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Milani",authors:[{id:"28025",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Milani",fullName:"Abbas Milani",slug:"abbas-milani"},{id:"176199",title:"Mr.",name:"Masoud",middleName:null,surname:"Haghi Kashani",fullName:"Masoud Haghi Kashani",slug:"masoud-haghi-kashani"}]},{id:"49293",title:"Technologies Involved in the Manufacture of Smart Nonwoven Fabrics",slug:"technologies-involved-in-the-manufacture-of-smart-nonwoven-fabrics",signatures:"Izabella Krucińska, Ewa Skrzetuska, Beata Surma and Eulalia\nGliścińska",authors:[{id:"175893",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabella",middleName:null,surname:"Krucinska",fullName:"Izabella Krucinska",slug:"izabella-krucinska"}]},{id:"49581",title:"Design, Development, Characterization, and Application of Jute-based Needle-Punched Nonwoven",slug:"design-development-characterization-and-application-of-jute-based-needle-punched-nonwoven",signatures:"Sanjoy Debnath",authors:[{id:"23285",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjoy",middleName:null,surname:"Debnath",fullName:"Sanjoy Debnath",slug:"sanjoy-debnath"}]},{id:"50146",title:"Nanotechnology Formulations and Modeling of Hydraulic Permeability Improvement for Nonwoven Geotextiles",slug:"nanotechnology-formulations-and-modeling-of-hydraulic-permeability-improvement-for-nonwoven-geotexti",signatures:"Han-Yong Jeon",authors:[{id:"114618",title:"Prof.",name:"Han-Yong",middleName:null,surname:"Jeon",fullName:"Han-Yong Jeon",slug:"han-yong-jeon"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2201",title:"Woven Fabrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ddd72a2f1d7d44072bbedcf459e4e940",slug:"woven-fabrics",bookSignature:"Han-Yong Jeon",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2201.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"114618",title:"Prof.",name:"Han-Yong",surname:"Jeon",slug:"han-yong-jeon",fullName:"Han-Yong Jeon"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"276",title:"Textile Dyeing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8f404dbb188c5b04e3f1f3a72ba0c11",slug:"textile-dyeing",bookSignature:"Peter J. 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1. Introduction
In the wake of the Notre Dame Cathedral fire, digital scans collected by Dr. Andrew Tallon [1] offer the hope for future restoration. One question raised is, what Level of Geometric Accuracy (LOGA) can the reconstructed digital replica achieve with respect to the physical asset? In the Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector, operation and maintenance (O&M) costs can range between 60 and 80% of total life cycle costs, which is three times greater than the cost of design and construction [2]. This demonstrates the significance of implementing intelligent asset documentation and structural health monitoring (SHM) approaches for existing built assets. Laser scanning has been widely used to document and monitor existing conditions of real-world assets in the form of point clouds [3, 4]. A point cloud is an unstructured low-level digital representation, which by itself does not contain any meaningful information of the documented asset. A ‘twinning’ process is utilised to convert the low-level data into a high-level digital representation in a structured format, namely, a geometric Digital Twin (gDT) [5]. The gDT can be further enriched with other information, such as semantic meanings, texture, materials, damage, energy use, maintenance data and so forth from its physical twin using IoT technologies [6], to form an information enriched model over time, namely, a ‘digital twin’ (DT). ‘Geometric accuracy’ is a vital indicator that guides and describes the degree of spatial accuracy of the resulting twin. It is conventionally deemed as the Represented Accuracy [7] that denotes the standard deviation range to be achieved once the point cloud is twinned into a geometric model. Twinning a real-world asset is an interpretive process, where geometric accuracy largely depends on a modeller’s experience and discretion [5]. While in their unstructured state, point clouds contain more geometric details than a resulting gDT created from the point cloud. Therefore, the resulting ‘best-fit’ gDTs are highly unlikely to be as accurate as the measured data (e.g., a point cloud) at the end of the twinning process [8]. This is also true for the automated methods since there is a trade-off between the achieved geometric accuracy and the quantity of information used for describing existing constructive objects in arbitrary shapes [9]. This occurs because the process of twinning involves simplifications to create polygon- or mesh-based primitives so that it ‘smooths’ discontinuities and gaps in point clouds [10]. This means that almost every object is approximated in order to transform point-cloud-based descriptors (in non-parametric formats) into parametric primitives [11]. Figure 1 illustrates a series of components for a bridge asset where the point cloud is converted into bespoke gDT elements. However, since point clouds often contain defects, such as varying point density [12] and occlusions [13], it is difficult or often not feasible to achieve a desired LOGA for resulting gDTs [5]. When these conditions occur, what are realistic expectations for a modeller or of an automated method with regard to representing the reality and meeting the required accuracies for SHM?
Figure 1.
Customising shapes of bridge components and fitting them to point clusters.
Numerous specifications termed as LOX (e.g. Level of Development and Level of Detail) have been developed to guide practitioners and researchers when creating digital models [14]. What do the LOX mean? How to measure whether the specifications were met? What is the best practice approach to reflect when the employer requires ‘1 cm accuracy’ or ‘every element to be within a half centimetre’? This chapter explores these questions, aiming (1) to provide a critical review of existing specifications and twinning implementations, (2) to identify technical twinning challenges, and (3) to inform the establishment of a geometric-accuracy-based evaluation system for twinning and updating.
