springtail and mite communities, it is a general pattern that most species are relatively rare. A high tolerance for various habitat or nutritional factors, often combined with asexual reproduction, may keep species going on in low numbers. However, when special conditions are created locally, rare species may act as opportunists and flourish temporarily. They also represent an important resource if the ecosystem has to adapt to a new situation, for instance due to climate change.
Although single species may show tolerance to different environmental conditions, the mite community as a whole can be vulnerable to various types of human disturbance. For instance, in New York, the diversity of oribatid mites decreased along a gradient of land use types in the order from forests, via abandoned fields and willow, to corn [7]. A European review on mites as indicators of soil biodiversity and land use monitoring illustrated how sensitive mite communities can be to various types of soil disturbance [59]. Changes in the dominance structure of mite communities were suggested to be an “early warning criterion” for stressed mite communities. The author concluded that residual natural and semi-natural habitats (such as old woodlands, riparian ecosystems, old hedges, and grasslands) with species-rich mite communities found in rural and urban landscapes should be preserved as refuges for dispersion of soil fauna.
Coniferous forests are rich in mites: a podzol soil with acid raw humus may contain more than a million mites per m2. This includes a species-rich oribatid fauna.
Flexible vertical and horizontal distribution: mites can adjust both their depth in the soil profile and their horizontal distribution, either to escape stress or to aggregate in a patchy and temporary food source.
Opportunism as a successful strategy: several litter-dwelling mite species rapidly colonized birch leaves in an early decomposition phase, in order to feed on a temporary and patchy flush of fungal hyphae and spores.
Substrate flexibility: decomposition of spruce needles and birch leaves followed quite different succession patterns, but several mite species participated in both. Closely related species may differ widely in habitat choice and life forms: this was exemplified in the genus Carabodes.
Predacious Gamasina mites matter: microcosm studies showed high population growth of certain mites and springtails if predatory Gamasina mites went extinct.
Oribatids matter in the decomposition process from litter to humus: specialized oribatids excavate spruce needles and produce slowly decomposable excrements.
Soil acidity matters: colonization experiments and population studies in monocultures showed that soil pH affected population size in certain species. This led to predictable changes in the community structure of mites.
Successful competition under suboptimal conditions: surprisingly, certain mites common in acid soils thrived best in less acid soil when being alone (in monoculture). However, in acid soil, they were good competitors.
Mites are winter active: several mites are active under snow, often feeding. Some even penetrate into the snow layer.
There is an increasing awareness for preserving the huge biodiversity of soils [1, 60, 61]. Fragmentation and various management practices of forests may affect even these tiny animals. Some microarthropod species are confined to local soil types, for instance under dry or wet conditions. Furthermore, a forest contains various microhabitats in addition to soils. Examples are moss or lichen vegetation on certain trees, suspended soils in birds´ nests, mold in old, hollow trees, decomposing wood, or fruiting bodies of various fungi. To preserve the species, diversity of microarthropods may demand a relatively large forest area, covering a variety of vegetation types, soils, humus types, and microhabitats.
Due to their long life span, low fecundity, slow development, and low dispersion ability, oribatid mites have been suggested as suitable indicators of soil biodiversity and land use monitoring. In this respect, there is a need to develop standardized procedures for sampling and data analysis [59].
I am grateful for being allowed to reuse Figure 4 from Oikos, Table 5 from Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, and Table 7 from Soil Organisms. Zoologische Staatssammlung München gave permission to use the photo of Nothrus silvestris. Ole Wiggo Røstad kindly helped with some figures.
Obesity in children is the most serious public health problem globally [1], as children are more likely to become obese adults in their future lives. Currently, childhood obesity represents a significant public health challenge in both developed and developing countries by increasing the burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) [2]. Recent estimates suggest that over 38 million children younger than 5 years of age were overweight or obese in 2019 [3]. Over 340 million children and adolescents aged 5–19 years were overweight or obese in 2016 [3]. The prevention of diabetes mellitus and obesity in adults and children was one of the goals set by the World Health Assembly in 2013 [4]. The rapid increase worldwide in obesity is also analyzed in association with the economic causes because some differences were observed between high- and low-income settings. In high-income settings, the higher prevalence of obesity is observed in disadvantaged and marginalized communities. In contrast, in low- and middle-income settings, the prevalence of obesity is higher in groups with higher socioeconomic status. This trend can be explained by socioeconomic inequalities, because in the high-income countries, commonly, the socioeconomic disparities improve the consumption by the poor people of inexpensive, energy-dense foods and beverages.
\nFurthermore, the increment of obesity prevalence by 23–33% was recorded for children in low-education, low-income, and higher-unemployment households. The family with low-income demonstrates a lower awareness that their children are overweight and then face a host of barriers to improving the diet, the activity behaviors, and the general health status [5]. Many economic consequences for public health strategies are related to the epidemic trend of childhood obesity.
\nThe problem of childhood obesity has become a global public health concern, and the fight for its prevention is a commitment that involves all institutions. The prevention of obesity requires the implementation of surveys to monitor its evolution over time, the knowledge of its determinants, and the research and implementation of interventions, necessarily in a multisectoral and multidisciplinary context, as well as a continuous evaluation process. These actions are necessary for the implementation of evidence-based interventions, which must be supported by appropriate nutritional policies. Overweight and obesity at a young age are associated with various health or economic consequences, therefore it is important to analyze the causes and risk factors and identify the best prevention and treatment strategies. On the prevention of childhood obesity, the promotion of teamwork and the dissemination of information related to childhood obesity is one of the vital strategies to fight against childhood and adolescent obesity. Therefore, teamwork in health care is a crucial strategy for promoting public health and preventing childhood chronic diseases such as childhood obesity.
