Properties of brine and various pre-dilution streams.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6822",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Social Media and Journalism - Trends, Connections, Implications",title:"Social Media and Journalism",subtitle:"Trends, Connections, Implications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nowadays, social media are amongst the most frequently used entertainment and information sources, offering the most recent news. National, international and global issues of social media journalism involve a wide spectrum of complex questions related to the production, distribution and reception of media contents, as well as a plethora of social, cultural, economic, legal and ethical aspects to consider. The publication you are holding in your hands is an attempt to provide various theoretical and empirical frameworks that may help us better understand social media journalism from different points of view and in diverse contexts. The individual chapters are written by authors with various scholarly affiliations working in international academic circles. Even though the methods they use and problems they discuss vary, they all pursue the same objective - to find out more about the implications of the existence and popularity of social media, especially social media journalism.",isbn:"978-1-78984-260-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-259-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-729-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73235",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"social-media-and-journalism-trends-connections-implications",numberOfPages:144,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ed115310930feb53a3cfe0596c5be21e",bookSignature:"Ján Višňovský and Jana Radošinská",publishedDate:"October 31st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6822.jpg",numberOfDownloads:12165,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:28,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:53,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 17th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 8th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 27th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 26th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"196996",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ján",middleName:null,surname:"Višňovský",slug:"jan-visnovsky",fullName:"Ján Višňovský",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196996/images/system/196996.jpg",biography:"Ján Višňovský is an associate professor at the Faculty of Mass Media Communication, the University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius, Trnava, Slovak Republic, and head of the Department of Mass Media Communication. He is particularly interested in problems and questions of journalism in the context of the development of information and communication technologies and the history of television. He has published more than eighty scholarly articles and conference papers. Of them, twenty-five are indexed in Web of Science or Scopus. He is a member of the editorial board of the scientific journal Communication Today, and a member of Slovak Syndicate of Journalists, International Federation of Journalists, European Association for Viewers Interests and International Association for Media Education.",institutionString:"University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"197484",title:"Dr.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Radošinská",slug:"jana-radosinska",fullName:"Jana Radošinská",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197484/images/6525_n.jpg",biography:"PhDr. Jana Radošinská, PhD. started to work as a lecturer at the Faculty of Mass Media Communication UCM in Trnava, Slovakia in 2014, after finishing her PhD. studies in Mass Media Communication. Her scholarly interests include critical analysis of media culture, media industry, mainstream film production and media entertainment. She also focuses on media audiences, cultural aspects of journalism, television studies and digital games. She is the co-author of scientific monographs Aktuálne trendy v mediálnej kultúre – Contemporary Trends in Media Culture (2013) and Teoreticko-historické aspekty typológie moderných britských novín – Theoretical and Historical Aspects of Typology of Modern British Newspapers (2015) and the author of scientific monograph Mediálna zábava v 21. storočí: Sociálno-kultúrne aspekty a trendy – Media Entertainment: Socio-cultural Aspects and Trends (2016).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Ss. 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The Extent and Limits of Collaborative Citizen-Professional Journalism on Newspaper Comment Threads",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77098",slug:"online-news-audiences-as-co-authors-the-extent-and-limits-of-collaborative-citizen-professional-jour",totalDownloads:1216,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent research has demonstrated how comment threads published beneath online news articles are being transformed into fluid interfaces between professional journalists, their work and their audiences. Today’s audience-members are not only able to respond to published narratives but to embellish and, potentially, contest them: by posting comments based on personal knowledge about an issue and even using eyewitness testimony to directly affirm or challenge a story’s details. Though often stylistically “messy,” such comment posts go beyond merely manifesting and magnifying news discourses—let alone simply reacting to them. Rather, as on social media, posters can publicly discuss and debate the meaning and significance of stories, with the more informed and assertive among them contributing content so significant that it reshapes the texts themselves. In so doing, such claims-makers and counter claims-makers become hybrids of journalists (news producers), audience-members (news consumers) and claims-makers (news sources). Drawing on the author’s recent empirical findings, this chapter argues that online news has entered a dynamic but disruptive new phase in which journalistic authority may increasingly be contested, as “audience-members” begin to compete with “reporters” for authorship of news narratives.",signatures:"James Gordon Morrison",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61257",authors:[{id:"244722",title:"Dr.",name:"James",surname:"Morrison",slug:"james-morrison",fullName:"James Morrison"}],corrections:null},{id:"63049",title:"Social Media: A Turning Point into Global Journalism Identity and Ethics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80255",slug:"social-media-a-turning-point-into-global-journalism-identity-and-ethics",totalDownloads:2085,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Social media are growing drastically representing a further step in the ongoing deterioration of journalism profession and ethics. The lines between professional journalists and amateurs have been blurred; consequently, the structure of news media has substantially changed affecting the core traits of the profession and its ethics. This phenomenon has challenged the already disputed concepts of journalism as profession and journalists as professionals. While this challenge is tremendous, research on its implications to journalism identity and ethics is scant. The existing literature focuses on new or digital media usage, newsgathering, production, dissemination, and consumption, with little emphasis on journalism ethics or the profession itself. This chapter seeks to examine how social media contribute to the ethical dilemmas off and online journalism encounter and how this transformation puts the profession at risk.",signatures:"Basyouni Ibrahim Hamada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63049",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63049",authors:[{id:"245157",title:"Prof.",name:"Basyouni",surname:"Hamada",slug:"basyouni-hamada",fullName:"Basyouni Hamada"}],corrections:null},{id:"62010",title:"An Evaluative Study of Influence of Social Media on Journalism: Interference or Professional Advancement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78979",slug:"an-evaluative-study-of-influence-of-social-media-on-journalism-interference-or-professional-advancem",totalDownloads:1530,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Journalism is an established profession in the society across the globe. With the sudden increase in social media technologies in last few years, the nature of Journalism practice has been significantly influenced. Due to added value of social media traditional journalists have consciously embraced this technology for delivering and promoting their work. Enormous literature is available on impact of social media to journalism practices leading to various perspectives. Yet least qualitative studies are available on the perception of journalism practitioners on their professional interaction with social media. The study is an attempt in this direction to find out the professional impact of social media and the active role being played by the journalism practitioners to embrace the technology. It also attempts to find an answer to that whether the advancement of social media technologies in journalism practice is interference or professional advancement.",signatures:"Kinshuk Pathak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62010",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62010",authors:[{id:"243687",title:"Dr.",name:"Kinshuk",surname:"Pathak",slug:"kinshuk-pathak",fullName:"Kinshuk Pathak"}],corrections:null},{id:"61780",title:"Journalism and Social Media Frame Social Movements: The Transition to Media Matrix",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78290",slug:"journalism-and-social-media-frame-social-movements-the-transition-to-media-matrix",totalDownloads:1921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Audiences all over the globe are experiencing an unprecedented communication challenge. The intensity of the transnational media platforms and the rapid media distribution information implies a huge adaptation and interaction to diverse media technologies. These have created a transition in the culture of citizens’ acts, creating the era of “Media Matrix.” The printed press and the television still today cover the social movements’ demonstrations playing an important role in which these are revealed to the public. The importance of the news framing and Internet, as well as social media, depends upon one other crucial component for the social movements’ visibility. The present study aims to offer a theoretical reflection on this issue describing a three-stage analyses, which the media coverage underwent. The study describes the different stages in the coverage and “news-making” of social movements, which brings us to today’s matrix era. Furthermore, it also deliberates the impact this phenomenon has had in the civil society.",signatures:"Alonit Berenson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61780",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61780",authors:[{id:"243980",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alonit",surname:"Berenson",slug:"alonit-berenson",fullName:"Alonit Berenson"}],corrections:null},{id:"63271",title:"Social Media and Technology Trends in HRM: Cases in Recruitment and Talent Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79342",slug:"social-media-and-technology-trends-in-hrm-cases-in-recruitment-and-talent-management",totalDownloads:2129,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human resource management practices have evolved over the years to align with shifts in technology, economy, globalization, talent diversity and business strategy, with practices intended to solve business problems. Increased globalization, competition and the pressure for speed and innovation mandates differentiated HR practices which enable attracting, motivating, and retaining a talented workforce, a factor critical to business success. While employees have embraced digital and social media for increased communication and collaboration, opportunities of leveraging the rich information available on social media platforms for HR practices have emerged. The of use of human capital analytics is becoming a powerful tool available to the HR fraternity, as data driven insights have demonstrated impressive business results. The latest of these trends is the leveraging of social media combined with technology solutions and embracing digitization of various HR processes. The present research presents three case studies that illustrate how technology solutions and data insights have transformed talent acquisition, learning and talent management practices within HR functions in India. The cases demonstrate the how the technological advances and increase usage of social media is likely to have significant implications for talent management processes of the firms in the near future.",signatures:"Debolina Dutta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63271",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63271",authors:[{id:"243903",title:"Dr.",name:"Debolina",surname:"Dutta",slug:"debolina-dutta",fullName:"Debolina Dutta"}],corrections:null},{id:"62438",title:"Evolving Networks and Social Network Analysis Methods and Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79041",slug:"evolving-networks-and-social-network-analysis-methods-and-techniques",totalDownloads:2177,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Evolving networks by definition are networks that change as a function of time. They are a natural extension of network science since almost all real-world networks evolve over time, either by adding or by removing nodes or links over time: elementary actor-level network measures like network centrality change as a function of time, popularity and influence of individuals grow or fade depending on processes, and events occur in networks during time intervals. Other problems such as network-level statistics computation, link prediction, community detection, and visualization gain additional research importance when applied to dynamic online social networks (OSNs). Due to their temporal dimension, rapid growth of users, velocity of changes in networks, and amount of data that these OSNs generate, effective and efficient methods and techniques for small static networks are now required to scale and deal with the temporal dimension in case of streaming settings. This chapter reviews the state of the art in selected aspects of evolving social networks presenting open research challenges related to OSNs. The challenges suggest that significant further research is required in evolving social networks, i.e., existent methods, techniques, and algorithms must be rethought and designed toward incremental and dynamic versions that allow the efficient analysis of evolving networks.",signatures:"Mário Cordeiro, Rui P. 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Medical expertise is crucial in death investigations. It begins with body examination and evidence collection at the scene and proceeds through history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and diagnosis – in short, the broad ingredients of a doctor’s treatment of a living patient. The key goal is to provide objective evidence of cause, timing, and manner of death for adjudication by the criminal justice system. Death investigation has been performed for centuries in all societies, although not always by medical professionals (Committee, 2003). The association of law and medicine dates back to the Egyptian culture as early as 3000 B.C. The English coroner system was mentioned in documentations around the 12th century B.C. (Spitz, 2006).
Although the primary goal of a death investigation is to establish the cause and manner of death, the role of the death investigation extends much further than simply answering these two questions. A common question asked is, “Why does it matter? The person is dead.” While it is true that the dead cannot benefit, the value in death investigation is to benefit the living and future generations. In a culture that values life, explaining the death in a public forum (the meaning of “forensic”) is crucial for many reasons. And this interest goes beyond simple curiosity (Wagner, 2009).