2. Background
2.1 Existing LOX
The term ‘LOD’ was initially introduced by Vico Software [15]. Ambiguity of defining LOD stems largely from the fact that the American Institute of Architects (AIA) later adopted this concept and kept the acronym LOD but changed it to mean ‘Level of Development’ rather than ‘Level of Detail’ [16]. It was then superseded by the document AIA G202™ [17], which defines five progressively detailed levels of completeness: LOD100–LOD500. Based on the AIA protocols, the BIMForum [18] released another LOD specification, which was identical to those published in the AIA’s Digital Practice Documents [19], but with two exceptions. First, a new LOD was designated as LOD350. Second, the LOD500 was removed from the specification. The geometric requirements of gDT elements of LOD300, LOD350, and LOD400 are defined in the same way in terms of accuracy. However, this BIMForum document does not elaborate on what is implied by ‘accurate’ or how to measure it. Bolpagni [20, 21, 22] summarised the history of the LOX classification system in Table 1. Various new classification systems have been developed to accompany and complement the BIMForum’s LOD specification. For example, New Zealand proposed a LOD specification that contains five maturity levels [23], each of which is a sum of different aspects that define the geometry and information of gDT elements. Among these, Level of Detail (LOD) and Level of Accuracy (LOA) do not specify any quantitative standards. Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors [24] proposed a concept of building survey detail accuracy banding, which defines accuracies to be achieved for different surveyed features when an employer requires a customised geometric accuracy and confidence level. This banding, however, is tailored for designing building settings consisting of cuboids defined by length, width, and height. Similarly, Abualdenien and Borrmann [25] introduced a multi-LOD meta scheme, taking into account the geometric uncertainties by assigning quantitative fuzziness in cm. Again, the usefulness of this scheme in describing the twinning quality is unknown. To this end, Banfi [26] and Banfi et al. [27] proposed a new Grades of Generation (GoG) protocol for twinning highly complex historic structures from point clouds. LOGA was defined as the error resulting between the reconstructed objects and the point clouds using metrics such as the mean distance, median distance, and standard deviation. The USIBD specifications [7] were the first to provide the means to report twinning results of existing building conditions (from point clouds) based on standard deviation (stdev). It articulates the ‘accuracy’ as well as the five different LOAs (Figure 2) by which to represent real-world out-of-plumb geometries. Specifically, the Measured Accuracy represents the stdev range that is to be achieved to acquire a point cloud, regardless of the method used. In contrast, the Represented Accuracy represents the stdev range that is to be achieved when a point cloud is twinned. This guideline, however, does not indicate how to achieve and how to measure the Measured Accuracy and Represented Accuracy. As shown, various acronyms are used across countries and organisations. These acronyms are either identical or interchangeable, making them very challenging to be understood or adopted.
Country/region
Document
Year
LOX
Whole gDT
gDT element
Geometric data/info
Non-geometric data/info
Denmark
BIPS
2007
Information Level
√
√
√
√
Australia
CRC
2009
Object Data Levels/Level of Detail
√
√
√
USA
Department of VA
2010
Level of Development
√
√
√
USA
Vico Software
2011
Level of Detail
√
√
√
√
Australia
NATSPEC
2011
Level of Development
√
√
√
Hong Kong
HKIBIM
2011
Level of Detail
√
√
√
USA
NYC DDC
2012
Model Level of Development/Level of Development
√
√
√
√
Model Granularity
√
√
√
Penn State University
2012
Level of Development
√
√
√
USC
2012
Level of Detail
√
√
US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
2012
Level of Development
√
√
√
Singapore
BCA
2013
Level of Detail
√
√
√
UK
PAS 1192–2
2013
Level of Model Definition
√
√
√
Level of Model Detail
√
√
Level of Model Information
√
√
UK
CIC BIM Protocol
2013
Level of Detail
√
—
—
—
Germany
BMVBS
2013
Level of Development
√
√
√
Netherland
BIM
2014
Information Level
√
√
√
√
Canada
AEC
2014
Level of Development
√
√
France
Le Moniteur
2014
Level of Detail/Level of Development
√
√
√
Australia
BCPP
2014
Level of Development
√
√
√
Level of Detail
√
√
Level of Accuracy
√
√
√
Level of Information
√
√
Level of Coordination
—
—
—
—
China
CBC
2014
Level of Detail
√
√
√
√
Belgium
ABEB-VBA
2015
Level of Development
√
√
√
Germany
D&R
2015
Level of Development
√
√
USA
BIMForum
2015
Level of Development
√
√
√
Element Geometry
√
√
Associated Attribute Information
√
√
UK
NBS BIM Toolkit
2015
Level of Detail
√
√
Level of Information
√
√
UK
AEC (UK)
2015
Level of Definition Level of Information Grade/Level of Detail
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
China
SZGWS (Shenzhen)
2015
LOD
√
√
√
Table 1.
Comparison of the LOX classification system across countries.
Figure 2.
Measured and represented accuracy [7].