\nIn Europe, childhood obesity remains a significant health challenge and is distributed disparately across and between countries and population groups [6]. Approximately, 398, 000 children aged 6–9 years were severely obese in Europe in 2019 [7]. Obesity in children is associated with immediate adverse consequences such as psychological problems [8] and lower educational attainment [9]. Also, it is associated with negative health effects later in life or adulthood, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obstructive sleep apnea, dyslipidemia, and other noncommunicable diseases [10]. Childhood obesity is the outcome of an interaction between a complex series of factors related to environmental, genetic, and ecological effects [10]. Due to the speedily increasing prevalence of childhood obesity in Europe, various initiatives and actions have been launched in recent years in response to this alarming trend. As a result, the WHO European Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative has measured the trends in childhood obesity for over a decade [11]. It provides data to inform policy and practice to respond to the problem of childhood obesity [11, 12]. Also, the EU developed an action plan to tackle childhood obesity (EU Action Plan on Childhood Obesity 2014–2020) on February 24, 2014 [13]. However, the progress on combating obesity in children has been slow and inconsistent across the region. For instance, the latest data have shown that southern European countries such as Greece, Italy, Malta, Cyprus, San Marino, and Spain have the highest rate of childhood obesity (nearly one in five children are obese) [14]. On the other hand, Denmark, France, Ireland, and Norway are among countries with the lowest rates of obesity in children in either sex [14]. Hence, childhood obesity is still a so-called time bomb [15] for future demands for health services and could jeopardize the progress toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [16].
\nThe present chapter is aimed at (1) illustrating the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged 5—19 years by the WHO European Region and (2) analyzing the effectiveness of the prevention strategies adopted in EU countries to combat childhood obesity from a social and legal point of view and pointing out the best strategies to reduce the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents.
\nData on the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged 5—19 years in the WHO European Region were taken from the Global Health Observatory (GHO) data [17]. By geographic area, the highest crude prevalence of childhood obesity was observed in Mediterranean countries in 2016, ranging from 7.6% to 13.8% for either sex. In particular, Greece, Malta, Italy, Cyprus, Andorra, Turkey, and Israel among the Mediterranean countries had the highest prevalence of childhood and adolescent obesity in 2016 (Table 1). In 1980, Oriental European countries had a prevalence of less than 2%, ranging from 0.3 to 1.9%. However, in 2016, it changed completely, and the prevalence was more than 4%, ranging from 4.2 to 11.1% (Table 1). The prevalence in all northern European countries, except Iceland, increased by over 100% between 1980 and 2016, but in Iceland, it increased by 94% in the same period (5.1% in 1980 and 9.9% in 2016). In 2016, among the Western European countries, the United Kingdom (UK) and Germany had the highest childhood obesity. In contrast, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and the Republic of Moldova among Eastern European countries with relatively low prevalence levels (Table 1). The prevalence distribution in Oriental Europe countries showed relatively small when compared to the other areas in Europe in 2016. However, EU member states (Bulgaria, Czechia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia) among Oriental countries had higher prevalence levels (Table 1).
\n\n | 1980 | \n1990 | \n2000 | \n2010 | \n2016 | \n||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | M (%) | \nF (%) | \nT (%) | \nM (%) | \nF (%) | \nT (%) | \nM (%) | \nF (%) | \nT (%) | \nM (%) | \nF (%) | \nT (%) | \nM (%) | \nF (%) | \nT (%) | \n