In homicide, suspected homicide, and other suspicious or obscure cases, the forensic medicine expert should visit the scene of the death before the body is removed. Local practice varies but any doctor claiming to be a forensic medicine expert should always make himself available to accompany the police to the locus of the death. This duty is often formalized and made part of a contract of service for those forensic medicine experts who are either full-time or substantially involved in assisting the police, in England and Wales, the \'Home Office Pathologists\' are permanently on call for such visits and in many other jurisdictions, such as the medical examiner systems in the USA, and the European State and University Institutes of Forensic Medicine, there is usually a prearranged duty roster for attendance at scenes of death (Saukko & Knight, 2004). In many cases, the scene investigation is more important than the autopsy. A thorough and complete investigation commonly leads to the proper diagnosis of the cause and manner of death prior to an autopsy (Avis, 1993; Dix & Ernst, 1999).
Why go to the scene? The purpose of having the forensic medicine expert attend the death scene is severalfold. By viewing the body in the context of its surroundings, the forensic medicine expert is better able to interpret certain findings at the autopsy such as a patterned imprint across the neck from collapsing onto an open vegetable drawer in a refrigerator. The forensic medicine expert is also able to advise the investigative agency about the nature of the death, whether to confirm a homicide by a specific means, evaluate the circumstances to be consistent with an apparent natural death, or interpret the blood loss from a deceased person as being more likely due to natural disease than to injury. This preliminary information helps the investigative agency to define its perimeter, structure its approach, organize its manpower, secure potentially important evidence, and streamline its efforts. Nonattendance at death scenes has been regarded as one of the classical mistakes in forensic pathology. Hospital pathologists performing forensic autopsies who are not trained to, or able to, attend death scenes should be provided with information on how, when, and where the body was found, by whom, and under what circumstances. In some deaths, the immediate environment does not contribute to death, such as in cases of metastatic breast carcinoma. In other cases, the environment plays a role although it does not cause the death; for example, consider a case in which a person with marked coronary atherosclerosis collapses with a dysrhythmia while shoveling snow. On the other hand, the scene description and scene photographs are critical in documenting that the physical circumstances and body posture are indicative of death due to positional asphyxia because the autopsy in these cases may yield very few findings. The most meticulous autopsy in all academia will provide only a speculative cause and manner of death in a 30-year-old man with a negative history, negative toxicology, and autopsy findings of visceral congestion. Yet at the scene, a screwdriver is next to an uncovered electrical outlet on a rain-soaked patio at the decedent\'s house, which is undergoing renovation. The cause and manner of death are provided by the scene (Lew & Matshes, 2005).
The examination of a death scene and subsequent collection of potential evidential material requires special skill, knowledge, aptitude, and attitude. The manner in which a death scene investigation is conducted may be a critical factor in determining the success of an investigation. The thorough examination of a death scene requires a disciplined and systematic approach to recording the various observations made and collection of potential evidential material. This must be combined with the analysis of various observations and the interrelationship of potential evidentiary material (Horswell, 2005a).
If resources are sufficient and the circumstances of death so dictate, it is ideal for a forensic medicine expert to perform a scene investigation. This is particularly relevant if the body remains at the scene of death, and has not been transported to the hospital during attempts at resuscitation; however, a scene investigation can be vitally important and provide valuable information even if the body has been transported to the hospital. If a body is pronounced dead at the scene (as opposed to after transport to the hospital), many death investigation systems require a scene investigation. Others have various protocols as to which case types absolutely require a scene investigation (whether or not the body is present at the scene). Case types that should always have a scene investigation include all confirmed or suspected homicides, suicides, accidents, child deaths, traffic-related deaths, in-custody deaths, and workplace-related deaths (Prahlow, 2010).
Death scene investigation may include a combination of the following types of incidents and
examinations:
Accidental deaths, which include a multitude of circumstances, including misadventure
Suicidal deaths, which include a multitude of circumstances
Homicidal deaths, which include a multitude of circumstances
Sudden deaths, with or without suspicious circumstances
Difficult victim identification, which includes mummification and putrefaction
Disaster victim identification dealing with multiple casualties (Horswell, 2005a)
This chapter will focus on the steps of death scene investigation and some real cases will be analyzed.
In some “incidents,” it may be readily apparent that a crime has indeed been committed and it is a “crime scene.”
The
Some examples include: The deceased, the get-away vehicle in crimes of armed robbery, the suspect, the suspect’s environment, the suspect’s vehicle, the weapon used in the crime (Horswell, 2005a). This classification does not infer any priority or importance to the scene, but is simply a designation of sequence of locations (Miller, 2003).
If a deceased person is at the scene we call it the
Every death scene is a potential crime scene. It is important to carefully examine the scene for evidence or unusual circumstances that may indicate the death of the person is other than by natural causes (Moldovan, 2008).
The forensic medicine expert should always have appropriate equipment ready to take to a scene investigation at a moment\'s notice. Further equipment may be carried if autopsies have to be carried out in places where good mortuary facilities are not available. Most forensic medicine experts carry a \'murder bag\' in their car and though every expert has his own choice of equipment, the following is a reasonable inventory:
Waterproof apron and rubber gloves.
Writing implements (pens, pencils, markers).
Disposable (paper) jumpsuits, hair covers, face shield, etc.
Thermometer, syringes and needles, sterile swabs.
Autopsy dissection set, including hand-saw.
Cutting needles and twine for body closure.
Swabs and containers for blood and body fluids.
Formalin jars for histological samples.
Plastic bags, envelopes, paper, spare pen and pencil.
Printed body charts for recording external injuries.
Hand lens, electric torch, mini-tape recorder.
Foul-weather gear (raincoat, umbrella, etc.).
Personal comfort supplies (insect spray, sun screen, hat, etc.).
Camera, usually 35 mm single-lens reflex with electronic flash (with extra battery). The recent advent of compact digital cameras or digital video cameras with the facility to take still pictures has made instant reviewing possible.
The thermometer can be either a long chemical mercury type, reading from 0 to 50°C, or the more modern electronic digital variety with a probe carrying a thermocouple. The amount of equipment varies with the facilities likely to be available. In developed countries there are likely to be good mortuary facilities available in a hospital or municipal mortuary and the police forces will have extensive scenes-of-crime expertise with photography, specimen containers and so on. In developing countries and the more remote areas of other states, the forensic medicine expert may have to be virtually self-sufficient in respect of both crime investigation and the subsequent autopsy.
In addition to medical kit, the experienced forensic medicine expert will always have appropriate clothing such as rubber boots and rain or snow-wear ready to hand for any call (Clark, 1999; Saukko & Knight, 2004).
The deceased is the most valuable piece of potential evidence at any death scene. Hence, a systematic and thorough examination of the deceased should be undertaken at every death scene. Blood spillage or spatter should be noted and will remain after the removal of the body. Weather conditions, location, and poor lighting may mask some faint injuries and trace evidence on the body, therefore the death-scene investigator should document in writing, by sketch, and by photography all information about the body that can be gathered at the scene (Horswell, 2005b). The forensic medicine expert should focus on the physical condition of a body at a scene. Without a scene investigation, much initial, valuable body information can be lost. The following points will serve as a guide.
When initially notified, a forensic medicine expert should determine as much information as possible from the caller. Approximate age and gender places a subject in a certain "medical category." An attempt should be made to ascertain if there is any evidence of foul play or if any instruments are available that might have played a role in the subject\'s death. By gathering these data, a forensic medicine expert is able to anticipate additional infonnation that may be needed upon arrival at a scene (Dix et al., 1999). The first rule in performing a death scene investigation is to make certain that the scene is safe and secure. Usually, this requires police involvement but in some instances, it will require other professionals, such as fire department personnel or utility workers. The second rule is to not contaminate or disturb the scene. At the very least, death investigators should wear disposable examination gloves and it is also advisable to wear shoe covers and hair nets. Occasionally, full body covering is desirable. When touching items at a scene, examination gloves should always be worn and care should be taken not to sit on furniture or lean against or brush against walls or furniture (Prahlow, 2010). The death-scene investigator must seek answers to the following questions: is trace evidence at the scene consistent with the death having occurred at this location? Does the body contain any trace evidence that is unusual for this location, for example, mud on soles of shoes, grass, or seed material embedded in or found on the clothing when the deceased was located inside a building? Is the death one that can be attributed to natural causes? Are there any external signs of violence? Is there anything amiss or out of the ordinary regarding the scene? (Horswell, 2005b).
A successful death investigation, involving more than one individual, requires cooperation and coordination. Any potential conflicts should be worked out (Dix et al., 1999). The opportunity to meet at the scene initiates the collegial working relationship between the forensic medicine expert and the detective/investigator, and promotes interagency rapport as both professionals strive to solve the medical mystery of why that particular person died at that particular time, under those particular circumstances. This is not melodrama, just intellectual satisfaction for exploring an extremely important, educational, and fascinating aspect of death investigation. After all, a gunshot wound is a gunshot wound: it is the circumstances behind that gunshot wound that are frequently so compelling and always so instructive about human nature (Lew & Matshes, 2005).
All death scenes should be secured and recorded photographically and diagrammatically. If the information to hand, backed by the postmortem, suggests that the death was due to natural causes then the scene should not be processed any further. However, if there are signs at the scene, and other information suggests that the deceased died in suspicious circumstances, and this is reinforced by signs of a struggle or anything unusual, further processing for latent impressions and trace evidence should take place (Horswell, 2005b).
The four major tasks of documentation are note taking, videography, photography, and sketching. All four are necessary and none is an adequate substitute for another. For example, notes are not substitutes for photography.
Documentation, in all its various forms, begins with the initial involvement of the investigator. The documentation never stops; it may slow down, but the need for documentation remains constant. Death scene documentation will be discussed below in the sequence it should follow at a death scene. The systematic process presented will maintain the organized nature of scientific death scene investigation.
Effective notes as part of an investigation provide a written record of all of the crime scene activities. The notes are taken as the activities are completed to prevent possible memory loss if notes are made at a later time. Accurate crime scene note taking is crucial at sider the who, what, when, why, and how, and specifically include:
The forensic medicine expert should observe a great deal, but do very little. He or she should note the position of the body in relation to nearby objects and establish the plan of the premises if indoors. A sketch or his own photograph is sometimes useful, and some forensic medicine experts use a Polaroid, digital or video camera for instant recording of the death scene.
Any obvious cause of death should be observed, and any blood pools or splashes noted in relation to the position of the corpse. The shape of such splashes should be observed, as blood striking perpendicularly to a surface leaves a circular mark, whilst that landing obliquely is pear-shaped, with the sharper end towards the direction of flight. If the scene is one of apparent violence then the blood flow patterns may indicate the type of weapon and how it was used (Horswell, 2005b; Saukko & Knight, 2004). Both natural and unnatural deaths can produce abundant blood at a scene. Traumatic deaths that involve arterial or venous bleeding, such as stabbing, can produce abundant blood at the scene with spattering. Gunshot wounds can cause extensive external bleeding, but some wounds can cause minimal external bleeding and massive internal bleeding. In short, the amount of blood perceived at a scene does not indicate the severity of the trauma (Wagner, 2009).