2.2 Industry applications
Leading software vendors provide advanced commercial twinning solutions, which are currently semi-automated processes at best. ClearEdge3D Edgewise software can automatically extract geometric features for industrial constructive elements and basic architectural elements using cross-sections in user-cropped regions followed by fitting 3D shapes from a library of preloaded features [28, 29]. This means, the current practice can achieve a high degree of automation of twinning if the resulting geometries are assumed to be generic or pre-defined. However, in the context of SHM, this assumption is unrealistic if a millimetre twinning accuracy is required. Twinning arbitrary geometries using point clouds is quite challenging [30]. Most authoring tools are designed to model orthogonally, or along local coordinate axes. They employ the use of rigid-body parameters to design construction elements by defining cross-sectional shapes, length, width and height parameters, whereas in the real world, as-is components are often warped, off-plumb, or contain deflections [31]. While finite element analysis and multi-physics engines can be used to predict elastic and plastic distortions in materials [32], current digitization workflows that produce parametric objects cannot capture distortion such as bowing in a beam or welding distortion in steel frames. Errors are introduced when the as-is geometries are twinned as being plumb and subjected to rigid-body physics [33]. In this case, geometry deviation analysis is important because unfitted geometries would potentially reduce the reliability of the gDT to be used for structural analysis and defect detection for SHM purposes. Current authoring applications are not capable of carrying out geometry deviation analysis for point clouds. The actual geometry deviation analysis requires third-party middleware software to interpret and investigate. FARO BuildIT Construction [34] is the most recent verification software for dimensional quality control (QC) process. Measured data collected from laser scanners can be compared against a gDT to analyse geometric deviations (Figure 3). However, it is worth noting that the nature and origin of a deviation is not identified in the analysis directly. Specifically, the analysis itself is often in the form of a ‘heat map’, where deviations are plotted in colours that correspond to a specific magnitude and direction from a perfect state (i.e. 0 mm deviation). However, point clouds contain voids and sparse measurements, which as directly classified deviations. These false positive measurements make it difficult to interpret the deviation analysis results. Users must manually inspect datasets to observe and detect gross errors or missing components. Currently, there are no available automated solutions for this in existing middleware. In addition, once deviations are identified through deviation analysis and manual interpretation, users must also manually apply changes to update the authoring gDTs. This is currently a large challenge since there is very little research into automated updating of gDT from point clouds [35, 36].
Figure 3.
Deviation analysis of a pipe assembly (point cloud data courtesy of FARO Technologies, Inc.).
2.3 Existing research methods
Automated methods have been proposed to streamline the twinning process (Table 2) [37, 38]. However, user intervention was still required for some crucial steps [44]. Zhang et al. [40] and Laefer and Truong-Hong [47] produced gDTs for bridges and industry plants, but without a geometric deviation assessment. Anil et al. [39] were among the pioneers who discussed in depth the problem of geometric deviation. They suggested using minimum Euclidean distance and thresholding [49] as metrics to evaluate the fitting quality (CAD model against point clouds). The deviation analysis at macro level (for the whole structure) was performed using a commercial software application (i.e. Polyworks v9). Bonduel et al. [46] suggested assessing the twinning results at both macro and micro levels. They used CloudCompare to analyse the deviations between a point cloud and a manually generated building floor gDT. They also discussed the achieved represented accuracy using LOAs provided by USIBD. Then, Hausdorff distance was proposed to measure the fitting deviation of a mesh-based building gDT reconstructed from a synthetic point cloud [41]. Thomson and Boehm [42] suggested using Euclidean distance and area difference based on the width and length, and angular difference to measure the fitting quality of walls. Although these measurements can assess elementwise quality, they are tailored for generic building walls in cuboid shapes. Similarly, Valero et al. [43] assessed fitting deviations of individual furniture objects and walls using orientation, dimension, positioning, and sizing metrics, assuming these objects consist of planar surfaces. Lu et al. [5] proposed an automated fitting method to twin bridge components. They gauged the fitting accuracy using Cloud-to-Cloud (C2C) distance metrics—a similar metric used by Shirowzhan et al. [51]. However, the geometric deviation evaluation was performed only at the macro level. NURBS-based methods [27, 44, 45, 48] were employed to reconstruct geometric surfaces for building, industry plant, and historic building elements. Note that the generation of compound pipes requires user intervention to group a set of cylindrical segments followed by automatically fitting surfaces [44]. Likewise, highly complex historic structures require manual surface generation, although extremely high twinning accuracy was reported [27]. Point-to-surface distance metrics were used to evaluate the fitting quality [44, 48]. In contrast, Barazzetti [45] used the commercial package Geomagic Studio to evaluate the fitting accuracy of the NURBS curves through a progressive densification (i.e. multi-resolution) approach. As shown, there is no fully automatic method to produce geometrically highly accurate twins for existing assets. Also, more comprehensive evaluation metrics need to be established for assessing twinning quality.
Point cloud authenticity real (R) or synthetic (S)
Previous sections have discussed that twinning existing assets using point clouds is restricted by current software tools which are limited in their ability to represent out-of-plumb conditions and non-rigid formations. It is also restricted by the limits of the data itself. This section discusses this problem in detail through a case study.
Laser scanning can sample an object’s surface as it exists with highly accurate spatial measurements in the form of 3D points. If the documented object is not straight or plumb, the scanner can capture its geometric status. Theoretically, a terrestrial laser scanner such as the FARO Focus 3D X330 [52] has a ranging error of ±2 mm at 10 m, equating to a systematic measurement error at around of 1σ at 10 m. However, the measured accuracy is affected by many factors, including the standard deviation of the sensor, registration methods, material type being scanned, low temperature, bad weather, and strong sunlight [53]. The overall twinning error ET can be expressed as a combination of three primary sources of error:
ET=ERA+EM+ER,E1
where ERA is the ranging error associated with the laser scanner, EM is the measured error introduced during scanning and registration, and ER is the represented error resulting from the process of scan-to-gDT. It is important to specify the error associated with each source independent of each other since they are assumed to be mutually exclusive. In this chapter, we only focus on discussing the represented error ER, which is independent of the sensor, or parameters of the documented object, or scanning and registration methods. It is related to the manner with which the measured point cloud is being transformed into the outcome, i.e. a gDT and describes the extent the gDT matches the acquired points.