Mediterran ean Region | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Turkey | \n0.7 | \n0.8 | \n0.7 | \n2.3 | \n2.5 | \n2.4 | \n5.2 | \n5.3 | \n5.2 | \n9.3 | \n8.7 | \n9 | \n12.1 | \n10.9 | \n11.5 | \n
Cyprus | \n3.7 | \n1.8 | \n2.7 | \n8.5 | \n4.2 | \n6.4 | \n11.9 | \n6.1 | \n9.1 | \n14.1 | \n7.6 | \n10.9 | \n15.5 | \n8.7 | \n12.2 | \n
Israel | \n7.5 | \n5.9 | \n6.7 | \n9.8 | \n7 | \n8.4 | \n11.8 | \n8.1 | \n10 | \n13.4 | \n9 | \n11.3 | \n14.2 | \n9.5 | \n11.9 | \n
Andorra | \n8.8 | \n7 | \n7.9 | \n11.9 | \n8.6 | \n10.3 | \n13.4 | \n9.3 | \n11.4 | \n14.5 | \n10 | \n12.3 | \n15 | \n10.4 | \n12.8 | \n
Malta | \n8.6 | \n7.2 | \n7.9 | \n11.2 | \n8.2 | \n9.8 | \n13.2 | \n9.4 | \n11.4 | \n14.9 | \n10.5 | \n12.7 | \n15.7 | \n11.1 | \n13.4 | \n
Portugal | \n2 | \n1.7 | \n1.9 | \n4.4 | \n3.5 | \n3.9 | \n7.9 | \n6.4 | \n7.2 | \n10.4 | \n9.2 | \n9.8 | \n10.7 | \n10.2 | \n10.4 | \n
Spain | \n4.7 | \n2.8 | \n3.8 | \n7 | \n3.8 | \n5.4 | \n9.3 | \n5.1 | \n7.3 | \n11.8 | \n7.2 | \n9.5 | \n13.1 | \n8.4 | \n10.8 | \n
Albania | \n0.4 | \n0.2 | \n0.3 | \n1 | \n0.6 | \n0.8 | \n2.6 | \n1.5 | \n2.1 | \n6.1 | \n3.6 | \n4.9 | \n9.5 | \n5.5 | \n7.6 | \n
Croatia | \n1.3 | \n0.7 | \n1 | \n3.1 | \n1.7 | \n2.4 | \n5.9 | \n3.2 | \n4.6 | \n10.3 | \n5.7 | \n8.1 | \n13.8 | \n7.9 | \n10.9 | \n
France | \n3.2 | \n2.9 | \n3 | \n4.5 | \n3.7 | \n4.1 | \n6.2 | \n5 | \n5.6 | \n7.9 | \n6.3 | \n7.1 | \n8.9 | \n7.2 | \n8.1 | \n
Greece | \n5.8 | \n3.6 | \n4.7 | \n8.5 | \n4.9 | \n6.7 | \n11.2 | \n6.6 | \n9 | \n14.8 | \n9.1 | \n12 | \n16.8 | \n10.7 | \n13.8 | \n
Italy | \n6.2 | \n4.2 | \n5.2 | \n8.2 | \n5.1 | \n6.7 | \n12.2 | \n7.2 | \n9.3 | \n13.3 | \n9.3 | \n11.4 | \n14.5 | \n10.4 | \n12.5 | \n
Montenegro | \n0.4 | \n0.2 | \n0.3 | \n1.3 | \n0.7 | \n1 | \n3.7 | \n2 | \n2.9 | \n7.2 | \n3.9 | \n5.6 | \n9.7 | \n5.3 | \n7.6 | \n
Northern Region | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Iceland | \n5.8 | \n4.4 | \n5.1 | \n8.2 | \n5.5 | \n6.9 | \n10.2 | \n6.3 | \n8.1 | \n11.5 | \n6.7 | \n9.1 | \n12.5 | \n7.2 | \n9.9 | \n
Ireland | \n1.4 | \n1.5 | \n1.5 | \n3 | \n3.1 | \n3.1 | \n5.3 | \n5.6 | \n5.4 | \n8.5 | \n8 | \n8.3 | \n10.4 | \n9.1 | \n9.8 | \n
Denmark | \n3.7 | \n3.3 | \n3.5 | \n6 | \n4.5 | \n5.3 | \n8.1 | \n5.2 | \n6.7 | \n8.8 | \n4.9 | \n6.9 | \n9.4 | \n4.9 | \n7.2 | \n
Estonia | \n1.7 | \n1.7 | \n1.7 | \n2.6 | \n2.3 | \n2.5 | \n3.6 | \n2.8 | \n3.2 | \n5.6 | \n3.7 | \n4.7 | \n7.8 | \n4.7 | \n6.3 | \n
Finland | \n3.4 | \n1.5 | \n2.5 | \n6.7 | \n3 | \n4.9 | \n9.3 | \n4.2 | \n6.8 | \n11.1 | \n4.9 | \n8.1 | \n12.4 | \n5.6 | \n9.1 | \n
Netherlands | \n1.4 | \n1.2 | \n1.3 | \n2.5 | \n2 | \n2.3 | \n4.5 | \n3.4 | \n3.9 | \n6.9 | \n4.8 | \n5.9 | \n8.4 | \n5.6 | \n7 | \n
Norway | \n2.7 | \n2.5 | \n2.6 | \n4.7 | \n3.9 | \n4.3 | \n7.2 | \n5.6 | \n6.4 | \n9.1 | \n6.8 | \n8 | \n10.4 | \n7.7 | \n9.1 | \n
Sweden | \n3.3 | \n2.5 | \n2.9 | \n4.7 | \n2.9 | \n3.9 | \n6.5 | \n3.6 | \n5 | \n7.4 | \n4 | \n5.7 | \n8.6 | \n4.7 | \n6.7 | \n
Oriental Region | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Hungary | \n2 | \n1.4 | \n1.7 | \n3.5 | \n2.3 | \n2.9 | \n5.8 | \n3.7 | \n4.8 | \n9.9 | \n6.2 | \n8.1 | \n13.7 | \n8.4 | \n11.1 | \n
Kazakhstan | \n1.5 | \n0.8 | \n1.2 | \n2.4 | \n1.4 | \n1.9 | \n3.7 | \n2.1 | \n2.9 | \n5.6 | \n3.4 | \n4.6 | \n8.1 | \n4.9 | \n6.5 | \n
Lithuania | \n1.3 | \n1.1 | \n1.2 | \n2.7 | \n2.1 | \n2.4 | \n4.3 | \n2.8 | \n3.6 | \n6.3 | \n3.7 | \n5 | \n8.7 | \n4.8 | \n6.8 | \n
Armenia | \n1.3 | \n1.2 | \n1.3 | \n2.2 | \n1.9 | \n2 | \n2.8 | \n2.3 | \n2.6 | \n3.8 | \n3.2 | \n3.5 | \n5.3 | \n4.2 | \n4.8 | \n
Azerbaijan | \n0.9 | \n0.7 | \n0.8 | \n1.5 | \n1.2 | \n1.3 | \n2.2 | \n1.8 | \n2 | \n3.5 | \n2.9 | \n3.2 | \n5.3 | \n4.4 | \n4.9 | \n
Bosnia and Herzegovina | \n0.3 | \n0.2 | \n0.3 | \n1 | \n0.6 | \n0.8 | \n2.2 | \n1.3 | \n1.8 | \n4.5 | \n2.9 | \n3.7 | \n6.5 | \n4.3 | \n5.4 | \n
Bulgaria | \n1.6 | \n1 | \n1.3 | \n3.4 | \n2 | \n2.7 | \n5.9 | \n3.5 | \n4.7 | \n10.1 | \n5.8 | \n8 | \n13.6 | \n7.8 | \n10.8 | \n
Czech Republic | \n2.3 | \n1.5 | \n1.9 | \n3.7 | \n2.2 | \n3 | \n5.8 | \n3.1 | \n4.5 | \n9.1 | \n4.8 | \n7 | \n12.6 | \n6.6 | \n9.7 | \n
Poland | \n1.4 | \n0.6 | \n1 | \n2.9 | \n1.3 | \n2.1 | \n4.9 | \n2.1 | \n3.6 | \n8.8 | \n3.6 | \n6.3 | \n12.7 | \n5.3 | \n9.1 | \n
Republic of Macedonia | \n1.3 | \n0.7 | \n1 | \n2.8 | \n1.4 | \n2.1 | \n5.3 | \n2.7 | \n4 | \n8.7 | \n4.5 | \n6.7 | \n11.9 | \n6.4 | \n9.3 | \n