Videotaping a death scene has become a routine documentation procedure. Its acceptance is widespread, due to the three-dimensional portrayal of the scene and increased availability of affordable equipment with user friendly features like zoom lens and compact size. Jury acceptability and expectation have also added to the recognized use of videography in death scene investigations.
Videography of the crime scene should follow the scene survey. The videotaping of death scenes is an orientation format. The operator should remain objective in recording the death scene. Videotaping of death scenes is a valuable tool that allows clear perception that is often not possible with the other documentation tasks. It is not an adequate substitute for any of the other tasks (Miller, 2003).
The purpose of still photography documentation of the death scene is to provide a true and accurate pictorial record of the death scene and physical evidence present. Still photography records the initial condition of the scene. It provides investigators and others with a record that can be analyzed or examined subsequent to the scene investigation, and serves as a permanent record for legal concerns. Photography of a death scene is normally done immediately following the videography of the scene or after the preliminary scene survey. A systematic, organized method for recording the death scene and pertinent physical evidence is best achieved by proceeding from the general to specific guideline. Adherence to this guideline allows orientation of the entire death scene, orientation of the evidence within the scene, and provide; examination quality photographs of specific items of evidence that may be used for analysis away from the scene. The number of photographs that should be taken at a death scene cannot be predetermined or limited (Miller, 2003). Information such as body location and unique circumstances at the death scene may help a forensic medicine expert. It is important to keep in mind the legal implications of the photographs. Will the photographs be subpoenaed? (Dix et al., 1999). The scene and body are photographed before anything is moved or removed. Treat the body with respect. Never remove the clothing in full view of onlookers. If it is not feasible to move the body to a secure area of the scene, police officers may hold up sheets around the body, mobile panels may be used, or police vehicles may be used to block visibility from the public (Lew & Matshes, 2005).
The final task in documentation of a death scene is sketching. All of the previous tasks for documentation record the death scene without regard to the size or measurement of the scene and its physical evidence. Sketching the death scene is the assignment of units of measurement or correct perspective to the overall scene and the relevant physical evidence identified within the scene (Miller, 2003). The deceased\'s location relative to other objects and structures within the scene is very important. The position of the deceased is plotted: the head and groin of the deceased are good points on the body to use for plotting its position. Accurate measurements should be noted to place the items within the scene in the sketch in the same locations as they appear in the scene (Horswell, 2005b).
Positive identification of the decedent is crucial in all death inquiries. The family should be notified. Information such as medical history, work, and social history can only be obtained after an identification is established. Care must be taken to insure that the identification is absolutely correct (Dix et al., 1999).
A systematic, thorough inspection and evaluation of the decedent should be performed by a forensic medicine expert. If he/she always begins at the top of a subject\'s body and moves toward the feet, the possibility of missing important injuries or evidence is lessened (Dix et al., 1999). The body should be prone (face up) during the examination, if possible. Photos of the original position of the body must be taken before the body is moved. One begins with a general assessment and progresses from head to toe, pushing clothing aside but not removing it. Some find it easier to assess rigor, livor, and algor mortis initially. The purpose of the assessment of the body at the scene is to provide some insight into the nature of the case and a working cause of death (Wagner, 2009).
One of the most important questions that needs answering is: did death occur at this location? The position in which the deceased was discovered is of particular importance as it will provide an indication as to whether the deceased was moved or not before being discovered. The presence or absence of rigor mortis or stiffness of the body, whether absent, minimal, moderate, advanced or complete, will help the death-scene investigator determine if the person died at that locus in the position as found. Some death-scene investigators with relevant training and experience may feel they are in a position to evaluate rigor mortis and hypostasis. A pink-purple discoloration is usually present at the lowest point of the body. This is due to the settling of the blood by gravitation and the location and state of fixation should be noted and photographed. For example, unfixed livor blanches white when moderate pressure is applied, as opposed to fixed livor mortis, which remains the same color when pressure is applied. If livor mortis is noted on the deceased in areas not consistent with forming in the lowest parts of the body then the death-scene investigator should consider the possibility that the deceased was moved after death (Horswell, 2005b).
Victims may be found in contorted or apparently uncomfortable positions on the floor, commonly the bedroom or bathroom. Generally, the more contorted the body, the more sudden the death. The person appears to have “fallen in his tracks.” However, this does not mean the decedent lying apparently comfortably in bed did not also die suddenly. Bodies found in awkward positions that compromise breathing can die of positional asphyxia. The chest wall must be able to rise and fall for respiration to occur. If one is wedged too tightly in a position, the chest wall cannot rise and fall (Wagner, 2009) (Fig. 1).
Many inexperienced investigators focus on a major injury and neglect to evaluate the rest of the individual. This can lead to important oversights such as fingernail marks, bruises, and
Seventy two-year-old man had lost the key of the door of his house in his vineyard and he tried to go in from a small hole which he made on the roof. He was stuck and found dead in the hole due to positional asphyxia.
abrasions. Documentation of this inspection should be made noting the presence and absence of unusual markings or abnormalities. Descriptions of the state of rigor and livor mortis as well as the body temperature of a subject helps a forensic medicine expert to estimate the time interval since death. Environmental assessment, including temperature, heating or cooling systems, moisture, and wind conditions must be made at a death scene so that the environmental influence on a decedent can be determined. The assessment should also include the types of clothing and jewelry. This information may be needed to assist in determinating the time a subject was last seen alive. Clothing should be appropriate for the weather and location found. If not, it needs to be explained. One should also determine if the clothing fits an individual. If a subject is decomposing, then clothing may appear too small due to body swelling. If the clothing is the incorrect size, one must determine why. Was the person wearing someone else\'s when death occurred? Or, was the decedent redressed by another person after death? Note the cleanliness of the clothing. A variance in the clothing or body cleanliness may indicate that he was handled by another individual after death (Dix et al., 1999). General uncleanliness such as lack of bathing, very dirty clothes, urine -or feces- stained clothes, long and dirty nails, and poor oral hygiene may be due to alcoholism, drug abuse, or a mental disorder (Wagner, 2009). Is the clothing worn properly? Are buttons fastened and zippers closed? It is common to find opened zippers in intoxicated males or some elderly persons living alone. If the clothing is inconsistent with normal dressing techniques, consider whether a subject had a disability contributing to this behavior. Jewelry should be carefully noted and reported as to its type, style, color and body location. All jewelry must be listed, regardless of its apparent value. Obvious "missing" jewelry should also be noted, such as only one pierced earring, or no wedding ring on a married individual. Currency and credit cards should be handled as valuable items. Currency should be counted in the presence of another and credit card details noted. If an investigator decides that these items may be given to the next-of-kin at the death scene, he must be certain that the relative has the legal right to such items. No analyses should be performed on a decedent\'s body at a scene, such as gunshot residue or fingerprinting, without the expressed consent of the forensic medicine expert responsible for the postmortem examination. Clothing should not be removed, a body should not be cleansed, and liquids or powders should not be placed on the deceased as these might interfere with radiographs or chemical testing. If more than one hour has elapsed since the initial body assessment and the decedent is still at the scene, a second assessment should be recorded. A thorough body visualization by a forensic medicine expert gives him/her the capability to differentiate between injuries noted at a scene and any bodily injuries sustained during conveyance to the morgue (Dix et al., 1999).
A common misconception among laypeople is that a “painful” expression on the face or a contorted position means the person suffered during the process of dying. Generally, there is no correlation between facial expressions, body positions, and suffering. Pain and suffering can be assessed before and during the dying process, but it is done carefully and generally by the forensic medicine expert after evaluating the autopsy and investigative information. This information can be useful to the family, and can become arguable in civil court cases (Wagner, 2009).
An investigator must also gather information that relates to cause and manner of death. Each type of death requires specific scene information. For instance, questions to be asked in a motor vehicle fatality would not be the same as those asked in an autoerotic asphyxia death. Since different questions need to be asked, an investigational guide for each specific type of death can be very useful. For example, it is critical in suicides resulting from a handgun that investigators determine the handedness of a subject (Dix et al., 1999). The scene should be searched for a medical history in nearly all death investigations. This search may be as simple as finding an inhaler for asthma nearby a gunshot wound victim or as complicated as going through cabinets full of medication at a residence. The deceased’s physician can always be called and the hospital records will be available tomorrow, but one has only a single chance to explore the scene to find out what is really going on with the person’s diseases and treatment. Many people do not take the treatments the doctor ordered and reject advice given at the hospital. Only interviewing witnesses and searching the scene will reveal this information (Wagner, 2009).
Prior to a forensic medicine expert\'s arrival, law enforcement officers, paramedics, and other support personnel probably have communicated with individuals or witnesses at the scene. A forensic medicine expert needs to know this initial information so that he can compare it with the decedent\'s body data and determine if there are any discrepancies. It is better to ask the question twice and get the same answer, than to accept as fact information that has been checked by one source. A forensic medicine expert needs to determine, for instance, if the body data (rigor, livor, temperature, clothing, injuries, etc.) are different from the witness information (Dix et al., 1999).
Forensic medicine experts and law enforcement agents work cooperatively in a team effort. Although the medical expert has jurisdiction over the body, law enforcement has jurisdiction over the entire scene. The forensic medicine expert is invited to the scene and, as a guest, must comply with house rules. In Britain, for example, several teams converge on a scene of crime, including photographers and video operators, and Scene of Crime Officers (SOCOs) whose function is to collect trace evidence. Scientists from the nearest forensic laboratory often attend with their police liaison officers, as well as fingerprint officers and, of course, the investigating officers from the Criminal Investigation Department. The lead detective will walk the forensic medicine expert through the scene, relaying information and pointing out salient features. The forensic medicine expert should realize that the area within the perimeter of the scene is one giant piece of evidence, and restrict his or her physical contact to the body and items immediately touching the body (Lew & Matshes, 2005; Saukko & Knight, 2004).
Where no such backup is available, the forensic medicine expert must try to collect trace evidence himself, but he should remain within the limits of his own expertise. The forensic medicine expert should accept the instructions of police officers in relation to the approach to the body so as to preserve the immediate environment as much as possible. Out-of-doors access is often limited to a single pathway marked by tapes, and in a building a track to the corpse is usually pointed out by the detective in charge. The doctor should not touch anything unnecessarily and certainly not smoke or leave any object or debris of his or her own. Increasingly, those visiting the scene of a crime are given disposable overalls and overshoes to wear, so that fibers, hairs and so on from the visitor are not spuriously transferred to the scene (Saukko & Knight, 2004). The Locard Exchange Principle states that whenever two objects come into contact, a mutual exchange of matter will take place between them. Linking suspects to victims is the most important and common type of linkage accomplished by physical evidence in criminal investigations. Linking victims and suspects to objects and scenes can also be accomplished by use of the physical evidence (Miller, 2003) (Fig. 2).