As mentioned earlier, existing authoring software packages are by nature orthographic modelling tools. The challenge with using these software packages becomes how to represent a structure’s up-to-date conditions. To complicate matters further, the as-weathered, as-damaged, or as-deviated information of existing assets further increases the representation difficulty. Fitting deviations will be generated and propagated if these conditions are represented in an over-simplified fashion. In addition, sparseness, hidden, or concealed conditions are often encountered in point clouds, making it difficult or impossible to twin constructive objects with certainty. Thus, ER is the accumulated error from the geometric deviations and the propagation of data uncertainty.
Figure 4 demonstrates current efforts on parametric bridge design [54]. The essential feature for bridges is the horizontal and vertical alignments, which control the parametric relationships and dependencies between assembly systems and all components. The deck cross-sections are then driven by the bridge alignment curves. They are profiles that are used in conjunction with the alignment to derive the overall 3D shape of the bridge deck.
Figure 4.
Parametric cross section design of a slab-beam bridge with user-defined geometric constraints [54].
When SHM and retrofit planning is being performed, accurate as-is condition data is required regardless of the availability of the as-designed parametric information. Point clouds can depict the as-is geometries of an asset using thousands of data points. However, maintaining the dimensional accuracy and geometric fidelity of a given bridge point cloud is challenging because the usefulness of topological and geometric constraints is limited to very simple geometric shapes and spatial relationships. As-is geometries do not exhibit a parametric pattern with respect to the initial primitives used to create the as-designed model. Figure 5 illustrates the non-orthogonal geometries of a real-world bridge point cloud cannot be fitted using generic shapes, such as cuboids, in an orthogonal fashion. The modelled slabs do not follow the point cloud and produce fitting deviations when they are joined at sharp angles (Figure 5a). These deviations become smaller if the cross-sections are outlined with as-is 2D shapes. However, the bridge gDT does not necessarily close better and become manifold as the fitting quality is improved at the expense of broken or clashing connections (Figure 5b). This is especially true when twinning point clouds of pipes with sags, beams and columns with welding distortion or walls that are skewed. Adjacent components do not fit to properly watertight connections unless they are joined at right angles. For example, Figure 6 illustrates part of a piping system generated using point clouds. The local deviation is reduced from 30 to 1 mm when watertight connections are not used. Given the challenge with the mediation of non-parametric real-world deviations to parametric model primitives, modellers are often forced to leave objects ‘slightly off-axis’ or perform ‘unnatural shape editing’ by eliminating or ignoring as many overlapping and joint warnings as possible in order to match the points.
Figure 5.
Fitting geometric shapes to bridge point clouds. (a) Point clouds fitted by cuboids; (b) point clouds fitted by best-fit shapes.
Figure 6.
Fitting cylinders to piping point clouds (point cloud data courtesy of FARO Technologies, Inc.).
When facing occlusions and damage conditions, the geometric accuracy has a reliance on human perception followed by inferring the hidden information based on assumptions. For example, a bearing plays an important role in a bridge, but its surface is less than 1% of that of the deck slab and has a complex composition. These characteristics make it difficult to be fully captured by a laser sensor (Figure 7a). In addition, point clouds need to be down sampled before feeding into in-memory-system-based authoring tools or automated algorithms that cannot handle huge datasets. The down sampling is often performed using a third-party processing software application, which applies generic filters to evenly down sample the points without considering local geometric context. While this is certainly helpful and creates beneficial data compression, the resulting datasets often lose information along the way (i.e. sparse areas or smaller objects will have little to measurements). Thus, only a few points are retained for the bearing surface which does not provide enough information to support the twinning task and result in geometry uncertainties (Figure 7b). The interpretation of bearing shapes largely depends on modeller’s knowledge and discretion, which could introduce connection problems (e.g., clashing/gaps) (Figure 7c). Uncertainty increases when working with point clouds containing skewness and noise (Figure 7d and e). Although methods have been suggested to work under occlusions and sparseness [5, 55], the certainty of the resulting models is rarely investigated.
Figure 7.
Bearing gDT generation under uncertainty. (a) Original point cloud; (b) down-sampled point cloud; (c) bearing shapes and connection problem; (d) (e) geometry uncertainty in point clouds.
Figure 8 shows an example of a bridge where little-to-no measurements were captured in the girder areas due to a limited line of sight [56]. Like many existing works, both the manual and the automated method inferred specific girder profiles and produced gDTs with detailed dimensions using engineering knowledge. Then, Cloud-to-Cloud (C2C) distance could be used [5] to compute the deviation between the point clouds sampled from the manually generated gDTs (Manual) and the automated ones (Auto), and the real point clouds (Real):
Figure 8.
Geometric deviation with complete girder profiles in occluded areas.
C2C=maxdist¯Manual or Auto/Realdist¯Real/Manual or Auto,E2
where dist¯ is the estimated distance between a compared point cloud (i.e. Manual or Auto) and a reference point cloud (i.e. Real). Non-trivial fitting deviations occurred and raised the overall macro-level deviation (C2CAuto—12.5 cm and C2CManual—5.7 cm) [5]. These significant fitting deviations were due to the occluded areas, as no measurements were available to compare against, resulting in an incorrect gDT from a geometric accuracy standpoint. This solution is straightforward since it does not take the modelling uncertainties into account. It simply takes uncertain areas as errors. Figure 9 illustrates that the fitting deviation was drastically reduced by approximately 70% (C2CAuto—4.2 cm) if we replace the complete girder profiles with unclosed mesh-based gDTs while other parts remain unchanged. Yet still, the improved accuracy only aligns with USIBD’s LOA 20 (lower range: 15 mm, and upper range: 5 cm, at 2σ) [7], corresponding to a relatively low accuracy standard. USIBD provides different represented accuracy levels, but it does not specify how to measure it. For example, we can only use a couple of reference points to estimate the accuracy. It is the averaged fraction between pair reference-point distances in the registered scan data and the corresponding pair on-site or gDT point distances:
Figure 9.