Republic of Moldova | \n0.4 | \n0.3 | \n0.4 | \n1.1 | \n0.8 | \n1 | \n2 | \n1.4 | \n1.7 | \n3.2 | \n2.1 | \n2.7 | \n5.1 | \n3.3 | \n4.2 | \n
Romania | \n0.8 | \n0.4 | \n0.6 | \n1.7 | \n1 | \n1.4 | \n3.6 | \n1.9 | \n2.8 | \n7.1 | \n3.7 | \n5.4 | \n10.7 | \n5.4 | \n8.1 | \n
Russian Federation | \n1.7 | \n1.4 | \n1.5 | \n3.1 | \n2.2 | \n2.6 | \n4.1 | \n2.4 | \n3.2 | \n6.6 | \n3.3 | \n5 | \n9.5 | \n4.4 | \n7.1 | \n
Serbia | \n1 | \n0.5 | \n0.8 | \n2.5 | \n1.2 | \n1.9 | \n5.1 | \n2.5 | \n3.8 | \n9.2 | \n4.9 | \n7.1 | \n12.4 | \n7 | \n9.8 | \n
Slovakia | \n0.8 | \n0.4 | \n0.6 | \n1.8 | \n1 | \n1.4 | \n3.5 | \n1.9 | \n2.7 | \n6.8 | \n3.7 | \n5.3 | \n10.4 | \n5.7 | \n8.1 | \n
Occidental Region | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Switzerland | \n1.1 | \n0.9 | \n1 | \n3.1 | \n2.1 | \n2.6 | \n5 | \n3.1 | \n4.1 | \n6 | \n3.8 | \n5 | \n6.9 | \n4.6 | \n5.8 | \n
United Kingdom | \n3 | \n3.8 | \n3.4 | \n5.2 | \n6 | \n5.6 | \n8.3 | \n8.6 | \n8.5 | \n10.3 | \n9.6 | \n9.9 | \n10.9 | \n9.4 | \n10.2 | \n
Luxembourg | \n3.6 | \n2.7 | \n3.2 | \n5.7 | \n3.8 | \n4.8 | \n7.8 | \n4.9 | \n6.4 | \n9.5 | \n5.7 | \n7.6 | \n10.4 | \n6.2 | \n8.3 | \n
Belgium | \n4.5 | \n4.6 | \n4.6 | \n6.3 | \n5.2 | \n5.8 | \n7.5 | \n5.6 | \n6.6 | \n7.8 | \n5.5 | \n6.7 | \n8.2 | \n5.8 | \n7 | \n
Austria | \n3.5 | \n1.8 | \n2.6 | \n5.6 | \n2.6 | \n4.1 | \n7.9 | \n3.6 | \n5.8 | \n9.8 | \n4.8 | \n7.4 | \n11.2 | \n6 | \n8.6 | \n
Germany | \n3.8 | \n2.7 | \n3.3 | \n5.9 | \n3.7 | \n4.9 | \n8 | \n4.8 | \n6.4 | \n9.7 | \n5.8 | \n7.8 | \n11 | \n6.8 | \n8.9 | \n
Prevalence (%) of obesity in children aged 5–19 years by the WHO European region from 1980 to 2016.
Data source: Global Health Observatory (GHO) data [17]; M, male; F, female; and T, total.
Obesity in children aged 5–19 years in almost all European regions have increased rapidly from 1980 to 2016. Mainly EU member states have shown increasing trends in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents during the study period. Notably, Greece and Croatia have shown secular trends in the prevalence of childhood obesity among EU countries in the Mediterranean Region (Figure 1). Besides, the prevalence in the United Kingdom tripled for either sex from 1980 to 2016, ranging from 3.4 to 10.2%, respectively (Table 1). Similarly, in France and Spain, the prevalence almost tripled from 1980 to 2016: for example, in France, it ranged from 3% in 1980 to 8.1% in 2016 and in Spain, passing from 3.8% in 1980 to 10.8% in 2016 (Table 1). In Slovakia, the prevalence of obesity in children has increased from 0.6% in 1980 to 8.1% in 2016 (Table 1). On the other hand, in Cyprus, Lithuania, Portugal, and the Netherlands, the prevalence has increased more than five times over 36 years in each country (Table 1). In contrast, in Italy, Malta, and Belgium, the magnitude of childhood obesity has doubled from 1980 to 2016. As shown in Table 1, in Poland, the prevalence has increased from 1% in 1980 to 9.1% in 2016, while in Bulgaria, it grew by more than eight times in the same period (1.3% in 1980 and 10.8% in 2016). In Ireland, the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents has steadily increased over 36 years (1.5% in 1980 and 9.8% in 2016) (Figure 2). Mainly the prevalence level increased from 1.5 and 1.4%, respectively, for girls and boys in 1980 to 9.1 and 10.4% for girls and boys in 2016 (Table 1). Furthermore, the Oriental EU member states except for Lithuania all have shown consistently increased trends in the prevalence over 16 years (from 2000 to 2016) (Figure 3). Trends in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged 5–19 years have been presented in EU countries by geographic areas (Figures 1–4).
\nTrends in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged between 5 and 19 years in the Mediterranean region EU countries from 1980 to 2016.
Trends in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged between 5 and 19 years in the northern EU countries from 1980 to 2016.
Trends in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged between 5 and 19 years in the oriental EU countries from 1980 to 2016.
Trends in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents aged between 5 and 19 years in the occidental EU countries from 1980 to 2016.