The 18-year-old murderer killed his employer in his workplace as he did not pay his salary. On the death scene investigation, a horror mask (on the top) and footprints of sports shoes of the murderer (on the bottom) were found. These evidences were used to determine the murderer.
After surveying the overall death scene, it should be easy to recognize the sequence in which evidence is to be collected and areas to be searched and in what order. The collection and search should be systematic, ensuring absolutely nothing is overlooked.
Priority in collection should be given to:
any items that are in danger of being removed or destroyed by wind, rain, vehicles, animals, tides, and the movement of individuals at the scene
the collection of any evidence which will enable access to the deceased or any critical area of the death scene, such as along entry and exit paths
those critical areas of the crime scene which may render the most evidence, or once processed, enable the removal of a body, or the remainder of the examination to be carried out
areas which may give a quick indication as to the identity of any suspect(s)
areas which when processed will permit the release of scene guards and other resources
the general examination of the remainder of the death scene for potential evidence.
In establishing the manner and sequence of collecting potential evidence by death scene investigators, consideration must be given to the possible destruction of evidence and which approach will yield the best result in terms of useful information (Horswell, 2005b).
Clues about the cause and manner of a death and who committed a crime may be found at a scene. The following list includes different types of evidence and how they are usually collected and preserved.
Each item submitted to a lab should be referenced by either a photograph or written description as to its location in the scene. All containers with items submitted to the lab must be labeled on the lid and side of the container, with a case number, date, time, type of specimen, and name of the person who collected the specimen. A "chain of custody" begins at this point and continues until a disposition of the specimen is completed (Dix et al., 1999).
Methods of searching critical areas include grids that are larger in less critical areas and smaller in critical areas, or searching in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction from a fixed point, or conducting a line strip search. All these form part of conducting a professional systematic search of a death scene. A systematic approach to the searching of death scenes reduces stress and fatigue and ensures a more comprehensive search and recovery operation, minimizing the chance of losing potentially valuable evidentiary material (Horswell, 2005b). Any weapon or other item possibly related to the death and found at a scene should be brought to the morgue for analysis by a forensic medicine expert. Often, substances are the causative agent in the death. All medication and alcoholic beverage containers should be confiscated as these will be invaluable to the toxicologists. Note the location where each item was found. Studies have shown that a fatal intoxicant is likely to be found in the same location as a decedent. Any drug paraphernalia, notes, or any unusual item that might have been used by the subject should be confiscated (Dix et al., 1999).
Interviews should include basic information such as the subject\'s identification, clothing, time, date, state of health, date and time the body was discovered, and medical, employment, and social history. Any recent events that may have a bearing on the death are also important. A death investigator should always ask if a decedent had recently been involved in any potential harmful situations. This information may be extremely helpful if later attempts are made to make a prior incident a contributing factor in the death. If suicide is suspected, it is preferable to interview family members and close friends as soon as possible after the death is discovered. This may preclude guilt-related, subconscious, erroneous statements made by loved ones several days later (Dix et al., 1999).
The general warmth or coolness of the hands and face can be assessed by touch, and the degree of rigor mortis felt by gently testing the limbs. The ambient (environmental) temperature must be taken as soon as possible after the discovery of the body, preferably by police scene of crime officers who usually arrive at the locus before the forensic medicine expert. The ambient temperature should be taken as near to the body as possible, as microenvironments can exist, even inside buildings or rooms. Information should be sought as to how much disturbance of the ambient temperature might have occurred, such as opening doors and windows, or turning fires or central heating on or off, so that some idea of post-discovery distortions of temperature can be estimated later. The insertion of a thermometer into the rectum at this stage in the investigation, as advocated by some textbooks, is controversial.
At a scene of death, this usually means either pulling down trousers or pants, and otherwise disturbing clothing, often in cramped and ill-lit places, frequently out in the open. It also risks contaminating the rectum and perineum, by introducing seminal fluid from the anal margin into the rectum, making subsequent examination of that area (and taking swabs for semen) of reduced value. As so many violent crimes now have sexual or homosexual overtones, the practice of taking rectal temperatures at the scene should be performed only if the forensic scientists or police scene of crime officers are satisfied that trace evidence from the clothing, swabs from the vulva, vagina and anus, etc., can be obtained satisfactorily before rectal thermometry is performed.
In other words, a cost-benefit analysis must be made at the scene, to decide if the difficulties of taking a rectal temperature are worth the small potential advantage of an earlier measurement. In many cases, where the body has obviously been there long enough for the core temperature to have reached ambient - or where other circumstantial evidence has indicated that the time of death is known to a greater degree of accuracy that can be hoped for by thermometry - then nothing is lost by postponing the procedure until the body arrives at the mortuary for autopsy, which, in British practice, is usually directly after the body is moved from the scene.
If the autopsy is to be delayed for many hours owing to difficulties with transport or lack of facilities, then much more must be done at the scene and temperature measurements are justified.
An alternative is to use a place other than the rectum. The axilla and mouth give low readings, which cannot reliably be correlated with the deep temperature because of variable exposure to the air temperature. More useful is the auditory meatus or nostril, the thermometer or thermocouple probe being inserted as deeply as possible. Reliable, reproducible readings can be obtained from these sites, which have the great advantage of being easily accessible without moving clothing, as well as not being required for swabbing to investigate possible sexual assaults (Saukko & Knight, 2004).
Using scene markers to determine when an individual died, though unscientific, is often more accurate than determinations made by scientific means. This is especially true in badly decomposed bodies. Scene markers include:
Uncollected mail or newspapers.
Whether the lights are on or off.
A TV schedule opened to a time and date.
How the individual is dressed.
Any food that is out or dirty dishes in the sink.
Sales receipts or dated slips of paper in the deceased’s pockets.
When the neighbors last saw the individual or observed a change in his habits. Thus, if he typically went for a walk every evening and suddenly is no longer seen, then one might conclude that death occurred on or about the day he failed to take his walk (DiMaio & DiMaio, 2001). Different clues from a scene also must not be overlooked: Was food being prepared? Was a major appliance on? Were there indicators as to a decedent\'s activities just prior to or at the time of death? A forensic medicine expert may use the answers to such questions to arrive at an estimation of the time of death (Dix et al., 1999).
When the forensic medicine expert has made the best examination possible in the circumstances, his next function is to ensure that the corpse is removed to the mortuary for autopsy with the least disturbance and loss of evidence. He should supervise the removal himself or at least delegate the duty to another person whom he knows is careful and competent. Each hand should be enclosed in a bag, secured at the wrist by adhesive tape or string. A similar bag should be placed over the head. The packaging medium may vary, but generally paper bags are recommended.
The body should be placed gently in a \'body-bag\', which has a zip closure, or moved on to a large, new plastic sheet, at least 2 metres square. If a sheet is used, the edges should be wrapped over the body and secured with adhesive tape. The object of the exercise is to retain any loose objects, hairs and fibres that may be adhering to the body or the clothing. The sheet or bag is taken by the forensic laboratory after the body is removed in the mortuary so that they may screen it for trace evidence. The transport of the body is the responsibility of the police or other agency such as the coroner or his officer. The body in its plastic wrapping should be placed in a rigid fibreglass \'shell\' or ordinary coffin, and taken by hearse, van or police transport to the chosen mortuary.
Physical damage during the removal should be avoided as much as possible, though in difficult or inaccessible sites this is easier said than done. In fires, the body may be seriously damaged before or during recovery, sometimes because its presence is not suspected in the smoke-filled, often waterlogged, debris of a conflagration. Handling brittle, charred, bodies can easily cause the splits at joints that may mimic ante-mortem injuries.
In summary, the function of a forensic medicine expert at any scene of suspicious death is to observe the situation, to conserve any fragile evidence, to supervise the removal of the body and offer an opinion, based on experience, about the nature of death where this can reasonably be done. He is not there to act as a latter-day Sherlock Holmes, voicing unsubstantiated theories on non-medical matters, nor attempting to overinterpret the situation from the flimsiest of facts. The forensic medicine expert is part of a team of specialists, all experts in their own field, and it is as a member of such a cooperative, coordinated group that his best contributions can be made (Saukko & Knight, 2004).
In the community, the most serious crime is that of the intentional killing of one person by another and it is therefore necessary that each of these events be thoroughly investigated by a team of specialists (Horswell, 2005b).
Death scenes may be indoors or outdoors. The death may have occurred at the scene or the body may have been “dumped.” The death scene may be untouched since the crime was committed or it may have been contaminated by the untrained or the unwary. The murderer may have intentionally altered the scene in an effort to mislead investigators or make a statement, usually a defiant one. A crime scene altered in this manner is said to have been staged.
The forensic medicine expert’s focus is mainly on the body. What is the position of the body? What clothes are on the body and are they intact, dirty, torn, or rearranged? If there is blood, is it spattered or pooled? Detailed photographs of the body and the surroundings are critical. What is the temperature of the body? What is the ambient temperature? What injuries are visible? What is the state of rigor mortis? Are there any signs of a struggle? Does anyone know the identity, or presumptive identity, of this person? If there are bullet wounds, the forensic medicine expert determines where the entrance wound or wounds are. If there are exit wounds, the forensic medicine expert notes the presence of bullet holes in the walls or other objects to help determine the position of the victim when the shots were fired. Here, the expertise of the ballistics or firearm expert is crucial (Adelman, 2007).
Homicide victims need to be examined front and back to determine the nature and extent of injuries. For example, once the nature of the injuries is confirmed (gunshot wounds with no casings on the scene), the police will be able to focus their efforts on finding a shooter with a revolver, as opposed to searching for an assailant with another type of weapon such as an ice pick. Once the extent of injuries is seen, the forensic medicine expert will know how many radiographs are required. A beating death will alert the team that a struggle may have ensued, and scalp hair and fingernail scrapings/clippings are required, in addition to a blood standard obtained during the autopsy. Whenever sexual assault/battery is a possibility, specimens for a sexual battery kit must be obtained from the deceased victim prior to cleaning the body. Bodies with patterned injuries from an object or weapon still at the scene should be photographed with the object close to, but not touching, the injured part of the body. The patterned injury and the object should be photographed separately with a scale. A weapon may be brought to the autopsy for comparison with the wounds only after the weapon has been processed for trace evidence, DNA, and fingerprints to prevent allegations of contamination at the autopsy (Rogers, 2004; Lew & Matshes, 2005).
It is always advantageous for the forensic medicine expert to visit the death scene of a possible homicide. By visiting the scene and actually seeing the position of the body and the pattern of injuries to the deceased and the arrangement of objects in the surrounding areas, the forensic medicine expert can put the pieces of the puzzle together and attempt to reconstruct the circumstances that led to the event (Fig. 3). The autopsy becomes a major item in the solution of this puzzle (Adelman, 2007).