Geometric deviation with incomplete girder profiles in occluded areas.
where M is the number of investigated pair-wise distance. Then, it is possible to acquire acc¯ that aligns with a higher LOA in USIBD. By contrast, unlike acc¯, C2C is an estimation using thousands of calculated points. Therefore, the resulting C2C-based accuracy is almost surely not going to achieve an expected ‘high accuracy’ level (e.g., ±10 mm or USIBD’s LOA 30 onwards). The C2C comparison between the Auto and Real revealed that points sampled from bottom flanges of girders were well matched with the original points while the mismatched points were mainly from the central part of the deck slab where points were not evenly distributed. This is attributed to the undulating-surfaces of the gDT generated using the proposed ConcaveHull alpha-shape algorithm (Figure 9). Local indentations or bumps are generated when alpha value is too small to smooth out the surface affected by unavoidable noise, raising the fitting deviations. However, optimising the alpha value is difficult because an indentation, for instance, could be due to a defect or a hole but could also due to localised sparse and unevenly distributed points. In addition, although the ConcaveHull alpha-shape algorithm can describe slab geometries in a 2D space, it oversimplifies a 3D space.
4. Prospective twinning methods and deviation analysis
The analysis provided in the previous section demonstrates that real-world conditions are seldom orthogonal and perfect, rendering it extremely difficult to perform high-fidelity twinning with a geometric accuracy on the millimetre scale. Commonly used representation models include but are not limited to: implicit representation such as mathematical formula-based methods [57], Boundary Representation such as polygon- and mesh-based methods [41], Constructive Solid Geometry [58], Swept Solid Representation [47], and NURBS representation [45, 48]. Depending on the nature of defects, the as-damaged geometries may be represented in different ways. Figure 10 illustrates the vision of the concept of an as-damaged bridge gDT implemented for the inspection work. The method proposed by Hüthwohl et al. [59] can be used to integrate superficial defects such as cracks, efflorescence, corrosion, and slight spalling [Figure 10a—(3) and (4)] to the affected element using the back-project technology [59] (Figure 10b). In contrast, major defects, such as severe spalling, cavity and pothole [Figure 10a—(1) and (2)], are significantly different in geometry compared to their surrounding healthy (i.e. good condition) surfaces. The method proposed by Lu et al. [5] can be used to represent healthy elements; however, it cannot describe the unhealthy areas precisely, due to the extrusion-based twinning nature. Finer representation, such as mesh-based and NURBS-based twinning techniques [50], can be employed to handle the geometry complexity of significant defects in a precise manner (Figure 10b). The more variable the defect, the greater the geometric twinning needs to rely on non-parametric representation such as mesh format. One promising solution to produce a gDT that takes the as-damage information into account is to first detect unhealthy areas [60], followed by twinning these unhealthy areas using finer twinning techniques based on their type and size. However, the mesh polygon resolution should not degrade the rendered presentation. This requires an intelligent a priori scheme to resample the point clouds based on the geometric complexity of a sampled surface [61, 62].
Figure 10.
Vision of the concept of an as-damaged bridge gDT applied for inspection. (a) actual damages or defects; (b) digital representations.
Construction elements with different scales may require different twinning techniques. For example, extrusions could be efficient for twinning slab segments; however, they cannot be directly applied to bearings. This means a gDT is highly likely to contain more than one data representation type in order to balance its resolution and the LOGA, which very few works have covered in depth. In addition, as previously mentioned, occlusions and sparseness increase the uncertainty of the resulting gDT. These problems require a more intuitive geometric deviation analysis system. The macro-level deviation analysis can provide an overview of the twinning quality whereas it does not reflect a detailed comparison at the component- or feature-level. Therefore, the dimensional QC system of geometric deviation analysis should consist of both macro- and micro-level analysis. The former, can be used to quickly localise uncertain areas, or areas with major deviations (Figures 8 and 9) while the latter can provide detailed deviation analysis at the component-level, indicating a more meaningful LOGA of specific elements. Table 3 shows an example of the C2C-based geometric deviation analysis of five bridge gDTs using an automated twinning method. The micro-level numerical indications show that the deck slab takes the bigger part of the overall deviation whereas the other components such as pier caps, piers, and girders take the smaller part. Specifically, for all these bridges except Bridge 7, the deviations stemming from deck slabs are 2.9, 3.2, 2.1, and 1.5 times bigger than that of the averaged value for the remaining components, respectively. Bridge 7 initially appears misleading since the slab deviations are only 48.8% of that of its girders. However, these abnormal deviations are due to significant occlusions in the raw data. The distribution of the deviations is not necessarily proportional to the LOGA. This can be demonstrated through the coverage area of components. The deck slab takes most of the sampled surface compared to that of the pier caps and piers, which are much smaller in size and in covered area. Specifically, pier caps, piers, and girders take 12, 10.4, 7.2, 31.7, and 15.6% of the overall sampled surface of each bridge, respectively. This means although the absolute twinning accuracy of smaller components is higher than larger ones, their relative accuracy is not necessarily better. A deviation analysis system that combines both macro- and micro-level information can better interpret the twinning accuracy.
Macro- and micro-level C2C geometric deviation analysis.
