Some medicinal plants which are at extent of endangerment [30].
\r\n\tSQL is worth learning because it’s a programming language that’s in demand in the tech industry and in other sectors that need technology. Most software developers who know SQL earn respectable salaries. Learning SQL can not only enhance your skills, but it can also give you a better understanding of the applications you work with daily. In this book, we will go through the details of SQL and how to use it effectively. The goal of this book is to have many practical application examples that will help learners easily acquire and self-study SQL.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-946-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-945-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-947-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d1d908cd61561c1e813552fbd6cb9ed1",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Duc-Man Nguyen and Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11919.jpg",keywords:"Database Classification, Types of Databases, SQL Basic, Drop Statement, Aggregate Functions, Conversion Function, Date Function, Mathematical Functions, User-Defined Types, User-Defined Functions, String Data Type, Pivoting Data in SQL",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Nguyen Duc Man is a member of the DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam. He was awarded the Award for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Duy Tan University, Vietnam for several years in a row, and received the Certificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management by the Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam. His current research interests are software testing, mobile testing, test automation, test case generation, context-driven testing, and ML for testing.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea, in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227628",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Duc-Man",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"duc-man-nguyen",fullName:"Duc-Man Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227628/images/system/227628.jpg",biography:'1.\tName:\tNguyen Duc Man\n\tOffice: Room 601, 254 Nguyen Van Linh, Danang, Vietnam\n\tTel: +84-2363 650 403 (Ext 601)\n Mobi: 0904 235 945\n\tEmail: mannd@duytan.edu.vn\n\n2.\tEducation:\nBSc.\tInformation Technology\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t1999\nMSc.\tComputer Science\tDanang University, Vietnam\t2009\nPhD.\tComputer Science\tDuy Tan University, Vietnam\t2020\n\n3.\tAcademic experience:\nDuy Tan University, Vietnam\tTeaching\tLecturer\t2004- Present\tFT\n\t\n4.\tNon-academic experience:\nHSD Corporation, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam\tAnalysis, Design and Code, DB Design\tSoftware Developer\t1999-2001\tFT\nDuy Tan Software Center, Vietnam\tTeam leader, Planning, A&D\tProject Lead\t2001-2003\tFT\n\n5.\tCertifications or professional registrations:\n-\tCertificate for completion of Train the Trainer courses (Software Capstone Project, Requirements Engineering, Software Architecture, Software Project management, software Process and Quality management, Software Integration Practices). Institute of Software Research, Carnegie Mellon University, USA. (2010, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019).\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t7 Professional Development Hours for participation in the Self-Study Development Workshop ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\t14 Professional Development Hours for participation at the 2017 ABET\nSymposium, ABET Symposium (2017)\n-\tSoftware Testing and Automation Conference. VISTACON 2011, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tFagan Software Inspection Method. ECCI Group, Vietnam (2011).\n-\tHP Train the Trainer courses: HP QTP, LoadRunner, Quality Center (2011).\n\n6.\tMembership in professional organizations:\n-\tMember of DSA-Da Nang Software Association, Vietnam.\n\n7.\tHonors and awards:\n-\tAwards for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Duy Tan University, Vietnam (2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012).\n-\tCertificate of Merit for Excellent effort in Training and Management. Ministry of Education and Training, Vietnam (2008- 2009, 2010- 2011, 2013- 2014).\n-\tCertificate of Merit of the People Committee of Da Nang. Danang, Vietnam (2011-2012).\n\n8.\tService activities:\n-\tInstitutional service: \n•\tStudents’ Awards Committee \n•\tFaculty Development Committee \n•\tScholarship Committee \n•\tFaculty Council \n\n9.\tPublications and presentations from the past five years:\n\n1.\t\tCheng, Y. H., Chang, P. C., Nguyen, D. M., & Kuo, C. N. (2020). Automatic Music Genre Classification Based on CRNN. Engineering Letters, 29(1).\n2.\t\tHuynh, Q. T., Pham, L. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. (2020). An Effective Approach for Context Driven Testing in Practice—A Case Study. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(09), 1245-1262.\n3.\t\tNguyen, D. M., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, T. H. (2020). Automated test input generation via model inference based on user story and acceptance criteria for mobile application development. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, 30(03), 399-425.\n4.\t \tNguyen, D. M., Do, H. N., Huynh, Q. T., Vo, D. T., & Ha, N. H. (2018, August). Shinobi: A Novel Approach for Context-Driven Testing (CDT) Using Heuristics and Machine Learning for Web Applications. In International Conference on Industrial Networks and Intelligent Systems (pp. 86-102). Springer, Cham.\n5.\t\tHoang-Nhat, D. O., NGUYEN, D. M., HUYNH, Q. T., & Nhu-Hang, H. A. (2018). One2Explore-Graph Builder for Exploratory Testing from a Novel Approach.\n6.\t\tNguyen, M. D., Huynh, T. Q., & Nguyen, T. H. (2016, November). Improve the Performance of Mobile Applications Based on Code Optimization Techniques Using PMD and Android Lint. In International Symposium on Integrated Uncertainty in Knowledge Modelling and Decision Making (pp. 343-356). Springer, Cham.\n7.\t\tBao Le Nguyen, Nguyen Duc Man, Minh Nguyen Cong and Luong Vo Van (2013). Difficulties in the Operation of an International Program in Vietnam. FICAP-1 Proceedings, BrownWalker Press, 2013, ISBN-13: 9781612337043.\n8.\t\tDuc Nguyen Duc Man, Tien Vu Truong, Nguyen Bao Le (2013). Deployment of Capstone Projects in Software Engineering Education at Duy Tan University as Part of a University-wide Project-based Learning Effort. Learning and Teaching in Computing and Engineering (LaTiCE), IEEE Computer Society -CPS, 2013, E-ISBN :978-0-7695-4960-6 (pp. 184 -191).\n9.\t\tGia Nhu Nguyen, Nhat Tan Tran, Thanh Trung Nguyen and Nguyen Duc Man (2014). The Benefits of CDIO for ABET Preparation from a Hands-on Study in Vietnam. Proceedings of the 10th International CDIO Conference. Barcelona \n10.\t\tVu T Truong, Bao N Le, Man N Duc, Thang M Nguyen (2014). Accessing the Maturity of Teamwork Capabilities through CDIO Projects. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n11.\t\tPhuong A Pham, Man D Nguyen, Long Q Nguyen, Thang M Nguyen, Bao N Le (2014). Learning Computer Programming In Cdio’s Team Settings. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International CDIO Conference. Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.\n12.\t\tVo, Q. N., Tran, N. P., Van Dat Ngo, V. H. T., Huynh, Q. T., Ha, N. H., & Nguyen, D. M. LEVERAGE THE BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY TO MANAGE SMART CONTRACT IN ASSET TRADING. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n13.\t\tHa, N. H., Nguyen, D. M., Liu, C. A., Van Van, T., Nguyen, A. D., & Huynh, Q. T. AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF THE MPOS SYSTEM ON THE PROCESS CHANGE OF RESTAURANTS. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị KHCN Quốc gia lần thứ XII về Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin (FAIR); Huế, ngày 07-08/6/2019 DOI: 10.15625/vap.2019.00032\n\n14.\t\tNguyễn Thanh Hùng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Huỳnh Quyết Thắng (2019), Thử Nghiệm Đánh Giá Áp Dụng Một Số Kỹ Thuật Kiểm Thử Để Nâng Cao Độ Tin Cậy Cho Ứng Dụng Di Động Trong Môi Trường Phát Triển Linh Hoạt. Section on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) - No. 13, Journal of Science and Technique - Le Quy Don Technical University - No. 199, ISSN 1859-0209\n15.\t\tHuỳnh Quyết Thắng, Nguyễn Đức Mận, Nguyễn Thị Bảo Trang, Nguyễn Thị Anh Đào (2016). Kỹ thuật kiểm thử hồi qui hiệu quả cho phát triển ứng dụng di động. Kỷ yếu Hội nghị khoa học công nghệ quốc gia lần thứ IX, ngày 4-5/8/2016 - "Nghiên cứu cơ bản và ứng dụng Công nghệ thông tin" (FAIR 2016), trang 255-265. Nhà xuất bản Khoa học tự nhiên và Công nghệ. ISBN 978-604-913-472-2\n\n10.\tRecent professional development activities:\n-\tCoordinator and Assistant Director of ACM/ICPC Asia Regional Contest, Danang, Vietnam (2013). \n-\tParticipated in the 7th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2014).\n-\tAttended the 7 Professional Development Hours the Fundamentals of Program Assessment Workshop (2017).\n-\tParticipated in the 12th National Conference on Fundamental and Applied IT Research (2019).\n-\tINISCOM 2018, INISCOM 2019, KSE 2019, CITA2021, CITA2022\n-\tAttended the CDIO Regional Meeting - Asia-Pacific (2019).',institutionString:"Duy Tan University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Duy Tan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"473326",title:"Dr.",name:"Van-Loi",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",slug:"van-loi-nguyen",fullName:"Van-Loi Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003Sa5QKQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:01:50.jpg",biography:"Dr. Van-Loi Nguyen received his Master of Engineering in Computer Science from the University of Danang, Vietnam in 2010, and a Ph.D. degree from Soongsil University, Korea in 2017. He is currently a lecturer at the Vietnam - Korea University of Information and Communication Technology, the University of Danang. He has over 18 years of experience teaching and researching in the fields of programming, databases, machine learning, information retrieval, multimedia, and artificial intelligence.",institutionString:"University of Danang",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429342",firstName:"Zrinka",lastName:"Tomicic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429342/images/20008_n.jpg",email:"zrinka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The phenomenon of conservation is helpful in the maintenance of the genetic basis being needed for breeding. This allows the production and selection of varieties with desirable characteristics in crops, which later can be used for purpose of feeding, fuel, and health sectors [1]. Germplasm is the plant’s genetic resources such as tissues or cells which are being preserved for purpose of obtaining desired breeding characteristics. These resources are obtained from gene banks, plants grown in nurseries, and laboratory culture. The collection of germplasm usually ranges from wild species to genes which are supposed to capture traits of plants as a result of natural selection [2].