The murderer sometimes binds the victim’s hands and mouth before killing the victim. 65-year-old man was found dead in his bed, his hands and mouth were bound. The cause of death was strangulation and blunt head trauma.
Always be professional―remember that onlookers, including the decedent\'s family, and news media may be at the perimeter of the scene, so do not say or do anything that would reflect poorly on yourself and the organization you represent. Trash (discarded gloves, etc.) should be placed in bags designated for investigators\' refuse, and not in the garbage cans that are part of the scene because in actuality, they are evidence. Never remove items from a scene for souvenirs (Rogers, 2004; Lew & Matshes, 2005).
In any given case of suspected homicide, it is self-evident that the forensic medicine expert who performs the autopsy should visit the death scene because all injuries must be examined within the context of the event. There are still far too many cases where this does not occur, thus making it impossible to carry out an exact reconstruction of the sequence of events in later stages of the criminal investigation. In numerous cases, however, the initial situation is inadvertently changed by police forces or rescue teams that first arrive at the crime scene. As a result, the initial scene is often not sufficiently documented, and changes may lead to misinterpretation in the future analyzing process (Schröer & Püschel, 2006). Don’t forget: The victim himself or herself is the most important crime scene (Trestrail, 2007) (Fig. 4).
The murderer killed his 36-year-old brother by strangulation and blunt head trauma. The victim was found on the floor in prone position near his bed. The belt buckle of the killer was found inside the hand of the victim (arrows) and this belt buckle helped in identifying the killer. Strangulations should be presumed to be homicidal unless proved otherwise. In order to determine the origin of ligature strangulation, it is necessary to perform a detailed investigation of death scene and examine the type of ligature on the neck of the victim carefully (
In some murders, after killing the victim, the murderer uses a very sharp cutting weapon (a saw, axe, etc.) to sever the limbs and cut the body into small pieces. The operation is generally carried out immediately after the crime, although more rarely a long time may pass between the two events. Dismemberment of the corpse allows the murderer to clear the scene of the crime to delay investigations until the body is found. It also makes it easier to transport the body even for long distances, during times of day when possible witnesses could be about, without raising suspicion (Di Nunno et al., 2006). In a case which authors visited the death scene, a 57-year-old woman’s corpse was found between the bed and wardrobe in her house in a prone position. The victim’s severed head, right arm and both hands were found in a cardboard box near the bed. After death scene investigation and autopsy the murderer was determined as her 33-year-old schizophrenic daughter (Dogan et al., 2010a) (Fig. 5).
The 57-year-old woman was found between bed and wardrobe. Her severed head, right arm and both hands were in a cardboard box. On the right, bloody sports suits of the assailant in the washing machine.
A homicide victim found in a well (on the left) and a victim who was burned (on the right, note the unburned parts of the clothes which are useful for identification).
Sometimes the assailants, after killing the victims, try to hide their crimes by disposing the corpses by burying, by burning, by throwing them into water or wells, or concealing them in distant places (Figs. 6-8).Corpses found in wells or lime pits must be identified, and the cause and manner of death must be determined. There are several circumstances that may lead to the presence of corpses in wells. People may accidentally fall in wells where safety measures have not been taken. Other people may use wells for the purpose of committing suicide. Also, the victims of a homicide may be thrown into a well for concealment. A murdered victim may be thrown into a well to prevent the body from being found. In the cases of homicide, the wells chosen to dispose of the body are often distant from the victim’s district and close to the killer’s district. Wells can provide a means for concealing a corpse and that the corpse can sometimes only be found upon a confession by the killer (Dogan et al., 2010c).
A buried homicide victim in a desolate land.
The victim was killed by blunt head trauma first, then 20 kg iron (arrows) was bound to his legs and thrown into a lake.
Homicide-suicide (HS) events are defined by a perpetrator killing one or more victims before killing him or herself. The term ‘‘dyadic death’’ has also been used for these incidents, because deaths often involve a pair of persons (Milroy et al., 1997). In most of the HS cases, the perpetrator knows the victim (Dogan et al., 2010e) (Fig. 9).
Death scene of a homicide-suicide. Twenty two-year-old man killed his 16-year-old lover (illegitimate relationship), then killed himself with his handgun. The man was married with another woman. Note the handgun between victims.
Our ability to detect poisons has greatly improved over the last 100 years, but our ability to suspect poisoning in the first place has not improved, and may have actually gotten worse.
Some things that might come up in an investigation that should send up a red flag are as follows:
The death occurred in a normally healthy individual. Certainly a person can die without warning, but when this type of death occurs, a deeper look into the cause is called for, including an autopsy.
An individual interfered with the victim receiving proper medical attention. This may lead one to wonder if that person does not want educated eyes and minds delving into the possible cause of the condition in question.
There is no sign of violence to the body. This is always an indication that the death could have been the result of a poisoning misadventure.
The affliction appeared as a natural disease yet failed to respond to normal treatment methods.
An illness reoccurred in cycles; that is, the victim became ill at home, went to a medical facility and seemed to recover, then went home and became ill again, and so on. This would indicate that there is something in the home environment that is proving unhealthy for the individual. Could it be the chronic administration of heavy metals (e.g., arsenic) in the person’s meals? There certainly have been recorded criminal cases in which this has happened, and the poisoner is often not caught in the initial stages of the homicide attempt.
There are common mysterious symptoms in a common group of people. This could indicate that there has been a mass tampering, or that the supposed specific target was a off the mark of the poisoner.
There is an individual who is anxious to dispose of food, drink, or medicine of which the victim partook. In this case, it is clear that the person is attempting to foil the investigation by destroying critical evidence.
An individual prevented friends or relations from being sent for during the victim’s illness. The criminal investigator should question what that person did not want others to witness.
There is an insistence on no autopsy. The criminal investigator should clearly state that one will take place. Once again, the desire not to have educated minds look at the problem comes to the forefront.
There is an insistence on a rapid cremation. This could be construed as an attempt to burn the primary evidence of the crime and foil the investigation. The criminal investigator should clearly state that an investigation must take place before cremation can proceed.
While grieving over the loss of a close family member or friend, a certain individual does not freely begin to offer an explanation for the cause of death. Neither will the person attempt to guide the investigation in any way. If the person does, it could very well be an attempt to divert investigators’ attention from his or her crime, and investigators must be aware of this.
An individual shows a familiarity with poisons and possesses literature about poisons. In this case, not just a red flag should go up, but a whole sky full of mental fireworks (Trestrail, 2007).
It has been stated that poisoning is the least used method of homicide, accounting for only 3–6% of known homicide cases (Adelson, 1974, as cited in Trestrail, 2007). Because of the complexity of poisoning homicide, it is one of the most difficult homicides to prove.
Regarding the death scene, with poisoning multiple locations may have come into play during the planning and execution of the murder. Each location can yield important clues that must be included in the complete case investigation. Some of the locations and the items to look for to yield clues are as follows:
Where the victim was
Where the poison was
Where the poison was
Where the poison was
Where the poison was
The finding of suicide as a manner of death may impact families differently. Suicide carries a stigma on the family name in many cultures. Consequently, objections are often raised by survivors when suicide is documented on the death certificate. Additionally, the finding of suicide can influence the payment of life insurance policies, as most exclude suicide within the first two years after issuance of the policy in order to prevent profit from an individual’s death (Moldovan, 2008).
Thirty seven-year-old woman hanged herself in her house. There was a farewell letter on the floor.
Two items found at a suicide death scene. The packing of a rodenticide and the last SMS message in the victim’s phone which was sent to his friend containing a suicide note.
An experienced death investigator would recognize several ingredients in the scene. A plastic bag, a large rubber band used to hold the bag in place, and drugs or alcohol are often present in suicide scenes. In his book
Seventy eight-year-old woman hanged (partial) herself in the garden of her house.
The father hanged himself to the same place where his daughter hanged herself (as he loved his daughter so much, he couldn’t stand up to the pain). There were farewell letters in both of their clothes’ pockets.
Hanging is one of the most preferred methods for suicide, but homicidal hangings were also reported (Vieira et al., 1988; Sauvageau, 2009). So it is important to visit a death scene in hanging deaths. To determine the cause of death in hanging cases, while the corpse is still at the death scene and in the suspended position, a detailed investigation should be performed by a team including a forensic medicine expert. Further evidence from the death scene investigation, statements from witnesses, the presence of a suicide note, and autopsy findings can all help to determine whether the victim was responsible for his or her own death (Figs. 10-16).
The hand of the suicide victim is still gripping the handgun (cadaveric spasm).
The death scene of a 13-year-old boy’s suicide. The shotgun is in front of the victim, and the entry wound is under the chin. According to the witnesses, after he argued with his father in the garden of his father’s office, he had ran into the office of his father and took his father’s shotgun and killed himself.
The death scene of a 75-year-old woman who stabbed herself in the neck. There is a basin which she collected her blood (right top) and there are hesitation wounds on the neck (right bottom). She had psychiatric problems.
The tying together of the wrists in hanging cases is rare, but may not indicate a homicide, so long as the hanging ligature could not have been self-applied. At first glance, a hanging body found with their hands tied together would give the impression of a homicide but some suicidal people try to avoid being rescued by others or themselves. The closing of the mouth with a plastic bag or a scarf was thought to have removed the possibility of calling out for help during the hanging. Both the tying together of the hands and closing of the mouth were regarded as precautions taken by the victims to prevent any change in mind and an indication of their resolve to go through with the suicide (Fig. 17). In addition, placing soft material against the ligature loop was thought to be an attempt to lessen the feeling of pain (Demirci et al., 2009a) (Fig. 18).
Fifty two-year-old man who hanged himself. Both hands were tied limply behind his back with clothesline and a plastic bag was tied around the mouth.
A soft piece of cloth against the ligature.
In some cultures, religious books and findings indicating praying before suicide may be found at death scene. Demirci et al. (2008a) reported that in investigating medicolegal death cases believed to be of suicidal origin, evidence showing that this action was committed by the victim, the presence of a suicide note at the death scene, and a history of a previous suicidal attempt, the presence of daily axillary and pubic shaving on the external examination of the victim’s body, when of the Muslim faith, may also be considered a feature of suicide (Fig. 19).
A death scene of a 42-year-old woman’s suicide. There was a razor and cut axillary hair in the sink of the bathroom (arrows on right up). Also a prayer rug, pictures of herself, her husband and two daughters, and her ring were on the carpet of the room (right down).
Forty one-year-old man went to the woodland with his motorcycle (arrow) and hanged himself on a tree. A suicide note about his familial problems was found in his pocket.
The corpse of a 70-year-old woman who threw herself into the well in the garden of her house. A farewell letter was found in her house.