5. Conclusions
This chapter presents an exploratory analysis of the LOGA of geometric twinning for existing assets using point clouds. Twinning existing assets for monitoring the structural health is a daunting task since the as-is geometric conditions can differ from the designed status due to geometric anomalies, physical damages, deflections, and the complexity, ambiguities, and defects in the measured point cloud data. Section 2.1 reviews existing LOX systems that lack a clear elaboration on geometry accuracy. They share the same acronym but do not necessarily carry the same meaning. They are tailored for basic assumptions made in the design phase or at the beginning of a generative process, making them useless to interpret the as-is geometries of gDTs delivered for SHM purposes. Section 2.2 reviews on industry applications and reveals that there remains a gap between the accuracy requirements placed on gDTs and the capabilities of underlying twinning processes. Specifically, there are practical limitations of authoring tools with respect to the context of orthogonal (i.e. idealised parametric primitives) and real-world deviations (i.e. non-parametric data formats such as point clouds and meshes). Their ability to twin or capture non-rigid-body deformations is extremely limited. Likewise, limitations are also revealed for the deviation evaluation tools with respect to geometric accuracy interpretations. Despite the growing state of the art (Section 2.3), a fully automated twinning and updating process is still in its infancy. A major bottleneck for complete automation of the workflow is the definition of LOGA of the documented asset that covers all geometric deviations and data uncertainties. This requires a development of comprehensive LOGA-based evaluation metrics for gDTs generated in the post-construction stage. The case study (Section 3) demonstrates the technical challenges of the twinning process. High-fidelity twinning within millimetre-level geometric accuracy is challenging to achieve because each step introduces errors. This requires in-depth research on the level of the model certainty. LOGA is closely related to the tools, techniques, and process used to represent the specific object being documented. In the end, the twinning method and LOGA depend highly on what the gDT will be used for (Section 4), on the specific needs and goals of the project, and what kind of metadata is required when providing information about the geometric accuracy.
Parameterising point cloud data results in a loss of geometric accuracy along with a decrease of model certainty. This requires practitioners and researchers to effectively communicate the LOGA through a universal consensus before developing, evaluating, and using gDTs. Until there is a consensus and a universal system for describing geometric accuracy of gDTs, the following recommendations are provided. In the case where geometric accuracy requirements are very strict, such as in the O&M stage, it may be useful to store and link the initial as-is captured data along with the resulting gDT. The purpose for this is two-fold. First, it allows for an end-user to view the initial dataset that was used to create the gDT, for conducting its own unique accuracy or structural analysis. Storing the initial raw point cloud data will provide a level of confidence to an end-user when they use the geometric information from a gDT. It also alleviates some of the burden placed on individuals who create the gDT to provide a subjective global accuracy figure (which can have legal impacts depending on end-use of such gDTs). Secondly, linking the initial data capture avoids loss of geometric data. Since point cloud data contains much rawer geometric information than a resulting surface-based or solid-based gDT, data fidelity can be preserved. As twinning processes and algorithms continue to develop and improve (both in accuracy but also in computational efficiency) it will be possible to build, update, manage, and exploit gDTs in a progressive manner.
Acknowledgments
This research work is supported by the National Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), Mitacs and Edge Architects Ltd. and Cambridge Trimble Fund. We would like to thank them for their support. We also acknowledge Faro Technologies for their in-kind support, provision of sample point cloud data and access to BuildIT Construction software. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the stakeholders who have supported this research.
\n',keywords:"digital twin, geometric accuracy, point clouds, bridge, structural health monitoring",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72444.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72444.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72444",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72444",totalDownloads:883,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"October 22nd 2019",dateReviewed:"May 8th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 10th 2020",datePublished:"February 10th 2021",dateFinished:"June 10th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"We present an exploratory analysis of the geometric accuracy of digital twins generated for existing infrastructure using point clouds. The Level of Geometric Accuracy is a vital specification to measure the twinning quality of the resulting twins. However, there is a lack of a clear definition of the Level of Geometric Accuracy for twins generated in the operation and maintenance stage, especially for structural health monitoring purposes. We critically review existing industry applications and twinning methods. To highlight the technical challenges with creating high-fidelity digital replicas, we present a case study of twinning a bridge using real-world point clouds. We do not provide conclusive methods or results but envisage potential twinning strategies to achieve the desired geometry accuracy. This chapter aims to inform the future development of a geometric accuracy-based evaluation system for use in twinning and updating processes. Since a major barrier for a fully automated twinning workflow is the lack of rigorous interpretation of ‘geometric accuracy’ outside design environments, it is imperative to develop comprehensive standards to guide practitioners and researchers in order to achieve model certainty. As such, this chapter also aims to educate all stakeholders in order to minimise risk when drafting contracts and exchanging digital deliverables.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72444",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72444",signatures:"Ruodan Lu, Chris Rausch, Marzia Bolpagni, Ioannis Brilakis and Carl T. Haas",book:{id:"10028",type:"book",title:"Structural Integrity and Failure",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Structural Integrity and Failure",slug:"structural-integrity-and-failure",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",bookSignature:"Resat Oyguc and Faham Tahmasebinia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10028.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-981-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-980-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-982-8",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"239239",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Resat",middleName:null,surname:"Oyguc",slug:"resat-oyguc",fullName:"Resat Oyguc"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"314007",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruodan",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Ruodan Lu",slug:"ruodan-lu",email:"r.lu@lboro.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"320099",title:"Mr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Rausch",fullName:"Chris Rausch",slug:"chris-rausch",email:"chris.rausch@uwaterloo.