A germ is defined as the collection of genetic resources for an organism. In the case of plants, the germplasm is stored or preserved in form of seeds or trees in the nursery. So, it is the living tissue from which new varieties of plants can be grown i.e., it can be the seed from which the whole plant can be grown because it contains all the genetic makeup or information required for resources of the diversity of plants. Plant germplasm is a spice of generic materials needed by breeders to develop new varieties. This includes seeds, leaves, stems, pollen, and cultured cells. So it provides the necessary raw material to develop the commercially valuable varieties of plants [3].
It is of prime importance in the maintenance of diversity in the biological system and the security of food. Conservation of plant resources is of great importance because most of the plant species are getting endangered with time. Genetic resources are a potential sustainable source of agricultural products i.e. efficient production of crops used as food, for the reduction of poverty and maintenance of economic conditions of the population [4]. For example, in countries like Nigeria, the major source of food is from crops sowed by simple farmers which maintain them by their efforts utilizing their resources. This involves the conservation of gene resources which preserve them for storage and usage systemically at both national and international levels [5]. Hence maintaining these species for purpose of variation in genetics is therefore of immense importance especially in the case of poor farmers who are participating in the agriculture of the country at much lower input conditions in marginal land [6].
On-farm conservation provides the best example of preservation as it is helpful in the maintenance of evolution responsible for genetic variability. Variations in genes are observed in both ex-situ i.e. in a natural environment and ex-situ in the form of gene banks obtained from laboratory culture. A huge collection of the most value able crop fields are being reserved in the gene bank and are placed in modern aseptic conditions in gene bank facilities. The variety includes collection from national and international worldwide programs i.e., NAGRAB, OSTROM, and IITTA. It also includes varieties obtained from plant genetic programmers in collaboration with a national action plan [7]. It has been revealed from a scientific investigation that about 3 lac plant species of higher plants exist in the world but only 1% of them are being utilized in the world today. About 80% of food is provided by only 8–10 crops ranging from wheat, rice species to millet, and rye. Most advancements in the field of agriculture in the present day world is based on a wide range of genetic resources possessing two types of values [8]. The plant genes and various genotypes are considered for many characteristics such as insect and pest resistance, bearing the conditions of drought, plant structure, function, and color acting as an immediate source of plant genotype conservation for desired properties. Secondly, diversity in genes or genetics ensures future requirements. Hence in turn contribute to the farming system at both local or small level and national levels [9].
Moreover, variations in genetics have also resulted in losing information in an already present generation which makes the preservation of these genes much important. Because if genes for variations are not preserved, it would lead to endangerment of plant species. International board [7] as a bank for further next generations [10]. The conservation involves
Preservation of breeding lines
Conservation of commercially important species
Stock for genetics
For direct or indirect usage of wild species which include either in form of crops or stocks of roots.
There are several reasons why breeders use this technique which is as follows;
Loss of genetic diversity among plant species.
Humans and animals are dependent on plants for their food which means they require plants for basic food crops such as wheat, maize, etc.
Humans also utilize plants for their social activities such as buildings construction, obtaining waxes, and perfumes, resume fibers, and therapeutics.
Deforestation has led to the endangerment of many valuable varieties of plants which present an utmost need to preserve them [11].
To keep the stability of the ecosystem, genetic diversity provides food prints that can be maintained via germplasm.
It provides an esthetic value to the natural ecosystem and bio-diversity of plants [12].
Based on its need, germplasm has undergone an evolution over a certain period of years in response to particular requirement including
Base collections
Backup collections
Active collections
Breeder collections
Working collections
To a certain extent, these collections are artificial to a much extent because some of the classes or classifications are useful for more than one reason. Hence an active number of collections were previously breeder such as for formal breeding purposes. So, the following discussion is required to explain the classes of the collection which must serve.
It presents the method of long-term preservation of genetic variability by storing in presence of optimum conditions. For base collection, the materials are not used for distribution except with the need for replacement of material that has been lost either from active or backup collection types. It includes the most explanatory sampling method being employed for checking out variability within the species group. They are most stable in the sense that they can store the variation which arises in the natural condition. But they are also dynamic in the sense that they have some novel collected materials, some collections being produced via plant breeding and population involving genetic materials are added as they are available. In this way, the storing for many decades can be possible so the loss of variability occurs during the processes of regeneration and storing present within the acceptable limits. It is the collection under a low level of humidity at the temperature of subfreezing which must be below −150 °C to 190 °C. But some difficulties are present, which include that they cannot bear the chilling or drying temperature. So, an alternative and long-term methodology are required which includes cryopreservation within the in-vitro cultures. A huge collection at a global level is initiated with a proper guidance and help of Food and agriculture organization by designing specific agencies which serve as the base as well as back up collections for principal species in case of principle crop plants. But most agencies also vary in their ability to fulfill all the responsibilities regarding its designation [13].
It supplements base collection at another location or another level. For example, laboratory at US national seed stores holds the collection of some of the duplicate backup samples of maize for the improvement of these crops. Similarly, the international research Centre of rice is abbreviated as IRR present in the Philippines for the collection of rice. So it holds collection as well as insurance for loss in primary CIMMYT and IRRI collections of crops [14].
Active as well as base collection mostly includes the same type of materials. So, it provides the seeds and other raw materials for purpose of distribution as well as for other uses. So, it has been found that a certain collection of material is conserved for maintenance of sufficient collections of plants of each type in active collection particularly when it is required in a huge collection or amount. All the materials in this type of collection are maintained under a shorter half-life and in the response to more standards of variability. So, grow outs or techniques for replacing seed supplies in form of the active collection as compared to that available in the form of the base collection. Hence replacing the active collet ions being necessary at regular intervals is being necessary in the case of the base collection so puts the genetic association at the risk [15].
Breeders as well as the working collection include materials being used in breeding programs and are used for the short term in nature. Breeders get knowledge from their experience such as superior performance in their local region has resulted in the favorable combinations of different alleles at an almost different genetic locus. Hence attempts for the introduction of alleles from exotic resources into adapted materials are determined to the performance in the short-term way. So, the breeder’s collection includes the advanced cell lines developed in their programs in addition to professional cultivars, advanced breeding lines, and finally genetically enhanced as obtained from a breeding population in the presence of a similar type of ecological variable conditions. It is suggested from breeders that dependence on the already available stock has resulted in slow advancement towards the new technology. But modern breeders turn into exotic materials for utilization of variability in the active collections. But they obtain the variability in exotic alleles or genes from the genetically enhanced population or breeding stocks in both of them the most useful and desirable alleles have been introduced. So breeder’s collection has turned ultimately to increase in proportion for genetically enhanced stock which can possess the useful alleles in the genetic backgrounds too [16].
Gene pool includes almost all the cultivars which can be obsolete or current, or wild species and their relatives which in turn contain genes available for utilization in true-breeding lines. Based on their relationship, the gene pool can be classified into three major classes;
Primary gene pool
Secondary gene pool
Tertiary gene pool
It is abbreviated as GP1 and it is the form of gene pool where the crossing of two species is much easier which ultimately leads to the production of sexually fertile organisms. It includes plants or other species which upon mating produce a very closely related species which is fertile via its reproductive means. In the gene pools, the genes can be exchanged in between the two reproductive lines via arranging simple crosses or hybridization patterns. So, it is also known as Gene pool one and is of prime importance in breeding lines.
This type of genetic material can lead to a partial type of fertility upon crossing with GP1 being referred to as the secondary gene pool. It can ultimately cross with the primary generic pool but the hybrids obtained after the process of hybridization usually produce offspring which are fertile to some extent which means that some of them are fertile while others are sterile. Transferring such genes to the primary form of the gene pool is a much difficult and laborious task and such type of genetic pool is also known as Gene pool two (GP2) [17].
It includes the type of genetic material which produces the ultimate sterile type of hybrids while crossing with the primary types and hence the name tertiary is given to them being abbreviated as GP3. It owns the material that can be easily crossed with the primary type of gene pool but the offspring after hybridization will produce a sterile organism. So transferring such materials to the primary gene pool is only possible in the presence of specific biotechnological techniques.