Suicidal acts carried out in places open to public can be highly traumatic for witnesses (Owens et al., 2009; Reisch & Michel, 2005; Tranah & Farmer, 1994). Moreover, they are considered more newsworthy than those occurring at home, and media reporting may encourage further suicides (Michel et al., 1995; Pirkis et al., 2007). It was suggested that nearly a third of all suicides occur in public places (Owens et al., 2009). The association of bridges and high buildings with suicide by jumping is well-known, but many other public places offer means or opportunity for suicide. Hanging, car exhaust poisoning and burning involve elaborate preparations and require seclusion. For these deaths, woods and isolated rural car parks provide the perfect opportunity (King & Frost, 2005) (Fig. 20). Wells are a preferred locality for suicides, which is the one reason why individuals may jump into a well, regardless of whether there is water or not. A suicide by drowning, although seen in all age groups, seems to be a preferred method for the elderly individuals (Dogan et al., 2010c) (Fig. 21).
An accidental death scene investigation launches after someone is dead in an automobile or other such accident. The investigation evaluates evidence, usually immediately, as to how the accident occurred. These are some types of accident scenes:
A 17-year-old worker was dead due to electric shock in his workplace. The scene investigation revealed electrical leakage from the defect of the plastic sheath of the cable of carpet washing machine.
It is sometimes difficult to determine the manner and cause of death, if a detailed death scene investigation is not performed. In a case reported by Demirci et al. (2008b), a 30-year-old man’s death was due to throat-cutting. They reported that although the cut in the neck initially suggested homicide, it was found to have occurred as a result of an accident in his workplace after the death scene investigation and autopsy. This case emphasizes the importance of the examination of incident scene and autopsy in determining the origin. Similar cases are deaths due to electric shock. The forensic medicine expert should visit the death scene before the autopsy if it is possible (Fig. 22).
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and odorless gas, and is lighter than air. It is an incomplete combustion product of hydrocarbons. About 600 accidental deaths due to CO poisoning are reported every year in the United States. CO usually causes accidental deaths, because it is pure and odorless (Thom & Keim, 1989; Cobb & Etzel, 1991; Saukko & Knight, 2004) (Figs. 23, 24).
A family (father, mother and child) was found dead in their bed due to carbon monoxide poisoning. There was a coal stove in the room and soot traces (arrows) were observed at the entry point of the stovepipe on the wall which indicating leakage of smoke of the stove.
Carbon monoxide can affect drivers of a moving vehicle, usually owing to a defective exhaust system that allows gas to percolate through the floor or engine bulkhead into the interior. Rarely, a strong following wind can blow the external exhaust-gas through the open doors of a van or truck. Another cause is a leak in the heat exchanger in vehicles that use a direct air supply from around the exhaust manifold to provide passenger heating (Saukko & Knight, 2004). In motor vehicles in which persons must remain for a long period of time while the vehicle is parked, for example, trucks with sleeping cabs, road service vehicles and mail trucks, a separate heater (working independently of the engine of the vehicle) may be used to heat the vehicle. The engine of the apparatus works with diesel fuel or gasoline. Combustion products burning in the pre-combustion chamber heat the fins of the engine. The air passing through the fins is heated and is transferred into the cabin. Malfunction of such an apparatus may be the cause of CO poisoning or fire. So the supplementary heater in the truck might be the cause of fatal CO poisoning and of the fires in the cabins of the trucks (Demirci et al., 2009c) (Fig. 25).
A 42-year-old man was found dead due to carbon monoxide poisoning in his bathroom. There was an LPG water heater which had not a smoke pipe in the bathroom.
A 48-year old male truck driver (ellipse) was found dead due to a fire in a truck parked in an open area of the truck garage. Scene investigation revealed that the cause of fire was broken supplementary heater (arrows) in the truck.
Decapitation may be suicidal, homicidal, and accidental. Accidental decapitations can result from traffic accidents, or occupational accidents. Decapitation by industrial trauma can occur at any age, and is often associated with heavy machinery in workshops or farm equipment being towed behind a tractor (Sharma et al., 1995). The helix elevator is an appliance connected to a tractor. It is used for loading grains from a field to any vehicle, such as a trailer, for transportation. In a case Demirci et al. (2009b) reported, the victim was a 41-year-old male farmer. In the stackyard, a helix elevator machine was loading a trailer with barley while the victim was distributing the loaded barley with a shovel in the trailer.
He had tied a scarf loosely over his face and neck because he was allergic to the barley dust. When the victim’s head and neck were level with the turning helix elevator shaft, the scarf was pulled up and wrapped around the shaft. The scarf then slid around the victim’s neck and tightened, causing the head to separate from the body (Fig. 26).
A 41-year-old male farmer was found decapitated in the stackyard. He was working with a helix elevator machine. He had scarf tied loosely over his face and neck but the scarf was pulled up and wrapped around the shaft of the machine. The scarf then slid around the victim’s neck and tightened, causing the head to separate from the body.
Possession of firearms is limited because of the technological requirements in production and strict laws. However, anyone can manufacture a handmade firearm by following some simple instructions and these actions do not a carry any legal liability. A mole gun is an unusual weapon used to kill moles in agricultural areas. Mole guns are primitive weapons produced for the purpose of trapping and are capable of firing a standard shotgun cartridge. Injuries and deaths caused by mole guns are generally a result of an accident while the victim is setting or controlling the gun (Demirci et al., 2008c) (Fig. 27).
A 42-year-old man was injured on the right thigh region while he was setting a mole gun to kill moles which were damaging the vegetables in his field, and died shortly after at the incident scene. The mole gun was found at the scene.
In some cases, it is important to distinguish accidental manner from suicidal or homicidal ones. For example, if a ligature mark is present on the neck, this is usually suicide or homicide. But sometimes the death may be accidental origin. In a case reported by Dogan et al. (2010d), a 53-year-old woman who had been working in the laundry of a hospital sat on the counter of the ironing machine to heat her back and leaned her back closer to the machine in a cold winter day. At that point, her coworkers left the room. When they re-entered the room 15 min later, they found her dead and observed that her scarf was caught in the roller cylinder of the ironing machine (Fig. 28).
The chief physician of the hospital showing the victim who was found strangulated with her scarf by the roller cylinder of the ironing machine in the laundry of the hospital. On the right side the ligature mark is seen on the neck.
Children have an increased risk for injury or death from accidents for a variety of reasons compared to adults. Perhaps the greatest reason is their natural curiosity, which leads them to explore their environment and investigate situations where they often do not recognize potential hazards (Byard, 1996). Accidental asphyxia can occur in childhood as a result of a variety situations (Dogan et al., 2010b) (Fig. 29).
The one-year-old child’s neck was entangled in a tight cable of the electric heater while he was crawling on the floor of the living room.
Farm accidents are a frequent occurrence in many countries; for example, in the United States, farming is rated second only to mining in terms of occupational danger (Rivara, 1985). Unguarded agricultural power take-off (PTO) drivelines and the related components, including secondary drivelines powered by the PTO, have been historically recognized as serious farm-related hazards that can cause severe, permanently disabling injuries and death when entanglement occurs (Beer & Field, 2005). PTOs are rapidly rotating shafts that transfer power from the tractor attached at one end to a piece of farm machinery at the other end. Clothing or body parts can become entangled, resulting in amputation or avulsion of body parts, strangulation, and massive crushing injuries (Karlson & Noren, 1979) (Fig. 30). Dogan et al. (2010f) reported that 5.8% of the farm tractor-related fatalities involved deaths resulting from PTO entanglement. In these cases, there were extensive crush injuries to the chest, abdomen, and extremities. None of the turning shafts in these cases had safety shields.
Fatality involving power take-off (water pump) entanglement.
An important portion of the deaths investigated by forensic medicine experts involve natural diseases, the most common being cardiovascular disease. Natural diseases processes alter the way the body reacts to and repairs from injuries. The older the person, the more likely that natural disease has a role in the death (Figs. 31, 32). This concept can work in reverse. One can erroneously assume that because the person is young, natural disease is not a factor in the death. Many people have unknown or undiagnosed natural diseases that manifest in sudden, unexpected death. A common history in these cases is that “he hadn’t seen a doctor in years” or “he didn’t believe in doctors.” The result is that the first doctor he sees is the forensic medicine expert, who diagnoses what was a treatable natural disease such as a cardiovascular disease. “Sudden death” is a term used frequently in death investigation but its meaning can be ambiguous. In some situations, death can literally be
Seventy six-year-old woman who had been living alone was found dead in her home in sitting position and holding a glass in her hand. Note the livor mortis on face, hands and left foot due to the position of the deceased.
A 74-year-old man was found dead in half-naked position lying alongside his car. The investigation revealed that when the man and a young woman were having sex, the man suddenly deteriorated and died. The cause of death was determined as myocardial infarction at the autopsy.
Sudden unexplained infant death (SUID) is the sudden and unexpected death of an infant due to natural or unnatural causes. SUID applies to the death of an infant less than 1 year of age, in which investigation, autopsy, medical history review, and appropriate laboratory testing fails to identify a specific cause of death. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is one of several causes of SUID. However, SIDS, unlike the other SUID causes, is a diagnosis of exclusion. Even with a thorough death scene investigation, review of the clinical history, and autopsy, SIDS is difficult to distinguish from other SUIDs, such as accidental suffocation and asphyxia. In the world of death investigation, infant death investigation is unique. From scene through certification, these investigations require skill and knowledge drawn from disciplines outside those typically considered a part of medicolegal education (Corey et al., 2007; Hanzlick, 2001; Shapiro-Mendoza, 2006). The post mortem examination, ideally should include a history of the gestation, delivery and postnatal development, a death scene investigation, a family psycho-social history, a complete autopsy, and a confidential case conference (Bajanowski et al., 2007).
Having knowledge about the many causes of SUID, in addition to SIDS, is of utmost importance for the death scene investigator. At the scene, the investigator will gather evidence as well as information from the parents or caregivers who were with the infant and who may be in a great deal of distress. All of this information is crucial for distinguishing between a natural death, an accidental death, or a homicide.
The following is a brief overview of known causes of infant death that are oftentimes overlooked during investigation, resulting in the cause of death being listed as SIDS on the death certificate.
Asphyxia or suffocation is caused by the inability to breathe. This condition leads to a lack of oxygen in the body, which can lead to loss of consciousness and death. Asphyxia can be caused by choking, constriction of the chest or abdomen, strangulation, narrowing of airway passages (severe allergic reaction or reactive airway disorders), or the inhalation of toxic gases. Common objects that are involved with asphyxia or suffocation include plastic bags, soft pillows, and soft materials such as bedding or stuffed animals. These objects can occlude the mouth and nostrils, causing suffocation. The most commonly reported cause of asphyxia in infants is accidental suffocation and strangulation in bed.
If the investigator is very observant, knows what to look for, and is particularly careful in talking with the caregiver, he/she may pick up some clues that will help determine the specific cause of asphyxia or suffocation and determine whether the manner of death was accidental or intentionally inflicted. A thorough death scene investigation can help answer questions about environmental factors that may have interfered with breathing (e.g., covering of the nose and mouth) or hazards related to aspiration, choking, electrocution, excessive heat or cold, and other external factors.