The alarming proportions reached by childhood obesity in many countries pose an urgent and serious challenge, also concerning the most serious consequences of obesity on health. Obesity can produce effects immediately on a child’s health, educational performance, and quality of life, or chronic illnesses in adults, which are very likely to remain obese. The policy to tack childhood obesity is slow and inconsistent and then to review and resolve this gap, in 2014, the Commission on Ending Childhood obesity has been established. Moreover, the “Strengthening Nutrition Action of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Health Organization-United Nations decade of Action on Nutrition 2016-2025,” describes that in the same year (2014). The Second International Conference on Nutrition (ICN2) listed obesity and overweight among the malnutrition forms. It focused the attention of 164 member States of FAO and WHO, about the need to change the choices of the food systems for better diets and a healthier planet. The unhealthy diets, maternal and child malnutrition, are considered as the current top risk factors for one-quarter of global deaths.
\nFurthermore, the number of people of all ages who are affected by diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) has increased. The documents produced by ICN2 make up the roadmap for the governments of the world to eradicate hunger and prevent all forms of malnutrition such as undernutrition, micronutrient deficiency, overweight, and obesity. One year later, has been adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (“2023 Agenda”) and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the United Nations (UN) General Assembly. In 2015, the United Nations mentioned the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases as a top priority in the Sustainable Development Goals, and obesity listed as a risk factor for noncommunicable diseases [18]. The Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Diseases 2013–2020 assess policy options for member states per their legislation for the selection and for undertaking actions from among the policy options about the monitoring, the disease registries, and the surveillance of NCDs.
\nRegarding the surveillance, the WHO indicates the surveillance of the key risk for the NCDs considering behavioral and metabolic risk factors as for example the use of alcohol, the physical inactivity, tobacco use, unhealthy diet, overweight, and obesity, raised blood pressure, raised blood glucose, and hyperlipidemia, and determinants of risk exposure such as marketing of food, tobacco, and alcohol [19]. Moreover, to accelerate the actions on nutrition, the UN General Assembly, in 2016, proposed that the period from 2016 to 2020 should be a UN Decade of Action on Nutrition (Nutrition Decade), providing a clearly defined, time-bound, and cohesive framework for all countries and stakeholders to increase nutrition investments and implement policies and programs to improve food security and nutrition, reach the six global nutrition targets 2025, and the diet-related global noncommunicable disease (NCD) targets. Modifying possible risk factors as the reduction of an unhealthy diet is one of the “best buys” for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) proposed by the World Health Organization [20].
\nAll reports proposed by the international organization of public health proposed a no single intervention to resolve childhood obesity and overweight but analyses and interventions about the environmental context and three critical periods in the life-course. The first is the preconception and pregnancy, infancy and early childhood, and finally, older childhood and adolescence. Therefore, the prevention and the treatment of obesity require a whole-of-government approach in which the policies of all sectors are across the same target, which the health, the eradication of harmful health impacts, and thus improve population health and health equity. The Commission on Ending Childhood Obesity collected and an organic package of recommendations to address childhood obesity and achieve strategic objectives. As a result, the first object is tacking the obesogenic environment because the major negative elements are the unhealthy diet and physical activity of children. The second goal is the reduction of the risk to develop the obesity development factors able to change the biology and behavior of children before birth and through infancy. The last is the treatment and cure of children or young people with notified obesity. Consequently, the areas identified by the commission to define the preventive actions are the promotion of healthy foods intake, physical activity, the cure preconception, and pregnancy care, the early childhood diet, and physical activity, the health, nutrition, and physical activity for school-age children and finally the weight management. The first recommendation concerns the promotion of healthy food intake and the reduction of sugar-sweetened beverages by children and adolescents. Among the actions promoted are listed the development and diffusion of appropriate and context-specific nutrition guidelines for adults and children, the implementation of a tax on sugar-sweetened beverages, and the marketing of foods and nonalcoholic beverages to children. Besides, the description of the nutrient-profiles to identify unhealthy foods and beverages associated with a standardized global nutrient labeling system. The Codex Alimentarius Commission proposes a standardized system of food labeling for all packaged foods and beverages, which can support the nutrition and health education [21]. In association with the correct labeling system could be improved, also, the public education of both adults and children about nutrition literacy and the interpretation of front-of-pack. This recommendation is included in the recommendation 14 of United Nations decade of Action on Nutrition 2016–2025, concerning saturated fat, sugars, salt, and trans-fat reduction has been focused on the promotion of a healthy diet to stop the consumption and sale of highly processed foods, growing fastest in lower-middle-income countries. The actions to prevent and control NCDs include the reduction of salt intake, and the setting of target levels for the amount of salt, reformulating food products. Furthermore, the action plan has been indicated the elimination of industrial trans-fats and the reduction of sugar consumption through taxation on sugar-sweetened beverages. The availability, and consequently, the high consumption of these products, is the principal cause of health problems such as obesity and other diet related NCDs. The reduction of sedentary behaviors in children and adolescents, focusing on physical activity programs, is the second recommendation and includes the definition of advice to children, adolescents, parents, caregivers, teachers, and health professionals on healthy body size, physical activity, sleep behaviors and appropriate use of screen-based entertainment. The same recommendation promotes the improvement, during the recreational time, for all children (including the children with disabilities), of physical activity favoring adequate facilities at school or in public areas. Recent epidemiologic data show a decline from the age of school about physical activity. About 81% of adolescents have insufficient physical activity lower than 60 minutes each day. Obesity is more linked with physical activity because it creates a vicious cycle, which increases body fat levels and decreases physical activity. The recommendation about the prevention of childhood overweight and obesity regarding all guidelines promoted introduces the protection of the diet in women during pregnancy, the improvement of child nutrition status and growth, and finally, the promotion of physical activity to address sedentary lifestyle from the early stages of life. The best keys to these recommendations are breastfeeding promotion and protection because they have a crucial role in the reduction of childhood obesity risk. Indeed, the diagnosis and management of hyperglycemia and gestational hypertension, the monitoring of gestational weight gain, the correct diet, and lifestyles during pregnancy are key preventive factors against childhood overweight and obesity. To ensure healthy child development, policies should provide advice not only on healthy eating but also on appropriate sleep time, sedentary or screen time, physical activity, or active play for the age group of 2–5 years. The school is also a fundamental environment to promote the correct lifestyles, especially about the diet. Two aspects can be improved at school, the promotion of standardized meals, in accordance with guidelines, without unhealthy foods with sugar, sweetened beverages or energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods etc. but characterized by the introduction of fresh fruits, vegetables, and safe drinking water. The secondary aspect is the improvement of knowledge’s on children about health education within the core curriculum of schools and practical experiences of food preparation available to children, their parents, and caregivers.