There are six types of activities being related to gene resource which include;
Collection or exploration of germplasm
Conservation of germplasm
Evaluation
Documentation
Distribution
Utilization of germplasm
Exploration refers to the collection of germplasm or in other words collecting the variable genetic resources from different sources and placing them at one place which is a highly scientific procedure. Collection can be done from five sources i.e., from diversity centers, gene Banks or sanctuaries, companies for seed collection, and finally through fields. Secondly, germplasm collection is done based on endangerment i.e., the species or crops which are more at the extent of extinction are preferred more as compared to others. The method of collection is done in presence of agricultural universities in collaboration with the National Bureau of genetic resources of the plant in New Delhi. For collection at the global level, it is done at the global level by International plant genetic resources being abbreviated as IPGRI with Rome and Italy [18]. The collection is done based on migration to areas of more genetic diversity, by visiting the gene bank by yourself, and finally via the exchange of genetic material. Similarly, there exist two methods for the exchange of germplasm which include random sampling involving the collection of genetic traits for both the biotic or abiotic stresses while abiotic involves collecting the different phenotypically traits. Hence both the random as well as non-random sampling methodologies are employed for collecting germplasm. Sampling size should be such that it can collect about 96% of diversity occurring in genetic traits [19]. Hence it involves the collection of 55% crop plant species of seeds per plant. Also, a wider range of habitats is sampled for obtaining maximum diversity accordingly. But there are certain drawbacks of exploration or collection such as reduction of genetic diversity due to occurrence of genetic erosion, collection from other countries or sites leads to disease condition leading to spread of weeds or pests. Moreover, it is a tedious job that requires drilling, lodging, and transport. Lastly collection from huge resources promotes problems in the collection as well as transportation. While some of the merits include the discovery of new species while exploration and also help in the preservation of certain genotypes that have become either extinct or at the extent of extinction [15].
Conservation involves the protection of the genetic diversity of plant crops from genetic erosion which can be either ex-situ or in situ. In situ refers to conservation under natural habitat requiring establishing resources of biosphere or ecosystem for the preservation of endangered crops or plants for future usage. Following this method both wilds, as well as natural biospheres, are conserved presenting the disadvantage of covering a very small area of genotype in the case of single species, it is a much expensive methodology and also requires a proper management system. An ex-situ conservation germplasm is conserved in form of a gene bank which is a most practical application being employed under laboratory conditions. This methodology enables the preservation of whole genetic diversity in one place. Moreover, the method is in-expensive and easy to operate [20].
Evaluation involves the investigation or examination of genetic resources of plants based on their phenotypically, genetics, economic, biological, and chemical characteristics. It is essential for the identification of resources for the resistance, production, yield, and other quantitative characteristics. It provides all the necessary information regarding the classification of germplasm and their characterization of each of the individual germplasm attributes. It involves the requirement of a team of specialists from physiology, biotechnology, biochemistry, and entomology. For all the characters evolution is done separately and experts from IPGR, Italy. Evolution is either done infield, in the laboratory, or greenhouse. Observation is done on basis of morphological characteristics and is recorded via specific instrumentation. The characters of resistance and biotic or abiotic stresses are screened in the greenhouse. While the evaluation of biochemical characters is done on basis of conditions under laboratory. Both visual as well as instrumentation is done accordingly [21].
Documentation involves storage, analysis, and dimension. In-plant genetic resources includes the collection, evolution, storage, and conservation of information. But now it is termed as an information system. A large collection of information is available for major crops such as maize, sorghum, wheat, and rice, etc. Till now about 7.6 million germplasm are available for the conservation of about 300 or more species. Handling of the huge collection is done via the involvement of electronic computers. For uniformity of characteristics, it involves standard characters and further descriptors for comparison in IPRGI. The information is stored in the memory of a computer and must be available at the time of need when required.
Distributions are the most important activity for genetic resource centers. During this process, specific germplasm is supplied to the users for improvement of genetic traits and is responsible for the maintenance of conserved germplasm and its supply at a time for utilization. Distribution is the responsibility of the gene bank center’s where they are maintained and being stored and to those who are engaged in specific research activities of a particular crop. The amount transferred as a sample is very small and depends upon the type of material available in raw form and also several other factors. A proper recording system is maintained and checked after the report by the user which tells the most important characteristics of association to the distributor. Germplasm is usually distributed after collection for at least two crop seasons because it is helpful in the adoption and purification of plant material [22].
Utilization involves the employment of conserved germplasm in research and improvement programs and can be utilized in various paths mainly in three forms such as;
As a new variety of crop
As a sample in the hybridization of plants
As a genetic variant allele in crop improvement.
Some of the crop varieties are made available instantaneously after their testing because in this case performance of these exotic gene lines are found to be better than that of local varieties so it will be available for usage at the commercial level. In another case, new varieties are developed based on selection done from the already present collection. In either case, some of the germplasm is not usable at all but possesses certain characteristics such as resistance, economic or wider adaptability. Transfer of such germplasm is easy because it can show cross-compatibility. The similarly wild form of germplasm is used for providing resistance to biotic or abiotic stresses and other characteristics such as strength in cotton. But it will present some further problems which include; the inability of the hybrid to survive for a large period. Sometimes the hybrid plant is unable to produce its offspring’s and desirable characters get linked to undesirable ones. Hence the utilization of germplasm is a difficult task and requires special attention [23].
Two of the organizations on both national as well as international level are available having an association with preservation or conservation of germplasm of plants. Thus, providing the facility of their abrupt usage when necessary by them. These include the international plant genetic resources institute located in Rome, Italy operating at the global level. Various types of institutes work and deal with the germplasm of concerned and most important crop plants. However, in India National Buraeu of Plant Genetic Resources abbreviated as NBPGR deals with a huge collection of both horticulture and agriculture crops. In addition to them, Forest research institutes deal with species living in forests and lastly Botanical survey of India located in Kolkata deals with the remaining plant species [24].
IPGRI old IBPGR is an international scientific organization whose work in addition to other institutions is analyzed by CGIAR which is a consultative group on international agricultural research. Its main role is to conduct and organize research and also to promote and ensure collection, documentation, and utilization of these plant germplasm and it will be helpful in the collection and exchange of plant materials. It also possesses an advisory committee which helps in the collection, evaluation, and utilization of germplasm of crop plants. So it promotes global collection and conservation of all the genetic resources of plant species. It was changed from IBPGR to IPGRI in 1993 while its predecessor was established in 1974.
This institute was established by the Indian Council of Agriculture research Centre (ICAR) in New Delhi in 1976. In India, the introduction of the plant was done in 1946 in the Division of Botany and a separate introduction was done by Dr.H.B. Singh who made a well-known achievement in the fields of the introduction of plants in India. He also arranged a large collection of germplasm of various species of plants and systemized the research in this field. In 1976, this decision of introduction of plants was revolutionized to an independent agency named NBPGR. The basic function is that it is helpful in the import and export of genetic resources of plants hence facilitating the exchange of germplasm. Also, it promotes activities of germplasm like collection, conservation, documentation, and utilization. It also organizes short term courses of collection, conservation, evaluation, and utilization of genetic resources of crops. Besides, it also guides the development of storage of plants at cold temperatures and short-term conservation of germplasm. It’s also a decision about the setting of the gene for endangered species of plants [25].
It is also known as genetic depletion in which a limited number of genes of species that are endangered get more reduced where reproductive individuals die before reproduction with others in their low population. In a more detailed way, it is described as a loss of some alleles or genes while referring to further loss of the whole phenotypic trait or genotype. It occurs because each individual has a unique set of genes that get lost when they die before they breed. A low level of genetic diversity leads to further reduction of the genetic pool thus breeds a combination and also weakens the immune system taking the species to the level of eventual extinction. Genetic erosion is greatly observed in endangered species. Most crop species get benefits from most of the human-associated programs to keep the production viable. So in this way avoids extinction for a large time frame [26]. A small collection of populations are more vulnerable to erosion than that of a larger one. The level of erosion gets worse and is being accelerated with time-based on the loss of habitat and fragmentation of habitat which also forms the firm basis of barriers inflow of genes between two or more than two types of populations. A genetic pool is a complete set of all alleles investigated by the genetic material of all members of living species or a set of populations. A large pool indicates a greater level of diversity occurring in genetics that is associated with populations that survive as a result of selection phenomenon similarly low level of diversity leads to a reduced level of fitness and increase in chances of extinction of any species [27].
Bottlenecks of population results in the creation of genetic pools that possess very few mating partners which are fertile too. Reduction in the number of breed Plants by unique genes will be similar to the situation where dealers operate with similar five cards again and again. Hence producing very few numbers of limited hands. As the sample inbreeds, it’s both physical as well as reproductive effects appear to have existence much often. The most common and wide effects are on the Immune system which becomes weaker with time, presenting less resistance to diseases and in turn increases the count of bacteria, virus, parasites resulting in threats of diseases. So even if any endangered species in the genetic pool or bottleneck can bear with human development or growth. So, it faces the threat of epidemic which proves to be dangerous to the whole set of population [28].