There are a number of risk factors associated with asphyxia and suffocation. The following is a list of the typical causes of infant asphyxia and/or suffocation.
Overlaying or accidental suffocation on a shared sleep surface.
Accidental strangulation from unsafe surroundings.
Wedging or entrapment.
Immersion in water or drowning.
Choking.
Neck compression (Shapiro-Mendoza, 2006).
Accidental asphyxia can occur in younger children and infants, who may move into positions in which their airways become occluded, their bodies become wedged so that they are unable to breathe, or they become suspended from their clothing or restraining harnesses (Gilbert-Barness et al., 1991; Nixon et al., 1995; Byard, 1996). Many houses in Turkey (especially those situated in the villages and slums) are built with metal rings mounted in the ceilings, so that the occupants can set up swing-like cradles, which are hammock-like in nature. The cradles are constructed by tying two ropes between the two metal rings and connecting them with cloth. Infants are placed in these cradles on top of cushions, and ligatures (e.g., scarf, rope, or sash) are tied around the cradles to prevent them from falling out. However, the ligature can wrap around the neck and asphyxiate the infant if it leans out of the cradle (Dogan et al., 2010b) (Fig. 33).
The position of dead infant in the swing-like cradle. As the victim leaned out of the cradle, the ligature that was tied around the swing-like cradle wrapped around the child’s neck, resulting in asphyxia.
There are a number of risk factors associated with the infant\'s environment that may be connected with the death. The following is a list of causes typically associated with the environment or death scene.
Poisoning or intoxication.
Electrocution.
Hypothermia.
Hyperthermia.
Inborn errors of metabolism are rare genetic disorders that stop or prevent the body from turning food into energy. These disorders are usually caused by defects in the enzymes that help break down foods in the body. When the body cannot process these foods, a buildup of toxic substances or a deficiency of substances needed for normal body function can occur. This buildup can be fatal if not controlled with diet or medication. Some metabolic diseases are inherited.
Injuries can be fatal or nonfatal, and they can occur unintentionally or intentionally (because of purposeful acts of harm). It is often difficult to determine whether an infant’s injury was a result of an unintentional or intentional act. Examples of unintentional injuries include the infant choking on a small toy or rolling over in bed onto the infant.
Shaken baby syndrome (SBS) is one form of abusive head trauma that occurs when an infant or young child is violently shaken or struck against a hard or soft surface. Shaking may cause bleeding over a large portion of the brain. SBS can cause severe brain damage as well as death. In cases where a child receives a head injury from a fall or other impact, there may be external signs of injury, such as bruising or abrasions on the scalp. In SBS, there may be no signs of injury on the infant (Shapiro-Mendoza, 2006).
The physical environment of the death scene may play an important role in the cause and manner of the infant’s death. Some research has indicated that the change of seasons, which requires turning on or off heating or cooling devices (furnace, fireplace, air conditioner, ceiling fan), might precipitate an apneic event. Therefore, it is important to determine, describe, and document the specific environmental conditions of the scene such as room temperature and other factors that may affect the microenvironment of the infant at the time of death (e.g., air current from ceiling fan, humidity levels in a spa, water temperature in a hot tub).
The forensic medicine expert should personally inspect the death scene to gain a thorough understanding of the possible environmental hazards to which the infant might have been exposed. He or she, should observe and document the furnishings in the room/area where the infant was found dead or unresponsive. In addition, the investigator should describe the general state of the room/area; if there is evidence of rodent, insect, or animal activity or a generally unkempt situation, this should be documented as accurately and objectively as possible. The scene should be documented with photographs, diagrams, and descriptions.
Fumes that are noticed at the scene might have contributed to or been the cause of the infant’s death and should be noted in the investigative report. A description of the fumes might provide forensic scientists with clues that will assist them in ordering laboratory tests. The investigator should describe the fumes and their intensity and attempt to ascertain the source of the fumes. If necessary, local fire department personnel should be contacted to ensure that the scene’s air is clear of harmful substances.
The smell of smoke may indicate a live-fire situation or tobacco use at the scene. Smoke might have contributed to or been the cause of the infant’s death. A description of the smoke smell may provide forensic scientists with clues that will assist them in ordering laboratory tests. The investigator should describe the smoke smell, its intensity, and its possible sources.
Mold growth at the scene may have exposed the infant to dangerous airborne pathogens. A description and location of mold growth may provide forensic scientists with clues that will assist them in ordering laboratory tests. The investigator should describe the mold growth and its location in relation to the infant’s sleeping/activity area. Photographs of any suspicious material should be taken at this time.
The observance and documentation of peeling paint at the scene may indicate an infant’s exposure to dangerous lead-based materials. A description of the room and the location and size of the peeling paint area can provide forensic scientists with clues that will assist them in ordering appropriate laboratory tests. The location and size of the peeling paint and its location in relation to the infant’s sleeping/activity area should be described as accurately as possible. The investigator should contact the local health department if the problem presents safety concerns to persons in the vicinity (Ernst et al., 2006).
The forensic medicine expert should visit the death scene before the autopsy if it is possible. Although, investigation and legal systems differs from country to country, there is always a crime scene investigation team. If the forensic medicine expert does not have the opportunity to visit the death scene him/herself, he/she would check the documents (notes, sketches, photographs, etc) which crime scene investigation team prepared. Many medicolegal deaths may be resolved by death scene investigation. A forensic medicine expert should never forget: If the death scene investigation is not performed before the autopsy, that autopsy will be an imperfect autopsy.
Reject brine from desalination plants can have twice as high salinity as seawater [1] as well as high concentrations of other contaminants such as anti-fouling agents, anti-scalants, products of corrosion, etc., which can be harmful to benthic organisms. Thus, brine is usually discharged as a dense submerged jet which provides rapid mixing with ambient water. However, at locations that are characterized by shallow water depth and mild tidal currents, such as the north-western Arabian Gulf [2], diffusers with multiple jets are preferred as they can generate the required amount of mixing in smaller water depths.
Various options have been proposed for better management of reject brine from seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plants [3, 4]. Processes such as pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) [3, 5] and reverse electrodialysis (RED) [6, 7] utilize the salinity difference between brine and treated wastewater effluent (TWE) to recover energy. On the other hand, processes such as electrodialysis (ED) [8] and ion-concentration polarization (ICP) [9] concentrate brine further to increase freshwater recovery [4] or lead to a zero discharge scenario. These options for brine management (pre-dilution with TWE or concentration) affect the discharge concentrations of contaminants present in brine, and can affect the design of outfall used to discharge brine.
Coastal desalination plants are often co-located with power plants which provide them with low-grade heat, used in the distillation of seawater (for multistage flash desalination plants) [10], or electricity (for reverse osmosis plants). Brine is often blended with condenser cooling water (CW) from the power plant before being discharged. TWE can also be used for pre-dilution (mixing with brine before discharge) if a treatment plant is nearby. Pre-dilution helps in reducing concentrations of salt and other contaminants present in brine as well as contaminants in the pre-diluting stream (e.g., condenser cooling water or treated wastewater effluent). It also results in increased discharge flow rate (due to blending of the two streams) and reduced discharge salinity which, in turn, reduces the density of the blended effluent. This leads to progression towards shallow or vertically mixed conditions [11].
If treated wastewater effluent from a treatment plant or condenser cooling water from a coastal power plant are not utilized for pre-dilution, they are usually discharged separately and need an outfall. Thus, in addition to the reduction in discharge concentrations of contaminants, pre-dilution also leads to a reduction in total outfall cost by eliminating the need for two separate outfalls which would cost more than one outfall for the blended stream. Thus, blending of brine with cooling water or wastewater is often recommended [12].
While concentration of brine prior to discharge using submerged outfalls (which result in dilution) is not environmentally desirable in its own right, brine can be concentrated to increase freshwater recovery or harvest salts. In order to increase freshwater recovery, brine can be desalinated in two steps involving ICP and reverse osmosis (RO) [4]. ICP is used to separate brine into two streams: 1) a lighter stream with salinity of about 35 ppt, which is then desalinated using RO; and 2) a concentrated brine stream, which is either used to harvest salts or discharged using an outfall. The concentrations of contaminants present in brine increase due to concentration. Due to the high concentrations of contaminants in concentrated brine, the near-field mixing required to dilute contaminants to desirable levels is also high.
From an environmental standpoint, one is interested in reducing concentrations of contaminants in receiving water beyond a certain mixing zone. Environmental regulations usually specify the size of a mixing zone and require outfall designs that ensure that contaminant concentrations at the edge of the mixing zone are lower than specified threshold concentrations. To dilute a contaminant to a desired concentration, the outfall needs a certain water depth. At a location with offshore sloping bottom, this means going offshore to a certain distance which has an associated capital cost. Also, the cost for pumping the effluent constitutes an operating cost. The design parameters can be optimized to achieve the right balance of these two costs and design an outfall which provides desired dilutions at the end of the mixing zone with minimum cost.
We look at the effects of four brine management strategies – pre-dilution with seawater, power plant cooling water, treated wastewater effluent and pre-concentration on the design of submerged single and multiport outfalls. Outfall design variables (discharge velocity, number of ports, receiving water depth, etc.) are optimized for four different designs such that contaminants can be diluted to satisfy environmental objectives. Effect of brine management strategies on outfall cost is investigated and discussed using examples. Recommendations regarding the cost-effectiveness of different brine management options are presented.
High velocity submerged jets are often used for the discharge of brine from desalination plants as they induce rapid mixing with ambient water and lead to reduction of contaminant concentrations. Inclined jets located near the sea floor are commonly used to discharge dense effluents as they increase the jet trajectory (and, in turn, dilution). Such jets rise to a maximum (terminal rise) height equal to
The receiving water is considered “deep” if its depth is sufficiently large and the dense effluent does not interact with the surface. “Shallow” conditions occur if the effluent interacts with the surface but it forms a bottom layer in the vicinity of the discharge. If the depth is small enough, the effluent can be mixed over the entire water column for large distances. Such a situation is categorized as being “vertically mixed”. Increase in the value of
In deep water, the impact point dilution, which is the minimum dilution along the seafloor, of an inclined submerged jet is proportional to
A unidirectional (or tee) diffuser is an outfall which consists of an array of submerged jets (number of jets
In deep water (
In shallow water (
In vertically mixed conditions (
For a unidirectional diffuser discharging in quiescent shallow or vertically mixed conditions, proximity to shoreline can result in a reduction in dilution [21]. However, the reduction in dilution is less than 15% if the separation between the diffuser and the shoreline (in constant water depth) is more than 60% of the diffuser length. At a location with uniformly sloping bottom, this is roughly equivalent to an offshore distance equal to 1.2 times the diffuser length [21]. In the presence of moderate to high crossflow, Shrivastava and Adams [22] observed no significant reduction in dilution if the separation between the diffuser and the shoreline is at least 15% of the diffuser length for a diffuser discharging in uniform water depth. This corresponds to a shoreline separation of 30% or more of the diffuser length at a location with uniformly sloping bottom.