\nFinally, the six recommendations of the commission are the correct weight management in children and young people suffering from obesity and overweight, developing multicomponent services concerning physical activity, nutrition, and psychological support. These supports are delivered by professional and treated teams, as part of Universal health coverage. The responsibilities of these actions are divided by different structures at different levels. The first is the WHO and concerns the institutionalization of each measure across all technical areas of WHO, and regional and country offices. Furthermore, it provides the consultation and technical support for action at global, regional, and national levels, with international agencies, and the governments of each Member States. Each Member States are supported by International organizations, and define political commitment against childhood obesity, coordinate all sectors and institutions engaged for policies about nutrition, food, agriculture, sport and recreation, urban planning etc. Collect and record all data on BMI-for-age of children and define the national targets for childhood obesity. The other structures are represented by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector, the philanthropic foundations, and academic institutions [22].
\nIn Europe, the EU Action Plan on Childhood Obesity 2014–2020 translates the international guidelines with the purpose of demonstrating the shared of EU Member States to addressing childhood obesity; set out priority areas for action and a possible toolbox of measures for consideration and finally propose ways of collectively keeping track of progress. The EU Action Plan considers the presence of three types of stakeholders which are: the 28 EU Member States, the European Commission, and international organizations such as the WHO and finally civil society (e.g., nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), industry, research institutes, and associations). The national, regional, and local level was represented by the specific authorities. Each area defined in the EU action plan is in agreement with the areas proposed by the Global Action Plan, and to evaluate the efficacy of the intervention for each region were defined as specific indicators. Regarding the area for action 1: Support a healthy start in life the first operational objective is, for example, increase the prevalence of children that are breastfed, the indicator is the % of children breastfed and the final target the achievement of 20% in 2020 of children with adequate periods of exclusive breastfeeding according to national recommendations. The area of action 2 is about the promotion of healthier environments, especially at schools and preschools, and the main priority is the establishment of children’s health as a priority at schools, and for example, the first operational objective is to “provide the healthy option and increase daily consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables, healthy food and water intake in schools (with a targeted focus on schools in underprivileged districts).” The action is the development of preschool and school meals with fruits, vegetables, and drinking milk following the existing EU guidelines. The indicators are, for example, the number of member states implementing frameworks on preschool and school meals, and the target to achieve in 2020 is 90% of the member states participating in the program. The other areas are the improvement of healthy options regarding the availability of healthy food choices to children and the target of restriction related to vending machines. Area number 4 has the goal to limit the exposure of children to advertisements for food/drinks high in fat, sugars, and salt. The improvement of family knowledge and information’s on the daily food and health choices of children of action number 5. The last two areas of action are number 6 to encourage physical activity, and number 7 is related to the monitoring and evaluation of children’s nutritional status and behaviors. At this moment, the assessment of the effectiveness of the Action Plan that can be analyzed is referred to in 2018, because the final assessment will be defined at the end of 2020. The initial results compare the activities improved before 2014 with the activities promoted with the EU Action Plan in each action area [23]. The results show an improvement of actions relatively the guidance around the pregnancy, the policies on vending machines, energy drinks, and reformulation of food and especially the concentration of salt.
\nDespite the important engagement of the European countries in reversing the progress of obesity, the incidence of overweight subjects remains alarming, particularly if considering the young population. Childhood weight gain has, in fact, a severe impact on health and psychosocial outcomes, deeply affecting individual and family’s quality of life. Research shows that overweight children are more likely if compared to normal weight ones, to become obese adults and so to develop chronic conditions. The recent increment of hours dedicated to “screen time” and the associated damaging effects on eating habits, together with little safe spaces to be active in, are essential factors influencing the level of physical activity and health among young. Also, cheaper and larger-portioned fast food, as well as the massive consumption of high-sugar products, must be taken into consideration. In 2014, in EU, the 7% of yearly national health budgets were spent on diseases correlated to obesity, and investigations showed how policies addressed to children obesity control would repay on investment of 6–10%.
\nFor these reasons, in 2007, after analyzing the report by the WHO European Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative (COSI), the European Commission adopted the White Paper on a Strategy for Europe on Nutrition, Overweight and Obesity-related Health issues, composed of six major goals: better-informed subjects, physical activity, and healthier options promotion, supporting low socioeconomic groups and developing evidence and monitoring systems to support the program. The High-Level Group on Nutrition and Physical Activity and the EU Platform for Action on Diet, Physical Activity, and Health are the main instruments set up for implementation of the strategy. The first one enables governments to share health and economic analysis and enhances contact between governments and the EU platform for action on a diet, physical activity, and health. It also works on some priorities such as reducing children’s exposure to marketing of foods high in fat, salt and sugars, physical activity, labeling, and public procurement of food, reducing health inequalities. The EU Platform is a forum for European level organizations, including Food business and consumer organizations, scientific associations, and NGOs. The high-level group can also be asked by the commission to prepare the groundwork for relevant prevention and promotion initiatives agreed by the steering group on promotion and prevention.