Erosion in genes has resulted in the loss of a particular gene or gene which has undergone a recombination process i.e., complex set of genes that are either produced locally by the racers of land for domestic plants and animal species that adapt to natural conditions where these species grow. The major force behind the genetic erosion is the clearing of land, over the employment of species, deforestation, and degradation and finally grazing to a large extent. The major factors are the replacement of local varieties with varieties that are found to be non-locale. When commercial species overcome the traditional species and are introduced into the traditional farm system, it will also result in a reduction of a huge collection of varieties however the major problem is that it results in a reduction in tendency for uniformity in both genetic as well as economic factors in the development of a modern form of agriculture. So, if any endangered species can tolerate the process of human development and are adopted at a place much away from their natural habitat. It will still result in facing the danger of a serious threat to the whole population. With the advancement in science and technology, several techniques have been checked for checking defects of genetic erosion which result in the extinction of species that are at the extent of endangerment. But many techniques are very expensive for using them at a practical level. So, the best way is to preserve them by the protection of their natural habitat and to allow them to live in natural conditions as long as possible [29].
Medicinal plants grow in. A natural environment around us and with the advent of technology, humans have gained the knowledge of how these can be utilized in fighting an illness or for maintenance of human health. The capability to use wild species in the improvement of health is not dependent on humans alone. The ability is affected by various factors such as pests, diseases, climate, environment, and other biotic or abiotic factors. According to society in America in 1999 the capability for maintainability of crop production depends on the compounds or genes being extracted from wild species of medicinal plants as depicted in Table 1. Because of their extensive use in commercial as well as the scientific environment, there has been increased pressure on wild species from which all these medicinal plants have been extracted. Over-harvest action, as well as commercial exploitation, has resulted in the unavailability of traditional medicine where the people utilize them. For all these reasons there is an urgent need to conserve these plant species [31].
Name of crop | Medicinal usage | Origin |
---|---|---|
For curing burns and wounds | South Africa | |
Aspirin | Pain killer, health rate normalization, and blood thinning | Europe |
Bloodroot | Treatment of skin cancer | US |
Camphor | As a pain-relieving agent | Asia |
Digitalis | For the treatment of heart failure | Europe |
Quinine | Malaria | South America. |
Some medicinal plants which are at extent of endangerment [30].
Some of the examples of species include slippery elm which involves the use of gummy lining for used in North America as a therapeutic agent for cough and cold, gastrointestinal diseases, and allergy to skin epidermis. But this medicine being used by local people is demanded by Millions of people now. They are not used commercially so the trees are separated from bark and are left to die. So, for about 50 pounds, 15 trees are sacrificed every year and now the species is identified as at risk by the US.
Another example is yew belonging to Texas specie that is used for the production of cancer drugs such as taxol. It is also identified as endangered based on its over-harvesting. Similarly, black cohosh is used for the cure of a large number of ailments such as colds, pains, and largely menopause and also found to be a list of endangerment due to degradation of habitat as well as over-harvesting. Moreover, goldenseal has numerous uses being used as a toner treatment of diseases such as hemorrhoids. It is already threatened, endangered, and vanished in many states.
There are various methods for the preservation of genetic resources or traits for crop plants. The easiest and most economical method is the storage of seeds of crop species. But not all the plant species can be stored easily in this condition because some seeds have a shorter span of viability and several species do not produce seed vegetative. Still there exist many methods that depend on storage conditions, storage vassals, the extent of conservation, and finally on the facilities available for proper storage of plants [32]. The most efficient way is to store biological crops in the environment where they were produced or developed earlier i.e., in situ farmlands as shown in Figure 1. This type of method can be employed when the natural environment is balanced and there are no chances of off balance. The most important point which must be considered is that genes should be conserved instead of the genotype of plant species [33].
This method employs the conservation of resources totally in a natural habitat. It involves the maintenance of plant species in which it grows and also in the habitat to which it is adopted for a long time in the past. The objective behind this methodology of preservation is to maintain the self-sustaining species in a natural ecosystem [34]. A huge collection of plant and animal species can be conserved by this mechanism. But along with it, there exists a limitation that it is impossible to sustain and preserve the genes of crops without conservation of the ecosystem of which it is adopted by nature [35]. It allows the conservancy of naturally occurring beneficial species in a condition where it continues to undergo evolution with time. Moreover, it also allows the conservation of both wild and cultivated genotypes without having much expenditure on the area. The major benefit of this process is that species selected by nature continue to evolve timely which results in the production of new recombinant forms of a living being. In the case of reluctant seeds that grow either in tropical or perennial regions, it serves as the best phenomenon of conservation within the in vitro environment [36]. Although in situ conservation is the best method but, its operation in any country or ecosystem is possible only when it is ensured by people who are in continual conflict with national plans and when its continuity is also confirmed in any environment. Usually, if continuous and control monitoring does not operate, its survival rates get much lower. This results in loss of naturally occurring habitat and also replacement of old generation of crops with new varities which occur as a normal part of the crop growing system [37].
In situ conservation is, therefore, can be achieved by the protection of naturally occurring wild species in their natural or adopted habitat via cultivation in fields. Such areas or regions are being discovered in natural parks and recreational areas under government territory. Practices such as horticulture and floriculture present an efficient way of conservation in the naturally existing ecosystem [38]. Horticulture is a phenomenon in agriculture whereby plants are preserved for the purpose of feed but mainly for comfort and decoration purposes. It employed the use of knowledge and skills to grow plants for use in both food and non-food areas and also for social requirements. It includes both tropical and perennial species, vegetable varieties, tasty fruits in addition to decorative indoors, and other Landscape plant varieties [39]. Floriculture is also a subtype of horticulture which is mainly concerned with cultivating flower varieties of ornamental plants for use in the floral industry, gardens, and orchids. Development and growth of varieties via breeding techniques to a novel variety of species is a major point of focus in floriculture which allows the transfer of desirable characteristics to next-generation resulting in maintenance of specific genetic traits [40]. This methodology of preservation has some advantages which include;
Each preserved area will contain a small portion of whole diversity i.e., Small portion of total diversity. So, it requires the preservation of a large number of areas for the conservation of the whole genetic pool.
The maintenance and management of all these areas also require labor and present problems.
This is the most expensive method for the conservation of germplasm.
Elaboration of integrated plant conservation involving both in-situ as well as ex-situ methodology. In-situ conservation allows the conservation of germplasm of and living parts of endangered plant species while ex-situ conservation involves the plant material available for research purpose, horticulture and reintroduction of materials preventing materials from getting extinct.
Another methodology involving the collection of plant gardens and banks of seeds where the plants are grown under natural conditions [41]. Seed banks are maintained and produced by research institutions and universities produced via the technique of tissue culture and utilization of much lower temperature in the environment for its operation [42]. It also ensures that the plant materials are easily available, characterization is done efficiently and well documented and its exposure to the outer environment is safe i.e., it should not possess any threat to the natural ecosystem of humans as well as animals. However, it provides the best alternative to naturally existing methods which in addition to providing an opportunity to wild species having desirable traits to continue undergoing the evolutionary process in a naturally existing environment. This method has the advantage of safeguarding the germplasm while it is in its natural environment resulting in the genetic variation in naturally occurring verities and is readily available for use. Examples of plant undergoing this subtype of preservation under biotechnological area are sugarcane, cocoa, and maize, etc. [43].
This is also referred to as offsite conservation which employs the conservation of species outside their natural habitat or system. In this method, the genetic information of the plant is preserved in form of banks which may be either seed or gene bank or in the form of cultures to increase their half-life so that they can be used for a long period inefficiently [44]. The class of preservation technique results in the formation of collection or bank of genes, DNA, seeds, and germplasm forming a genetic library in the form of gardens. This will lead to the creation of a good option for the conservation of species that are thought to be endangered or near the extent of it, which are primitive and in turn, are much valuable for use in industry for commercial purposes. It includes certain techniques such as cryopreservation and other genetic transfer approaches for the eradication of diseases, pest and stress control, and lastly conservation of endangered species in the long run [45]. It is almost similar to that of in-vitro methodological practice. Other disadvantages include loss of viability of seed structure, destruction of the crop by pest or insect, poor germination of a seed plant, and lastly, it is a much expensive procedure [46]. On the other hand, major advantages can be summarized as,
Small areas can store a large collection of materials
It protects all other environmental-based methods [47].
It is the cheapest method and preservation of germplasm is much easier.
It is possible to store the whole genetic material in a single place.
The most advanced form of preservation of genetic resources is to maintain them in laboratory conditions. This is the conservation technique which employs the use of test tubes or laboratory apparatus which is sealed in one or other way for maintenance of resources [48]. The genetic resources such as tissue cells or callus are placed in the sealed tubes which operate on the fact that plant parts can be kept alive under controlled laboratory conditions which proves the fact that plants are totipotent. This means that every part of a plant can develops into a whole organism. This phenomenon has made this fact clear that disease-free plants and species can be transferred to the next generation within the laboratory controlled conditions [49]. Or in other words, engineered species provide a viable means for the transfer of pest and insect-free species from one generation to another. The source of such genotypes is from the culture of laboratories or having origins from international seed banks [50].