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Waterloo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"320101",title:"Dr.",name:"Marzia",middleName:null,surname:"Bolpagni",fullName:"Marzia Bolpagni",slug:"marzia-bolpagni",email:"Marzia.Bolpagni@macegroup.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Mace (United Kingdom)",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"320102",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Brilakis",fullName:"Ioannis Brilakis",slug:"ioannis-brilakis",email:"ib340@cam.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Cambridge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"320103",title:"Prof.",name:"Carl",middleName:"T.",surname:"Haas",fullName:"Carl Haas",slug:"carl-haas",email:"chaas@uwaterloo.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Waterloo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Background",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Existing LOX",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Industry applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Existing research methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Case study",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Prospective twinning methods and deviation analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Shea RH. Historian Uses Lasers to Unlock Mysteries of Gothic Cathedrals. National Geographic Magazine. 2019. Available from: https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150622-andrew-tallon-notre-dame-cathedral-laser-scan-art-history-medieval-gothic/ [Accessed: 17 March 2020]'},{id:"B2",body:'Aziz ND, Nawawi AH, Ariff NRM. Building information modelling (BIM) in facilities management: Opportunities to be considered by facility managers. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.autcon.2018.09.003'},{id:"B61",body:'Chen J, Zhang C, Tang P. Geometry-based optimized point cloud compression methodology for construction and infrastructure management. In: Computing in Civil Engineering 2017: Smart Safety, Sustainability and Resilience - Selected Papers from the ASCE International Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering. American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 2017. pp. 377-385'},{id:"B62",body:'Zhang C, Tang P. Visual complexity analysis of sparse imageries for automatic laser scan planning in dynamic environments. In: Computing in Civil Engineering. 2015. pp. 271-279'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ruodan Lu",address:"r.lu@lboro.ac.uk; rl508@cam.ac.uk",affiliation:'
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In-service vehicles equipped with sensors and GPS systems can act as probes to detect and analyse real-time vehicle vibration. Recently, a compact on-board sensing device has been developed. This chapter describes the track condition monitoring system that uses a compact on-board sensing device and diagnosis software. The diagnosis software provides the function of detecting track faults using the root mean square (RMS) of the car-body acceleration. It also allows analysis in the time-frequency domain using wavelet transform. A monitoring experiment in a local railway line showed that the system is effective for practical application.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Hitoshi Tsunashima, Hirotaka Mori, Masayuki Ogino and Akira\nAsano",authors:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima"}]},{id:"59302",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74277",title:"Model-Based Fault Analysis for Railway Traction Systems",slug:"model-based-fault-analysis-for-railway-traction-systems",totalDownloads:1384,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Fault analysis in industrial equipment has been usually performed using classical techniques such as failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) and fault tree analysis (FTA). Model-based fault analysis has been used during the last several years in order to overcome the limitations of classical methods when complex industrial equipment has to be analyzed. In railway and automotive sectors, the development and validation of new products are based on hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) platforms. In this chapter, a methodology to enhance classical FMEAs is presented. Based on HIL simulations, the objective is to improve the results of the fault analysis with quantitative information about the effects of each fault mode. In this way, the impact of the fault analysis in the design of the traction system, the development of new diagnostic functionalities and in the maintenance tasks will increase.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Jon del Olmo, Fernando Garramiola, Javier Poza and Gaizka\nAlmandoz",authors:[{id:"149511",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaizka",middleName:null,surname:"Almandoz",slug:"gaizka-almandoz",fullName:"Gaizka Almandoz"},{id:"149644",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Poza",slug:"javier-poza",fullName:"Javier Poza"},{id:"235660",title:"Dr.",name:"Jon",middleName:null,surname:"Del Olmo",slug:"jon-del-olmo",fullName:"Jon Del Olmo"},{id:"241062",title:"Mr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garramiola",slug:"fernando-garramiola",fullName:"Fernando Garramiola"}]},{id:"49375",doi:"10.5772/61517",title:"Experimental and Simulation Study of the Superstructure and Its Components",slug:"experimental-and-simulation-study-of-the-superstructure-and-its-components",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The issues discussed in this chapter are of interest of both the manufacturers and the experts responsible for condition of the track superstructure. In general, stress in steel elements may affect the energy state, phase changes, and corrosion. It may reduce fatigue strength and cause damage and cracks of the rails. It is one of the causes of accelerated development of standard railhead defects. Proper selection of, e.g., bending process parameters provides uniform distribution and acceptable level of residual stresses in the bent components. Residual stresses that develop during manufacturing process in the railway turnout steel components can change their strength properties. The first part of this chapter presents ultrasonic measurement method and computer simulation that allowed to develop a method to diagnose state and distribution of residual stresses in steel components of the railway turnout (wing rails and switch blades) in the production process. The second part of this chapter includes experimental and simulation studies of superstructure in operational conditions. A track substructure with a crashed stone composite is a solution of reinforced standard track substructure. The results are used to draw conclusions concerning further development and possible modifications of a proposed solution. A significant number of simulation calculations also allow to determine the duration of guaranteed functionality of a reinforced track substructure.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Jacek Kukulski",authors:[{id:"175842",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Kukulski",slug:"jacek-kukulski",fullName:"Jacek Kukulski"}]},{id:"49716",doi:"10.5772/62080",title:"A Systems View of Railway Safety and Security",slug:"a-systems-view-of-railway-safety-and-security",totalDownloads:4110,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter approaches the concerns over safety and security of modern mainline and light railways from a systems perspective. It addresses the two key concerns from the view point of systemic emergence arising from the interaction between all the principal constituents of the railway system, namely infrastructure, rolling stock, energy and human element comprising workers, passengers and the neighbours of the railways.