\nIn 2013 the strategy went through an external evaluation to test its efficiency: the results were positive. However, they suggested a greater commitment to promoting physical activity. Besides, an Action Plan on Childhood Obesity addressed to a Europe-wide context was redacted, to lower young overweight by 2020. One of its main goals is to support a healthy start in life, encouraging breastfeeding and promoting the adoption of a healthy lifestyle both during the early stage of life and preconception period. Developing healthier school environments is the sequel, providing wholesome meals, with the proper nutritional intake, and also allowing adequate time to consume it. Making the healthy option more available in addition, both in schools and in the working environment, would encourage good eating behavior to be part of the routine. The fourth point is about making families informed in order to empower parents in planning a correct meal plan and schedule regular active leisure activities, which is also linked to the significant focus on the promotion of the physical activity. Last, the increase in monitoring and research, would, in the end, test the nutritional quality of food, health status, and habits of children, together with the collection of systematic data.
\nThe main actors of the plan are 28 EU Member States, the European Commission, and a variety of civil society stakeholders such as NGOs, industry and agricultural sectors, University and research institutes. Another project, the Joint Action on Nutrition and Physical Activity (JANPA), was proposed as a contribution to the EU action plan on childhood obesity 2014–2020, focusing on specific outcomes that can effectively contribute to nutritional and physical activity policies during childhood. It has the following objectives: economic evaluation of the cost of overweight and obesity in children with the aim to encourage public actions, promoting healthy nutrition and physical activity to pregnant women and families with young children, promoting healthier environments in schools and preschools, efforts at a local or at a national level regarding nutrition and physical activities, promoting healthy eating and drinking practices, and improving the information addressed to the consumer at the national level [13]. At the national level, many policies and programs have been adopted in recent years in Europe, aiming to prevent child obesity and improve its treatment and management.
\nData from the Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative (2015 – 17) show that Italy is ranked first in Europe for child obesity, with 21% of children obese or overweight: taking into account this evidence, Italy has turned its attention not only to monitoring, but also to the population approach, using media, brochures, and education in schools and health-care facilities. These actions are part of the Italian Health Plan on Prevention. One of the objectives of this program is to reduce the preventable and avoidable burden of morbidity, mortality, and disability of noncommunicable diseases. Another initiative adopted in Italy is the program named “OKKIO all Salute,” launched in 2007 as a part of the COSI initiative, to monitor children’s weight, eating behaviors, physical activity habits, and their related risk factors among children of 6–10 years. From 2008, around 45.000 families took part in this project. Italy is also part of the international program HBSC (Health Behavior in School-aged Children), showing commitment to understanding factors influencing children’s eating behaviors [24].
\nThe increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity, especially among children, is a significant public health problem in Malta, as it has been estimated that 40% of school-aged children are overweight or obese. Different actions have been put in place to tackle this problem since the Maltese Presidency of the Council of the EU selected childhood obesity as one of its priority areas during its European Presidency in the first half of 2017. Considering the fact that children spend much time in school, particular attention was put to the school environment. In 2016, the government of Malta enacted the “Healthy Lifestyle Promotion and Care of Non-Communicable Diseases Act,” which aimed to promote physical activity and balanced diets to achieve healthy lifestyles and reduce the noncommunicable diseases in all age groups. An intersectoral Advisory Council was set up, and one of its major initiatives was outlining a legislative tool for schools: there was a clear need for improving the school environment to help the whole school community to adopt healthier dietary patterns and lifestyle. The consumption of healthy foods and restrictions on products high in salt, sugar, and fats were encouraged, following nutritional criteria based on the WHO nutrient profiling model and carrying random inspections by specifically trained health practitioners.
\nIn August 2018, the Maltese government issued subsidiary legislation to regulate the food being sold and provided by schools, implement programs for healthy eating, ban advertising or sponsorship of unhealthy foods, and ensure the provision of drinking water in schools. One of the divergences identified across EU states was in planning food procurement tenders for schools that promoted healthy eating and to allow their smooth implementation. It has been important to set clear specifications, with support from the Joint Research Centre and experts [24].
\nIn Poland, a 2016 Regulation by the Minister of Health addressed groups of food intended for sale to children and adolescents in the education system. Besides, the School Program Strategy 2017/18 – 2022/23 has, as one of its goals, the promotion of a healthy, balanced diet among children and parents. In particular, it aims to change the eating habits of children by increasing the share of fruit and vegetables and the intake of milk. In Poland, the food industry is one of the most influential lobby groups, with well-organized representation and significant financial resources. Poland is also one of the participating countries in the Choices Program, an initiative introduced in the Netherlands in 2006 in response to WHO’s call for the food industry to take an active voluntary role in tackling obesity. To reduce the consumption of salt, there has been an important consumer awareness initiative through media, schools, and health-care facilities, as well as 16% of salt reduction in bread by 2012. Concerning physical activity, it is mandatory in primary and secondary schools, and it is included in general teaching training [25].
\nIn some countries, reducing childhood obesity is a task shared by the Ministry of Health with the Ministry of Finance (responsible for taxes on food high in saturated fat and sugary soft drinks), the Ministry of Education (for school curricula, healthy nutrition education, and physical activity), and the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry (for free school fruit and vegetable schemes and sustainable healthy food supplies) [24]. This is the case of England, opposed to the approach of the Republic of Moldova, where a lack of multisectoral collaboration has been found. The UK Childhood Obesity Plan introduces for the first time a soft drink industry levy and the revenue will be invested in programs to reduce obesity and encourage physical activity, in addition to substantial restrictions for sailing and promoting high sugars and fat drinks or snacks, after the introduction of a tax on sugary drinks was announced in March 2016 and came into force in April 2018.
\nIn some countries, television (TV), radio, and Internet services are regulated with some set standards for advertising to protect children from the overconsumption of unhealthy foods, and this is the case of England, where, the National Office of Communications since 2006, does not allow TV advertisements for such foods to be shown during or close to children TV programs. They also launched a sugar reduction program intending to remove sugar from the food’s children frequently eat, paying attention that it is followed by a calorie restriction and not by compensation with extra fats. Also, supporting agricultural innovation by bringing together food business and researchers is part of the project. Support is also given to disadvantaged families, with the distribution of 60 million worth of vouchers that can be exchanged for fresh fruit and vegetables or vitamins. Of course, also physical activity is considered, and it is included in each day at school for at least 30 minutes. It should also be taken into consideration the GREAT commitment of the UK Government in enabling health professionals to support families’ diet, as well as training them to face eating behaviors changes and promoting wellbeing [26].