In vitro conservation of plants was first done in the mid-1970s. Although whole ‘is not can be regenerated from any part of the plant because of its totipotency but due to the involvement of unorganized culture there exist some risks of a generation of somatic mutation and mutants. In comparison to it, the cultures containing somatic meristem culture are much more stable in their transformation mode but also it can propagate more frequently as these areas do not have to recover after differentiation [49]. Most efficient storing systems are usually not much expensive, are easy to maintain, and reduce the work labor and load in germplasm working bank. Scheduled monitoring of the cells along with viability and contamination assessment is not that necessary. The exploitation of in Vito technique of genetic conservation is hindered if any species is unable to prorogate to the next generation from tissue or cell culture [51]. For example, a proper technique for the prorogation of coconut does not exist yet unlike other crops of this class which can be propagated inefficient way via callus differentiation. But in this case, the leaves or plantlets can only be produced from a zygote or embryo. Each embryo in this case will produce a new plant which represents no further division of genetic material. In the same manner, the effect of in-vitro culturing is much less for woody plants as compared to other species as it can result in difficulty in culturing and regeneration of new species [52]. In these cases, less research has been done for the development of an appropriate cultural technique in vitro. But a thorough examination of the problem occurring in the handicap pathway of procedure for wood culture can solve this problem, presenting a suitable solution to the development of plant and conservation of their genetic resources efficiently [53].
The most important drawback of this phenomenon is that it requires the utilization of modern technology and labor force under the controlled conditions of an aseptic environment. Also, it requires proper laboratory skills with excessive usage of electricity which makes this procedure much labor-intensive and expensive [54]. This process is helpful in the production of disease-free varities of plants that are also pest-free and these species include sugarcane etc. The produced genetic resources are used in several ways such as genetic improvement, maintenance of biodiversity, mechanism-based research of ecosystems, classification according to taxonomy, monitoring of environmental characteristics, epidemiological, and forensic based studies. One of the main strategic reasons behind germplasm conservation is that it maintains biological diversity and provides germplasm which is validated in both genotypic and phenotypic aspects [55]. Germplasm is either conserved in the form of seed or meristem form.
Gene banks are the type of repository in biology for the preservation of genetic resources. In the case of plants, it is done by storing in laboratory conditions, freezing cuts from the plant materials, or maintaining stocks of seed. Accession is the term provided to each sample in a gene bank like the species or variety. In plants, it is easy to unfreeze the materials for their propagation and usage.
Gene banks are also classified as both in vivo that is within the body and in-vitro which involve sustaining of characters in proper laboratory conditions. The type of gene bank where traits or alleles are stored by employing conventional methodologies are termed in-vivo. For example in the form of seeds and vegetative collections [56]. While the subtypes where the characteristic resources are stored in form of non-conventional methods in form of cellular structure and tissues are referred to as in vitro. Both techniques are of prime importance in the development of valuable trait crops for breeders to develop both new and improved varieties [57]. This involves using DNA as a source of DNA in terms of germplasm being employed in breeding technologies. When these are properly identified and after that efficiently characterized, it will result in the production of the transgenic organism which can express these genes. Genetic disruption can be avoided by the phenomenon of transformation which also involves sexual hybridization. It is not limited by compatibility from the sexual life cycle and can be evolved from other forms of life in the short run. The transgenic genes are helpful in the production of plants which in addition to herbicide-resistant are also pest resistant and are conveniently preserved as a transgenic or cloned form of genetic material. The process is limited by the identification of potable genes which will result in the production of higher yield along with greater stability of Transformants in host genera. Such genes have been produced successfully for conservation as well as patent purposes so that they can be employed at a commercial level. Economically or technically, is not worthy in the future that this synthesis of the gene will store these genetic traits in the form of physical germplasm i.e., in form of seeds, tissue, or the whole plant, etc. Conservation of DNA molecules and similarly the assembly of these molecules in the form of DNA data sequence is not the best alternative to conventional methods for germplasm because genes are not coordinated in them in a small similar fashion.
Recently with the discovery of artificial chromosomes in yeast has raised the fact that coordinated assemblies of genes can be made and therefore can be conserved which will allow further morphological or phenotypical changes to be engineered in the laboratory efficiently. To use them practically, it is important to conserve the host organism but the genetic information in them is not yet fully discovered. But gene liberates, sequence data, and gene banks cannot be employed to reproduce a whole organism but have a significant role in preserving genetic resources of crop plants which are either on the extent of danger or found to be endangered. The conservation of plant or genetic diversity involves the collection of small parts of plants such as tissues, cells, shoots, etc. A tissue sample from all the plants and species will be collected in liquid nitrogen as described in cryopreservation at a much lower temperature of freezing point. In theory, these samples are not indefinite and DNA extraction is not performed until recommended. So, at that moment, DNA can be identified, immobilized in a membrane to act as a source of a specific gene or sequence of DNA molecules. The technique is helpful in the conservation of both undefined and undescribed species of plants whose seeds cannot be stored directly and is used for diverting those whose seed values have been found earlier and observed in germplasm banks already. DNA sequencing is carried out in almost all laboratories throughout the world because they can be compared to novel sequences with those which are properly and characterized considerably. Comparisons also highlight the unrevealed homologies and suspected functional properties between the organisms which are unrelated. Most organizations support coordinated DNA sequencing and storage. The most famous banks are the European molecular biology laboratory located in the US, GenBank operated by the United States laboratory. The rapidly increasing data of sequence raises voice on important problems of storing and facilitating rapid comparison regarding new information on data sequence of the gene. Gene banks are of three types which include;
It stores the seed at very low temperatures after they have been dried efficiently. Spores, as well as meristems, are stored by this method in seed banks but the vegetative plants which do not possess seed are not concerned by this technique. The largest bank for storing seeds is Millenium seed bank which is located at WTMB near London.
By this technique buds, roots and meristem are stored in this way by utilizing light, the temperature in presence of aseptic conditions, and nutrient media containing all the essentials such as carbon, nitrogen, etc. Hence the technique is based on the preservation of seedless plants and which reproduce by sexual reproduction.
By this technique, a seed or embryo cell is stored at a much lower temperature or temperature much lower than freezing temperature in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of about −196 °C. So, it is helpful for the conservation of species that are at the extent of extinction or have become endangered. But mostly it is used for the cryopreservation of genetic resources of animals. But in the case of plants, conservation of pollen grains is done by storing at a much lower temperature of −196 °C. Hence this methodology is used for cross breeding and also in the production of plants having a set of chromosomes.
The method is used for the conservation of genes of planting plants where the ecosystem is created artificially. By this method, the different plant species can be compared so that they can be studied in detail. It needs more artificial requirements such as soil, water, and weather, etc. The germplasm of most crop plants is conserved by this process. For example, 43000 rice varieties are conserved in Orissa at a central research institute.
The word is derived from two Greek words. i.e., Kryos means frosting while preservation means storage for a long time or increasing half-life in one way or another. Following these techniques cells and tissues are stored at a much lower or frozen temperature either using carbon dioxide at −79 °C or nitrogen gas at −160 °C in the form of vapors in deep freezers. In the c as e of liquid nitrogen, the limit of temperature would be from 170 °C to 197 °C. The technique involves four stages involving freezing, thawing, and re-culturing, etc. [58]. Thus, freezing temperature inactivates the cells and tissues so that it can be preserved for a longer period. Any of the tissues of the plant can be preserved under proper conditions for example meristem, stem, ovules, anther, embryos, endosperm, cells, and leaves, etc. [59]. The process of cryopreservation being followed by regeneration of the whole plant invoke the following steps Figure 2;
Isolation and development of sterile tissue culture
Addition of cryoprotectants
Pretreatment
Freezing of plant material
Storing of plants parts
Thawing followed by culturing
Assessment of viability of cells based on their rate of survival
Regeneration of plants
Schematic flow sheet representation of steps involved in cryopreservation of plant materials in biotechnology for genetic resource(germplasm) conservation of endangered plant species such as golden paintbrush from natural environment to cryobank in form of seeds, tissues, roots, meristem and shoots etc.
Physiological and structural conditions of plant effects ultimately the survival of the plant during cryopreservation. Tissues to be used in preservation must be healthy, small, young, having rich cytoplasm, and highly vacuolated. In either case, callus acts as the best source of tissues as it is more resistant to damage caused by freezing [60]. So, a callus after 1 to 2 weeks of subculturing is selected for the cryopreservation process. But old and black areas should be avoided and organized structures are preferred more.
To prevent the damage resulting from abrupt freezing or thawing, the chemicals such as glycerol, alcohol, dimethyl sulfate, glycerol, praline, etc. are being added for the purpose of conservation. This protectant referred to as cryoprotectants are added to protect freeze cells or low freezing temperatures etc. But the limitation of the procedure is that only a few biological materials can be frozen below the minus temperature in presence of gas without affecting the viability of cell structures. Liquid nitrogen is used because of the following reasons;
It is inert in chemical form.
It is a less expensive process posing less burden on the economy.
It is non-toxic posing no side effects on the environment.
It is a non-flammable and most readily available method so far.