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Ali G. Hessami",authors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami"}]},{id:"57840",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71768",title:"Advanced Train Positioning/Communication System",slug:"advanced-train-positioning-communication-system",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In the past, in order to ensure train positioning as well as ground-to-train information exchange, railways have adopted various technologies. Over time, each new generation of equipment enriched the global information exchange but, as a consequence, necessitated higher data rate transfers. For the positioning functionality, the existing localisation systems are still limited, since most of them require an infrastructure installation with constraints such as laying equipment between the rails or having high database maintenance requirements and computational costs. Moreover, some of them accumulate errors (odometers and inertial sensors) or offer limited coverage in shadowed areas (GNSS, etc.). Currently, in railway applications, a widely used localization system is based on proprioceptive sensors embarked in the train. This on-board system is coupled to the use of balises located at ground between the rails. These balises are kilometre markers. They are used to compensate for the drift of the localization information computed using the proprioceptive sensors alone, when the train moves. The balises provide absolute localization information whenever the train passes over them. They can also provide spot communication during the short period of time when trains are passing over them. In the first part of this chapter, techniques for achieving train positioning and data exchanges between trains and infrastructure are introduced. In the second part, a new balise is proposed. Particular attention is paid to the contribution of this new solution in terms of localization error and communication performances.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Fouzia Elbahhar and Marc Heddebaut",authors:[{id:"140822",title:"Dr.",name:"Fouzia",middleName:null,surname:"Elbahhar",slug:"fouzia-elbahhar",fullName:"Fouzia Elbahhar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57056",title:"Transmission-Based Signaling Systems",slug:"transmission-based-signaling-systems",totalDownloads:3049,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we describe the principal communication systems applied to the transmission-based signaling (TBS) systems for railways. Typical examples are communication-based train control (CBTC), European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), and distance to go (DTG). Moreover, to properly address some of the challenges that need to face these systems, we will provide a deep insight on propagation issues related to all the environments (urban, suburban, rural, tunnel, etc.). We will highlight all the communication-related issues and the operational as well. Finally, a detailed survey on the directions of research on all these topics is provided, in order to properly cover this interesting subject. In this research, hot topics like virtual coupling are explained as well.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Cesar Briso-Rodríguez, Juan Moreno García-Loygorri and Lei Zhang",authors:[{id:"171013",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Briso",slug:"cesar-briso",fullName:"Cesar Briso"},{id:"216915",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno Garcia-Loygorri",slug:"juan-moreno-garcia-loygorri",fullName:"Juan Moreno Garcia-Loygorri"},{id:"216916",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"lei-zhang",fullName:"Lei Zhang"}]},{id:"49375",title:"Experimental and Simulation Study of the Superstructure and Its Components",slug:"experimental-and-simulation-study-of-the-superstructure-and-its-components",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The issues discussed in this chapter are of interest of both the manufacturers and the experts responsible for condition of the track superstructure. In general, stress in steel elements may affect the energy state, phase changes, and corrosion. It may reduce fatigue strength and cause damage and cracks of the rails. It is one of the causes of accelerated development of standard railhead defects. Proper selection of, e.g., bending process parameters provides uniform distribution and acceptable level of residual stresses in the bent components. Residual stresses that develop during manufacturing process in the railway turnout steel components can change their strength properties. The first part of this chapter presents ultrasonic measurement method and computer simulation that allowed to develop a method to diagnose state and distribution of residual stresses in steel components of the railway turnout (wing rails and switch blades) in the production process. The second part of this chapter includes experimental and simulation studies of superstructure in operational conditions. A track substructure with a crashed stone composite is a solution of reinforced standard track substructure. The results are used to draw conclusions concerning further development and possible modifications of a proposed solution. A significant number of simulation calculations also allow to determine the duration of guaranteed functionality of a reinforced track substructure.",book:{id:"4789",slug:"railway-research-selected-topics-on-development-safety-and-technology",title:"Railway Research",fullTitle:"Railway Research - Selected Topics on Development, Safety and Technology"},signatures:"Jacek Kukulski",authors:[{id:"175842",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Kukulski",slug:"jacek-kukulski",fullName:"Jacek Kukulski"}]},{id:"59304",title:"Improving Feasibility of High-Speed Train Project: Creating Added Value",slug:"improving-feasibility-of-high-speed-train-project-creating-added-value",totalDownloads:1471,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Infrastructure plays a significant role in increasing economic development by providing access of transportation and improving connectivity. High-speed train (HST), one of mega infrastructure projects, has a positive impact on economic development of a nation. However, the project feasibility requires the maximum value for money and an acceptable risk to attract private investors. This study aims to improve the feasibility of the project by producing a conceptual design of Jakarta-Surabaya high-speed train in Indonesia. Value engineering will be used to evaluate both technical and financial aspects of the project. The methodology uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches through a case study, in-depth interviews, and life-cycle cost analysis. The result shows an optimum route sketching for the project and potential added value to the project. It consists of the solar cell, fiber optic, tourism, and transit-oriented development. The output also generates the division of responsibility between the government and business entity during the project lifecycle regarding the project financing. The institutional scheme will regulate the position and roles for each related stakeholder that was involved in the HST project development.",book:{id:"6065",slug:"modern-railway-engineering",title:"Modern Railway Engineering",fullTitle:"Modern Railway Engineering"},signatures:"Mohammed Ali Berawi",authors:[{id:"207251",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Berawi",slug:"mohammed-ali-berawi",fullName:"Mohammed Ali Berawi"}]},{id:"57840",title:"Advanced Train Positioning/Communication System",slug:"advanced-train-positioning-communication-system",totalDownloads:1660,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In the past, in order to ensure train positioning as well as ground-to-train information exchange, railways have adopted various technologies. Over time, each new generation of equipment enriched the global information exchange but, as a consequence, necessitated higher data rate transfers. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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