\nConcerning Moldova, concrete actions to face childhood obesity were only undertaken in 2012. The National Health Policy (2007–2021) was the first policy document that addressed obesity as a priority, involving the society and government, but it was in 2014 when the Moldovan government endorsed the first National Food and Nutrition Program for 2014–2020 and the Action Plan for 2014–2016, with the specific objective to halt the rise of obesity prevalence among children and adults. The 31 July 2007, the Ministry of Health Decision forbids the marketing of energy-dense food with high-fat content and reduced nutritional value in institutions for children. In 2009, new laws prohibited marketing pressure on children to consume healthy drinks. After the Food Law was amended, selling and distribution of unhealthy food within 100 m by schools were banned. The Republic of Moldova became part of COSI from 2013 and participated in the third and fourth rounds of this initiative. Further in 2014, the government adopted the first National Food and Nutrition Programmed for 2014 – 2020 (NFNP) and its Action Plan with the aim of zero increase in obesity prevalence, employing compulsory nutritional labeling, limitations on advertising, together with the elimination of trans-fats and reduction of sugar and salt [24].
\nEPODE, or Ensemble, Prévenons L’Obésité Des Enfants (Together, Let us Prevent Childhood Obesity) was established in January 2004, based on the guidelines from the National Health Program recommendations. This program was developed based on the effectiveness observed from the Fleurbaix-Laventie Ville Santé Study, which started in 1992 and continuing, which showed a decrease in childhood obesity rate after the nutritional and physical activity initiatives were implemented in the two towns. The project is supported by the French Ministry of Health, in collaboration with more than five other Ministry, the French National Academy of Medicine, together with some partners like Nestle and Ferrero, financing half of the costs of the program. EPODE now extends to nearly 1.8 million inhabitants in 167 French cities, 20 cities in Spain, and eight cities in Belgium. The project aims to reduce BMI in overweight or obese children promoting physical activity and a healthy diet through three major steps: (1) informing community and families about the obesity problem, using meetings and brochures; (2) Training participants (teachers and professionals); (3) starting the action in schools, distributing educational materials, improving school catering, and hosting food workshop [27].
\nUnderstanding the importance of obesity as a health issue, and recognizing the worrying increase of overweight adolescences, a range of federal policies were established in Germany to face the issue since, public health services in Germany have played a great role in putting obesity on the political agenda, and they focused on dealing with obesity from child and adolescent health services perspective. The Robert Koch Institute has launched the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents (KiGGS-Study), with a baseline study in 2003–2006 and a follow-up study in 2014–2017. The results of the second study were published in March 2018. They pointed to a strong social gradient, with the prevalence of overweight reaching 27.0% and 24.2% in girls and boys respectively, aged 3–17 years with low socioeconomic status compared to 6.5% in girls and 8.9% in boys with high socioeconomic status.
\nSome of the other vital initiatives in response to the Survey are the National Cycling Plan 2020, which promotes cycling, walking, and the use of public transport and the two programs of the Federal Centre for Health Education (FCHE): Gut Drauf (Feeling Well), which aims to improve the health of children and adolescents aged 12–18 years, and Tutmirgut (Good For Me), aimed at children aged 5-11 years. In 2007, there were 708 programs for overweight or obese children and adolescents in Germany, reaching approximately 44,000 persons [24]. In Germany, policies are implementing a salt reduction in bread and many consumer awareness initiatives regarding a healthy lifestyle, promoted in schools, and via media and Internet [28].
\nThe Danish National Action Plan against Obesity was written to improve awareness in the Danish population and generally reduce high BMI. Children and adolescents are one of their main targets. Concerning nutrition, the aim concerning children’s diet is to reduce the number of subjects who consume more energy from fat and sugar and, at the same time, pay attention to the correct fiber intake. Also, life outside the home was provided with healthy food, and parents were supported in taking proper diet choices. Of course, also physical activity is considered, and new guidelines were established, increasing the hours to it dedicated to schools and strengthening the competences of teachers. Suitable playground and outdoor areas were provided, as well as car-free areas near schools and safe foot and cycle paths [29].
\nHandling childhood obesity is undoubtedly challenging despite the substantial progress made concerning healthy nutrition, early life, and increased physical activity. It has also been essential to restrict advertising on TV actively. Still, it should also be taken into consideration to control video games, mobile phones, tablets, and social media since, nowadays, there is no more efficient way to address kids than getting in touch with them through the Internet. Monitoring childhood obesity is, for sure, more rewarding if compared to adults but, initially, for the complexity of relating to young subjects, it can be very onerous.
\nConsequently and taking into account the role played by multinational food industries in supporting French policies should be considered to further involve in obesity control plans, food, and sports industries. Doing so will make it possible to boost the research resources and, at the same time, allow the markets’ sectors, that would possibly be affected by the latest policies and guidelines, to adapt their selling to the new consumer type. It should also be mentioned that some European countries are still not facing the childhood obesity problem, primarily due to inadequate resources and a lack of interface between the health institutions and industries.
\nIn Malta, for example, the requirement of precise definitions for food procurement that tenders on how to set a healthy meal plan in schools was given by the Advisory Council with the support from the EU Joint Research Centre, a proper example of a strategy controlling balance and micronutrient intake of at least one meal per day of all school kids. This strategy, together with the Healthy Weight for Life strategy for 2012–2020 and the Food and Nutrition Policy and Action Plan for Malta 2015–2020, makes Malta one of the most committed European countries in the battle against childhood obesity. The Maltese case is one of the first to be taken into consideration when evaluating the situation.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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