However, two more practical approaches in biotechnology may lead to widespread applications of conservation of germplasm of plants to reduce damage from abrupt cooling. This includes vitrification by using cryoprotectants mixture and another is an encapsulation of a sample with gel which is dehydrated later on as described above. For the process of vitrification, the sample is submerged in a cryoprotectants mixture which results in the promotion of conservation of cellular water into non-crystal-like solids which later cool rapidly. In the case of encapsulation, the sample material such as root or shoot tip is dipped in a gel to form an artificial seed-like structure which is then dehydrated before cooling. The gel performs the function of protection against physical damage and is more robust than shoot tip or embryo culture. Despite the presence of optimistic methodologies using plant tissues, further research is required to find the development of preservation to that available for animal and human embryos. But there exist many barriers that prevent the utilization of technology in one or other way.
The process involves regrowth which involves the application of additives to enhance growth e.g. abscisic acid etc. [61]. On the other hand, cryoprotectants act as an anti-freeze, increases viscosity, and prevents damage which resulted wither due to the formation of ice crystals during cryopreservation or due to an increase in intracellular concentration of solutes before or during the process of freezing as a result of dehydration.
Vitrification is a process of conversion of liquid into solid in the absence of crystallization. When the cells have properly undergone the process of slow freezing, it will result in vitrification where ice formation does not take place because here the aqueous solution is much concentrated which results in permitting the formation of ice cubes. Instead, the water gets solidified into a glassy clear state. Dehydration during this process is achieved by the high concentration of osmotically active compounds like sugars, polyols performed in the sterile cabinet over silica gel [62]. In the process of dehydration, a reduction in the amount of water followed by the formation of ice and an increase in osmotic pressure occurs which ultimately depress the freezing point [63].
Then plant material is placed in liquid nitrogen at a much lower temperature ranging from −300 to −1000 °C. Dry ice can also be similarly used in the process. The more quickly freezing is done the less will be the intracellular state of crystal formation. The methodology is simpler and easy to handle and can also be used for tips of potatoes and strawberry species. Dry ice can also be utilized for this purpose.
In this method, the temperature is lowered to about −30 °C for at least a period of 30 minutes and then abrupt cooling is done via using liquid nitrogen at the much lower temperature of −196 °C. Slow freezing increases dehydration while abrupt freezing promotes crystal formation. It gives excellent results in the preservation of strawberries in the suspension culture.
Storing at the correct temperature is as important as that of freezing. For storage, the temperature is left to almost −70 °C to 197 °C because this temperature is sufficiently low for the preservation of cells without metabolic damage to them. Long term storage is mostly done at about −197 °C.
It involves the rapid thawing of the ampule containing the sample in a water bath at about 40 °C. They are plunged into warm water with swirling for rapid mixing just to the point where ice gets disappears and is important for the survival of tissues that the sample must be removed from the water bath after melting of ice. Tissues being thawed at a much lower temperature are then abruptly thawed following this step.
Regrowth of stored tissue is the best indication of the survival of plant tissues. For this purpose, many viability tests are used which involve fluorescein diacetate staining, measurement of growth by cell number, and finally by calculating the dry and fresh weight. The two most popular methods are m
Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride
Evans blue staining
It provides the best opportunity for the conservation of endangered species being used for medicinal purposes. It also provides an ideal approach for the suppression of cell division to avoid further need for sub culturing. Pathogen free cultures and subcultures can be frozen and stirred when required and also provide a much suitable material for the selection of cold-resistant strains of mutant cell lines which later get differentiated into frost resistant cells or plants. The seeds may be stored for food crops or to protect biodiversity or reason for storage also varied which involve first drying of moisture to less than 5% and then stored at the much lower temperature of −18 °C or below it [64].
For the last 20 years, advancement in tissue culture technologies has led to the development of the micro propagation method which is a novel technology, providing young and fresh plants for horticulture, agricultural, and agriculture purposes. One of the main consequences is the rapid growth of in-Vito exchange as a viable means for the transfer of germplasm between different laboratories [65]. The International Board for genetic research has elucidated that more than 140 plant germplasm has been exchanged from 1980 to 1986s. Out of all attempts, about 97% were found to be successful. Now almost every agriculture research center is attributed to the exchange of germplasm in-vitro. For example, the exchange of germplasm of potato culture is now a routine procedure. Shoot cultures are incubated for about 3 weeks after inoculation to induce roots and any contamination resulting from the microbial mass [66]. Transferring them to a fresh medium compensates this problem and increases rates of survival. Now the new era has replaced the cultures with small test tubes produced under in-vitro conditions [67]. These are more robust and rapid methods, and the produced plants or germplasm can be stored for months or even years. The recipient can place them in nursery beds without the involvement of further culture step. In the modern process of potato breeding, the in-vitro cultures provide another species that is disease free followed during the process of field testing required to select the most desirable form of clone as in Table 2 [69].
Species/crops | Applications |
---|---|
Rice | Food, fodder, and beverage |
Sorghum | fodder |
Cowpea | Food, fodder |
Maize | Food, industry, fodder |
Soya bean | Industry, food, fodder |
Sesame | fodder |
Cassava | fodder |
Millet | Medicinal, fodder, industry |
Hungry rice | Food, industrial, fodder |
Yarn | Food |
Sugarcane | Food, beverage, industry |
Groundnut | food |
Utilization of plant species/crops in various aspects after their conservation in the form of germplasm which are thought to be endangered in future [68].
The successful application and conservation of genetic resources in every country for the purpose of food and agriculture depend upon the collaboration of the government. Policymakers, germplasm scientists, rural populations, and breeders or farmers. Usually plant genetic resources are conserved because they are ultimately used in food and agriculture and sustainable agriculture depends upon their usage. Farmers in modern agriculture use their plants or crops for purpose of not only food but for medicine and fodder also as shown in Table 3. Deployment of genetic resources in a better idea paves the way for the reduction of vulnerability of crops or plants to that of insects, pests, and other fertilizers making them herbicide, pesticide, and insecticide resistant. In national research institutes of every country about 13% rice, 7% soybean, and 8% of sugarcane species are conserved in various breeding technologies as illustrated in Table 1. With the abrupt increase in population and reduction in land available for agricultural purposes, an increment in the production of food, as well as its distribution across the globe, is much necessary. There is an utmost need in every country to use their genetic resources for better purposes utilizing the breeding techniques effectively. The involvement of genetic resources in the techniques has resulted in almost the compensation of food required by the increasing population of the world. So the stress of poverty alleviation in developing countries has been reduced effectively and is also involved in food security depending on the availability and utilization of species that produce a higher amount of crops or plants with desirable characters especially in rural areas where most families rely on farming for their survival. So utilizing a small collection of gene bank resources can lead to greater benefits as elaborated in breeding programs. However, less usage of them can lead to fewer benefits in both the social and economic sectors. The constraints involved in the low level of germplasm conservation include lack of ability to characterize and evaluate gene data banks, insufficient knowledge, inappropriate documentation and poor relationship between users of gene banks and germplasm. Currently, in sugarcane industry much data is available on characterization and evaluation of data on sugarcanes for utilization by stakeholders.
Name of crop | Type of conservation | Improvements resulted |
---|---|---|
Soybeans | Gene banks, bottles, and tissue culturing | Reducing days required for maturation. Transferring smut resistance from wild to cultivated type. |
Sugarcane | Gene banks | Transfer of smut resistance from wild to cultivated type. Introduction of sucrose and improved protein content. |
Rice | Storing bottles and tissue culturing | Hybridization of both wild and cultivated species. Development of short duration techniques Development of iron resistant specie. |
Sorghum | Field gene banks, tissue culture | Production of short duration variety. Mildew resistant varieties. |
Maize | Storing bottles and tissue culturing | Production of varieties which are high in lysine content |
Cowpea | Storing bottles and tissue culturing | High yield of product. High protein species. |
Sesame | Storing bottles and tissue culturing | Early maturing species. Development of verities that are resistant to black specks. High oil containing verities. |
Improvement in crops by germplasm conservation of plants (conservation type) being used in everyday life which are thought to get endangered in future [70].
The development of various successful methodologies for preservation of genetic resources enables the establishment of basal collections of endangered species with the representative diversity. The collections include many of species which have been threatened for loss of habitat. Collections related to critically endangered species are maintained in simple media. These threatened species could also be maintained at lower temperature after acquiring specific laboratory conditions. From the whole discussion, the fact has become clear that there is a need to conserve germplasm in a variety of ways. It is also elucidated that the effectiveness of conservation technology depends upon the maintainability of the collection of genetic resources in a much cost-effective manner. So, there is an abrupt need to emphasize evaluation of the efficiency of conservation procedure by realizing efforts in an in-expensive way. Because the future will depend upon the presence and utilization of conserved germplasm. Thus, there is an urgent need to conserve the most important crops such as maize, rice, sorghum, wheat, etc. The variation in them is leading to genetic erosion which will ultimately degrade them and their availability in the future will be affected. So on the whole, involvement of germplasm in its preserved form and plant breeders in growth and development of these crops for improved and better varieties. Moreover there is a large collection of endangered species in under developing countries and creation of botanical gardens for in vitro and in vivo conservation allows establishment of culture facilities which in turn results in rescue as well as regrowth of endangered species. Additionally networking in exchange of information or materials and dissemination of useful protocols are important steps in continuous development and exchange of mechanisms for germplasm conservation. So at this point scientists and conservationists need to work together in order to develop better programs for germplasm conservation of plant species which are at risk of extinction.
Tabu search is a meta heuristic problem solving approach used to solve combinatorial optimization problems. It was first proposed by Glover [1] and further developed by Hansen [2]. TS has now become an established search procedure and has been successfully applied to solve a wide spectrum of optimization problems [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9].
TS uses a memory which allows it to remember the current best solution and also enables it to explore the previous solutions and to direct the search moves. The features of memory adaptation and exploration facilitate TS to find better solutions and discover new potential regions in the search space. The memory adaptation feature helps to realize its course of action to exploit the search space efficiently. The ability of TS to explore good solutions enables it to assimilate the intelligent search mechanisms to search for good solutions and to discover new potential regions. The use of adaptive memory helps TS to learn and creates a more flexible and effective search strategy compared with memory less methods, such as simulated annealing (SA) and genetic algorithms (GA).
The components of TS are explained as follows.
To optimize the function
The tabu list in TS maintains the data of the previously visited solutions. The list is included with the latest moves and it is altered dynamically as the search proceeds. The data in the tabu list helps to direct the move from the present solution to the next solution. At each iteration, the search process is maintained by updating the tabu list. The tabu list also avoids re-visiting of recent neighbors recorded in the list and thus save computational time.
The information is stored in tabu list as recency-based short-term memory (RSM) and a frequency-based long-term memory (FRM). When the search proceeds, the nearly better solution to the present solution is sorted as tabu, and added to the recency-based tabu list. As fresh solutions enter the list, older solutions are removed from the bottom. Long-term memory relies on the frequency of a solution that is visited. When the tabu list is filled with the highest number of elements in the frequency based tabu list, the solution with the smallest frequency index will be replaced.
These strategies are used to create neighbors that have higher likelihood of finding optimal solutions based on the data in the tabu list. Intensification strategies are used to search potential areas in detail around the areas that are found good in the past. Intensification strategies are generally employed based on long term memory whose components are used to create neighbors for search intensification [4, 6, 10]. Diversification strategies are used to search the complete viable region, thus restricting the search getting trapped in local optima. These strategies promote probing unvisited regions by creating solutions radically different from those searched earlier [4]. A frequency-based tabu list is used to keep track of the search area.
During the generation of neighbor solutions, the difference between the present and fresh neighbor solution is managed by using a coefficient,
Here
The TS conditions at times prevent moves leading to unvisited solutions. Aspiration criterion is a condition that can override the tabu status of a certain move. To avoid certain missing solutions during the search, the aspiration criterion in certain cases may invalidate the tabu property and maintains an appropriate balance between diversification and intensification [4, 10, 11].
An aspiration criterion that is designed based on a sigmoid function as given by
where
A stopping criterion is needed to terminate the search when the optimum is reached. The stopping criterion can be in the form of fixing the number of iterations or specifying a threshold for convergence of solution. The criteria like the maximum time termination [6] and termination-on convergence criteria [10] are also used as stopping criteria for the search process. The termination-on-convergence criteria is expressed by Lin and Miller [10] as.
where
The flow chart of TS algorithm is shown in Figure 1. Tabu Search begins with an initial solution
Flow chart of the TS algorithm.
TS is implemented using the following steps.
Starts with an initial solution xo
Find the best solution, x* and define tabu list
Neighbor’s generations and neighborhood search
Define a neighborhood structure with respect to the solution space
Change the present solution to form a neighborhood of possible solutions
TS explore neighbor solution at each iteration
Searches entire neighborhood and select enhanced solution
Tabu list
Majority of the recent solutions are in tabu list
Older solutions are discarded
Short-term memory and long-term memory
Recency-based short-term memory (RSM)
Frequency-based long-term memory (FRM)
Intensification and Diversification
To search potential areas
To search whole feasible region
Aspiration criterion
To explore unvisited solutions
To evade feasible missing solutions
Stopping criteria
According iterations
Stopping on convergence
The determination of open-loop time varying control policies that maximize or minimize a given performance index is referred as optimal control. The optimal control policies that guarantee the product property requirements and the operational constraints can be computed off-line, and are executed on-line in such a way that the process is operated in accordance with these control policies. Achievement of product quality is a major issue in polymerization processes since the molecular or morphological properties of a polymer product majorly influences its physical, chemical, thermal, rheological and mechanical properties as well as polymer applications. In a free radical copolymerization, composition drifts caused by variations in reactivities of comonomers can be mitigated by continuous addition of more reactive monomer while maintaining a constant mole ratio. The end use properties of the polymer product such as flexibility, strength and glass transition temperature are affected by the copolymer composition. Further, the molecular weight (
In the past, various methods have been reported for optimal control of polymerization reactors [12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Most of the studies are based on classical methods of optimization such as Pontryagin’s maximum principle [17], which has been applied to solve the optimal control problems of different polymerization reactors [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. However, the classical methods have certain limitations for optimal control of polymerization reactors and these drawbacks have been discussed in literature [24]. The stochastic and evolutionary optimization methods are found beneficial over the conventional gradient-based search techniques because of their ability in locating the global optimum of multi-modal functions and searching design spaces with disjoint feasible regions.
The general open-loop optimal control problem of a lumped parameter batch/semi-batch process with fixed terminal time can be stated as follows. Find a control vector
Subject to
In the above,
A multistage optimization results due to the natural extension of a single stage optimization. In a system involving multiple stages, the output from one stage becomes the input to the subsequent stage. The multistage dynamic optimization procedure can be referred elsewhere [24]. This type of optimization needs special techniques to split the problem into computationally manageable units. In multistage dynamic optimization, the optimal control problem of the entire batch duration is divided into finite number of time instants referred to as discrete stages. The control variables and the corresponding state variables that satisfy the objective function are evaluated in stage wise manner.
In this work, a multistage dynamic optimization strategy with sequential implementation procedure is presented for optimal control of polymerization reactors. The procedure for solving the optimal control problem is similar to that of the dynamic programming based on the principle of optimality [25]. The meta heuristic features of tabu search (TS) are exploited by implementing this strategy on a semi-batch styrene–acrylonitrile (SAN) copolymerization reactor. The procedure involves in discretizing the process into
1. The optimum value of the objective function,
2. The value of the objective function,
3. Recursive generalization of the above procedure for the
In this procedure,
The solution copolymerization of styrene and acrylonitrile taking place in a semi-batch reactor is considered as a test bed for sequential implementation of the dynamic optimization strategy. The xylene is the solvent and AIBN is the initiator for the reaction. The feed which is a mixture of monomers, solvent, and initiator enters the reactor in semi-batch mode. The reactor initial volume is 1.01 L. The initially set design parameters are the solvent mole fraction
Initiation:
Propagation:
Combination termination:
Disproportionation termination:
Chain Transfer:
where
The molecular weight (
where
More details on modeling equations, reaction kinetics and numerical data pertaining to this system can be referred elsewhere [24].
The polymerization process model [24] is in the form of the general expression in Eq. (5). The set of state variables,
and
In the above,
The desired values of copolymer composition (
Here
These constraints on operating variables are selected by taking into consideration of reaction rate, heat transfer limitation and reactor safety. Determination of temperature policy,
The design and implementation of tabu search for optimal control of copolymerization reactor is explained as follows. The total span of reaction time in SAN copolymerization reactor is split into finite number of time instants referred to discrete stages. The total time of reaction is fixed at 300 min. The duration of reaction time is divided into 19 stages with 20 time points, each stage having a duration of 15 min. Thus the discrete control sequences of feed flow rate,
The control sequences are located at equal distances. Initially, the control vector is specified as constant value at each of the discrete stages. The control input at the beginning of the first stage is chosen as the lower bound of the input space. The elements of tabu search for computing the optimal control policies are specified as follows. The sizes of both recency and frequency based tabu lists are set as 50. The sizes of these lists are chosen such that they prohibit revisiting of un-prosperous solutions in the search process. An intensification procedure in the form of a sine function is used. The oscillation period
Multistage dynamic optimization of copolymerization reactor using tabu search.
Tabu search (TS) is designed and applied to compute the optimal control policies that meet the single and multiple objectives of SAN copolymerization reactor. The dual control policies of
Dual control policies and objectives: (a) Temperature policy, (b) Feed rate policy, (c) Molecular weight as an objective, and (d) Copolymer composition as an objective.
Strategy | Control Policy | Computational efficiency | Normalized absolute error | Memory storage, k | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Convergence time (sec) | Implementation time (sec) | ||||
TS | T | 1.89 | 16.83 | 0.000566 | 2224 |
U | 2.19 | 13.81 | 0.01379 | 2076 | |
T & u | 4.25 | 19.21 | 0.007535 | 3084 |
Computational efficiencies of TS strategy.
Tabu search is applied to determine the parameters of kinetic and film thickness models through the validation of the mathematical models of the process with the help of measured data acquired from an experimental fixed bed anaerobic biofilm reactor used in the treatment of pharmaceutical industry wastewater.
The schematic of a laboratory scale fixed bed biofilm reactor setup used for industry waste water treatment is shown in Figure 4. The description of the experimental unit, its auxiliary items and the packing specifications are given as follows.
Experimental biofilm reactor setup.
The reactor consists of a QVF glass column of 1 m height and 0.1016 m internal diameter. A Teflon perforated plate of thickness 3 mm is provided at the base of the column to support the packing material. Two openings fitted with valves made of Teflon are provided at the bottom of the reactor so that one valve is used to control the flow rate of influent pumped into the reactor and the other valve is used to discharge the excess sludge accumulated. The top of the column has a provision to place a thermometer to measure the temperature. Three sampling ports are placed at equal distances along the side of the column to withdraw samples. The temperature of the column is maintained by varying the voltage through the 0.2 kW heating tape connected to a dimmer-stat. The column is insulated with 1.0 in. asbestos rope. The entire setup is supported by a 1.0 in. M.S. pipeline structure. The column and the packing specifications are given elsewhere [27].
The experimental setup shown in Figure 4 is used to conduct experiments for anaerobic treatment of pharmaceutical industry wastewater involving different packing materials with varying organic loading rates and feed rates, and different hydraulic retention times. The influent kept in a 2
The wastewater procured from a typical pharmaceutical industry is a complex medium and its composition is reported elsewhere [28]. Substrates of varying COD concentrations are prepared using the wastewater in order to use them as feed solutions for biofilm reactor experiments. Once the biological activity of the bed is detected, the diluted industry wastewater solution equivalent to three bed volumes is sent to the reactor by an electronic dosing pump. NaHCO3 is added to maintain the pH of the feeding solution at 7.2. Different experiments are conducted for treating the pharmaceutical industry wastewater using the feed solutions having the COD concentrations of 4,980 mg/l, 11,860 mg/l, 23,460 mg/l and 40,720 mg/l. The hydraulic retention time (HRT) of each experiment is varied from 2 to 12 days based on the substrate concentration of the feed solution. Each experimental run subsequent to attainment of its HRT is allowed to continue for 13 days so as the operation reaches stable state condition by that time.
Thirteen experiments are conducted using the different feed solutions prepared from the pharmaceutical industry wastewater. The reactor is provided with the sampling ports to withdraw samples at bed heights of 0.25 m, 0.5 m and 0.75 m from the bottom. Samples collected from the three sampling ports of the column as well as from the effluent water are analyzed for COD, BOD, TVA, TA, pH etc. The stable state condition of each experiment is observed with respect to the minimal variation in reactor effluent pH, alkalinity and COD concentrations. Thus 13 experiments are conducted under different feed stream conditions. The data corresponding to the influent and effluent COD concentrations, HRT and OLR of all experiments are given elsewhere [28].
The application of mathematical models to biofilm reactors suffers due to lack of availability accurate kinetic models and uncertainty in model parameters. Therefore, appropriate selection of kinetic model and accurate determination of its parameters is required for successful modeling of biofilm reactors. The biological reaction rates are generally represented by Monod kinetics and also occasionally by Contois and Haldane models. In the past, efforts have been made to determine the parameters of kinetic models of biofilm reactors, mostly experimentally [29, 30, 31]. Various researchers [32, 33, 34, 35] have reported that numerical evaluation of kinetic parameters is an attractive alternative to the experimental methods for biofilm processes. By numerical approach, the parameters of the kinetic models of biofilm processes are determined as a consequence of the validation of their mathematical models with the aid of measured data. The approach of determining the model parameters such that the behavior of the process model approximates the observed process behavior is known as inverse modeling.
Mathematical models of varying complexities involving different types of kinetic and film thickness models are used to represent the wastewater treatment process in the biofilm reactor.
This model accounts the rate of mass transfer to be proportional to the concentration difference between the interface and the bulk fluid. This model assumes no accumulation of the component at the interface under steady state condition. The differential equation governing the fluid phase is given by.
with the boundary condition:
In this model, the substrate concentration in the bulk fluid varies only in the axial direction.
The differential equation governing the solid phase is given by.
with the boundary conditions:
The superscript ‘
This model considers the variation of the substrate concentration in bulk fluid in both the axial and radial directions. The substrate transfer occurring through the biofilm is characterized by physical diffusion and reaction, and this process is described by second order differential equation. Pressure losses along the length of the reactor are neglected. The differential equation governing the bulk fluid phase is given by.
where
The substrate mass transport occurring from the bulk fluid to the biofilm surface across the diffusion layer is defined by
where Sc is Schmidt number (
where
Various kinetic models can be used to represent the bioprocess kinetics [28], of which the Haldane and Edward models are given as follows.
This rate expression is generally valid when the substrate concentration is high. According to this model, the substrate consumption rate,
where
This model considers substrate inhibition, according to which the substrate consumption rate,
The biofilm thickness (
where
To facilitate the solution of mathematical models, the height of the column (1 m) is divided into 50 equal steps, each step representing 0.02 m. In one dimensional model, the fluid phase equation (Eq. (27)) along with its boundary condition (Eq. (28)) is solved for each height step in the axial direction by using Runge–Kutta (RK) 4th order method. The solid phase equation for the biofilm (Eq. (29)) is solved for each segment using orthogonal collocation on finite elements (OCFE) [36]. Two finite elements, each with four internal collocation points are considered for OCFE implementation. In two dimensional model, the fluid phase equation (Eq. (31)) is transformed to ODE by finite difference technique and the resulting equation along with its boundary condition is solved by using 4th order RK method for each height step of the axial direction. The solution for solid phase equation of this model is same as in one dimensional model.
The implementation procedure of tabu search is given in Section 1.3. In this work, tabu search is used to determine the parameters of kinetic and film thickness models in association with the validation of the mathematical models using the data of measurements obtained from an experimental fixed bed anaerobic biofilm reactor. The parameter estimation via inverse modeling is carried out by defining an objective function,
where
Parameter estimation by tabu search is performed by devising different modeling configurations to represent the biofilm reactor. These configurations involve the Edward kinetics and Haldane kinetics with substrate inhibition along with the two and three parameter film thickness expressions. The modeling configuration that is formed by 1D model along with Haldane kinetics and two parameter film thickness expression is referred to 1D-Haldane-2film. Other modeling configurations are formed and abbreviated in the same manner. The effectiveness of these modeling configurations are assessed by comparing the model predictions with experimental data and further by means of performance measures such as cost function (CF) and model efficiency (ME) [28]. A conventional optimization method called Nelder–Mead optimization (NMO) [37, 38] is also employed for comparison with the tabu search. The results are analyzed to find the better suitability of mathematical models using the quantitative performance measures (CF and ME). These results evaluated for 1D and 2D models with Haldane and Edward kinetics involving two film and three film expressions indicate the better suitability of 2D model over 1D model. When the results are analyzed to assess the better suitability optimization algorithm, the analysis of results of different modeling configurations indicate the effectiveness of TS over NMO. The results evaluated to find the usefulness of kinetic models indicate the better suitability of Edward kinetics over Haldane kinetics. The results analyzed to assess the film thickness expressions indicate the appropriateness of the three parameter film thickness expression over two parameter expression. The iterative convergence of parameters estimated by TS and NMO are shown in Figure 5. The comparison of the prediction results of 2D model with Edward kinetics and three parameter film thickness expression evaluated using TS and NMO with those of experimental results are shown in Figure 6. The analysis of the results show the better performance of TS over NMO for inverse modeling of biofilm reactor. From these results, it is found that the TS involving 2D model, Edward kinetics and three parameter film thickness expression better represents the fixed bed biofilm reactor involved in the treatment of pharmaceutical industry wastewater.
Iterative convergence of parameter estimates by TS and NMO: (a) kinetic parameters, (b) film thickness parameters.
Comparison of experimental results with model predicted substrate conversions of 2D model with Edward kinetics.
Tabu search is a stochastic optimization method used to solve global optimization problems. The effectiveness of tabu search for modeling and optimization is explored with the applications concerning to chemical and environmental systems of varying complexities. The meta heuristic Tabu search (TS) is designed and applied to determine the optimal control policies of a SAN copolymerization reactor and inverse modeling of a biofilm reactor. The computational efficiencies of TS are evaluated in terms of execution times, normalized absolute error values and memory storage requirements. The results of polymerization reactor show the usefulness of TS in determining the optimal temperature and feed rate policies to maintain the objectives
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Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"68525",title:"Architecture of a Microgrid and Optimal Energy Management System",slug:"architecture-of-a-microgrid-and-optimal-energy-management-system",totalDownloads:1043,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the growing population trends, the demand for electricity is accelerating rapidly. The policy planners and developers have great focus to utilize renewable energy resources (RERs) to encounter the scarcity of energy since they offer benefits to the environment and power systems. At present, the energy generation is evolving into a smart distribution system that assimilates several energy resources assuring to generate clean energy, to have reliable operational procedures, and to enhance the energy supervision and management arrangements. Therefore, the model of a distributed microgrid (DMG) with optimal energy management strategies based on multi-agent systems (MASs) technique has been focused in this chapter. Distributed energy resources (DER) have been considered for the generation of electrical power to fulfill the consumer’s load demands. Thus, a fully controlled architecture of a grid along with concept of MAS and its development platforms, implementation, and operational procedures have been discussed in detail. In addition, agent’s operations and their coordination within the MG arrangements have been focused by considering the supervision of the entire system autonomously. 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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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