Several studies have examined outfall optimization for brine disposal. Jiang and Law [23] provided semi-analytical solutions for the combination of port diameter (
Maalouf et al. [24] provided a simulation-optimization framework to optimize SWRO outfall design. They used a regression model, calibrated using results from an initial mixing model (CORMIX), to quantify the effects of various parameters on dilution. Using this regression model for dilution, they optimized the design variables to minimize the total cost. The total cost was assumed to be a linear function of outfall pipe length (
The above studies only considered linear cost functions and have not been compared to cost functions in the real world.
Recently proposed brine management options [3, 4] include pre-dilution with a lighter effluent and pre-concentration, and can cause significant changes to contaminant concentrations and, in turn, the required dilution. Contaminants of concern for the discharge of pre-diluted brine can be categorized into three categories [26]. First, there are contaminants similar to salt which are present in ambient water but get concentrated due to the desalination process. Thus, the discharge concentrations are higher than ambient concentrations and these contaminants need to be diluted. Examples include salts and metals. Second, there are contaminants that are introduced by the desalination process, such as anti-scalants and cleaning chemicals [27]. Third, there are contaminants that are present in the pre-dilution stream. Examples include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nutrients etc. present in TWE and excess temperature from CW. While some of the contaminants of concern degrade with time (e.g., ammonia), most of them are conservative and require mixing with ambient water to reduce their concentrations below harmful levels.
For the case of pre-dilution, reject brine from a typical reverse osmosis (RO) plant (having double the salinity as ambient seawater and with flow rate
Reject Brine | TWE | CW | SW | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Salinity | ||||
Temperature | ||||
Reduced gravity |
Properties of brine and various pre-dilution streams.
Pre-dilution with TWE leads to a rapid reduction in discharge salinity as the salinity deficit of TWE (with respect to ambient water) cancels out some of the salinity excess of brine. Similarly, the reduced gravity of the effluent when brine is blended with TWE decreases rapidly. On the other hand, SW and CW do not have any salinity excess or deficit (with respect to ambient water), and thus the reduction in discharge salinity (and, in turn, reduced gravity) is less than that for the case of pre-dilution with TWE. As CW is positively buoyant with respect to ambient water, the decrease in
For the case of pre-concentration, it is assumed that brine (with initial flow rate
Since the salinity of brine is double the salinity of seawater and the salinity of TWE is assumed to be zero, the blended effluent has the same salinity as ambient seawater when the flows (of brine and TWE) are blended in a 1:1 ratio (
Optimization of the design of outfalls discharging pre-diluted or pre-concentrated brine is considered here such that regulatory requirements on contaminant concentrations can be met at the end of the mixing zone with minimum cost. The end of the mixing zone is assumed to be at the impact point of the jets. Thus, the expressions for impact point dilution of a single port outfall and a multiport (unidirectional) diffuser can be used to calculate the “physical” dilution induced by the outfall.
The location of an outfall depends on many factors, such as the availability of deep water, absence of natural submerged sills, spits, and manmade jetties, and knowledge of the offshore bathymetry; hydrodynamic modeling is often utilized to test a proposed design before it is adopted. In addition, detailed analysis of the forces exerted on the outfall due to oceanographic conditions is also carried out to ensure its stability. These factors are site-specific and beyond the scope of this chapter. Here, we are considering generic outfall designs and calculating values of design variables, such as receiving water depth, discharge velocity, number of ports, etc., that result in minimum cost. For this calculation, the outfall is considered to be located at a place with uniformly sloping bottom in the offshore direction.
Optimization of outfall design requires identification of outfall cost, desired dilution and design alternatives, which are discussed below.
One of the major components of outfall cost is the cost of the conveyance system to carry brine to the offshore discharge location. Depending on the oceanographic conditions and the discharge location, this can be done by running a pipe through a tunnel or a trench, or laying a pipe on the seabed secured using ballast weights [28]. Here, we have assumed that high density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes are used.
The capital cost is considered to be composed of four major components. The first is the cost of laying the HDPE pipe to the required offshore distance. The cost per unit length of HDPE pipes was found to be proportional to the pipe diameter (
The most common way to secure HDPE pipes to the sea bed is to attach concrete ballast weights [28]. The cost of concrete weights per unit length of the pipe was found to increase with pipe diameter [29] and a linear fit was used. Thus, the total cost of anchor blocks was proportional to the product of pipe diameter and length. Combining the cost of the HDPE pipe and the concrete anchor blocks, the cost of laying the outfall pipe is:
At a location with uniformly sloping bottom (with slope
Correlation between outfall pipe diameter and flow rate.
The cost of the outfall pipe is then given by:
where
The second component is the cost of the diffuser manifold. Assuming that the diffuser manifold has the same diameter as the outfall pipe (
This component of cost is only considered for a multiport diffuser, i.e.,
The third component is the cost of nozzles. A linear fit to the cost per nozzle data, reported in [29, 30], was used to estimate the total cost of nozzles as:
The fourth component is the cost of pumps required to pump the effluent to the offshore location of the outfall. The cost of pumps increases with the flow rate and the total head loss in the outfall. Based on the cost of pumps for pumping product water reported by [29], this cost was found to be proportional to the product of effluent density, flow rate and total head loss (
The first three cost components (
The total cost of the outfall also includes an operating cost which mainly consists of the cost of electricity for pumping the effluent, and operation and maintenance cost. It is assumed that the available pressure and elevation head before discharge are negligible and thus pumping is required to discharge the effluent with high velocity. The pumping cost is proportional to the product of effluent density, flow rate and total head loss. Thus, the pumping cost over the life of the plant is:
where
Malcolm Pirnie [29] reported values of operation and maintenance cost for different scenarios which suggest that it is independent of design variables. Therefore, a constant value was used for the operation and maintenance cost.
Table 2 provides a summary of the cost functions and typical values of cost coefficients (for costs in USD, as per May 2016 ENR index).
Costs | Expression | Cost coefficients |
---|---|---|
Cost of outfall pipe | ||
Cost of diffuser manifold | ||
Cost of nozzles | ||
Cost of pumps | ||
Pumping costa,b | ||
Operation and maintenance costb |
Break-down of total outfall cost.
Assuming cost of electricity = 0.10 USD/kWh.
Assuming discount rate of 10% and plant lifetime of 20 years.
An estimation of head loss is required to calculate the total cost. Head loss is estimated by considering the components listed in Table 3. Here,
Component | Description | Expression | Coefficient value |
---|---|---|---|
Conveyance to offshore location of the outfall | Friction loss in a pipe of length | ||
A T-junctiona | |||
Diffuser manifold | Friction loss in a pipe of length | ||
Entry lossa | Loss incurred while entry into the riserc | ||
Sudden contractionb | Contraction from pipe diameter to nozzle diameter | ||
A | For the nozzles pointing at | ||
Exit loss |
Components of total head loss.
Only for the design with a unidirectional diffuser.
Only for a single port design.
Assuming riser diameter equal to the nozzle diameter.
From Davis [33].
Assumed to vary linearly with the ratio of cross-sectional areas of the two pipes from 0.45 to 0.16 for area ratio (ratio of smaller cross-sectional area to larger cross-sectional area) from 0.04 to 0.64.
Environmental regulations usually specify threshold concentrations for various contaminants. These are maximum acceptable concentrations in the water body that are considered to be safe for aquatic organisms. Thus, outfalls are required to reduce contaminant concentrations to threshold levels within a regulatory mixing zone. Here, the impact point of the jets is assumed to be the end of the mixing zone.
Threshold concentrations can be different at different locations as they are based on the toxicological adaptability of the marine species thriving in that location. Also, regulatory requirements vary from country to country, with international guidelines also referring to local regulations [34, 35]. In addition, source stream concentrations vary depending on the quality of feed water, desalination process etc., resulting in a range of values of the desired dilution. For simplicity, salinity is assumed to be the most constraining contaminant. The threshold concentration of salt is assumed to be 2 ppt in excess of ambient salinity [36] and outfall designs which dilute salinity to an excess of 2 ppt at impact point are discussed.
Effective dilution for a contaminant is defined as the ratio of its excess concentration in the source stream (e.g., brine for salinity) to its excess concentration at a given location. Thus, if the excess salinity of the diluted effluent at the impact point is equal to 4 ppt (in excess of ambient salinity), then the effective dilution of salinity at impact point is equal to
Unlike the desired effective dilution, the desired physical dilution at the impact point also depends on the amount of pre-dilution or pre-concentration (the value of
Brine can be discharged through an outfall in two ways – the discharge can be such that the plume stays below the water surface or it can be allowed to hit the surface. The former design would be implemented if the regulations require the plume to not be visible at the surface. However, the latter design usually costs less and should be preferred when there are no restrictions on plume visibility.
For a jet inclined at
These design parameters do not minimize the total cost as they require a large capital cost. Specifically, in locations with very small bottom slope, such as the Arabian Gulf [2], the capital cost can be several orders of magnitude larger than the pumping cost and the total cost can be very high. To reduce the capital cost, it is beneficial to achieve the desired dilution with smaller ambient depth by reducing the port diameter or to employ a multi-port diffuser. Using a single, smaller diameter port will result in an increase in discharge velocity, and thus the pumping cost. The optimum design will be the one that minimizes the total cost (capital cost + pumping cost). The design variables for this design are denoted using the subscript ‘sh’, for shallow. Similarly, for a multiport diffuser, optimum design variables can be computed for the two designs, one with the diffuser plume submerged and the other with surfacing plume. A schematic of the four designs is shown in Figure 2.
Schematic showing the plan view (top) and elevation view (bottom) of the four designs considered.
The optimum values of water depth, diameter and discharge velocity needed to dilute a contaminant with excess concentration of
Figure 3 shows the variation of
Variation of
When brine is pre-diluted, the desired physical dilution reduces with an increase in
This section explores the optimum design with no restriction on plume visibility, i.e., the design which minimizes total cost without any constraint. For most cases, this design results in a plume which hits the surface. But for some cases, the design with a submerged plume is also the one which minimizes the total cost and should be adopted. This design optimization results in non-linear equations which are solved using the ‘fsolve’ function in MATLAB.
Figure 4 shows the variation of
Variation of
The design optimization for a unidirectional diffuser also results in non-linear equations which are solved using the ‘fsolve’ function in MATLAB. Optimum design variables are calculated which achieve desired dilution and minimize total cost. However, in some cases the optimized design variables need to be adjusted. For example, to ensure uniform flow through all the ports, the aggregate cross-sectional area of the nozzles should be less than two-thirds of the cross-sectional area of the diffuser manifold [31]. Since the manifold diameter is assumed to be related to the discharge flow rate (Eq. (6)), this requires the discharge velocity to be at least equal to
For certain cases, the design with a single port is the one which minimizes cost, i.e., any design with multiple ports will have higher total cost than the design with one port. This is observed for cases which require a submerged plume and for which the desired physical dilution is small. The optimum discharge velocity (not adjusted for uniform flow) for such cases is small and adjustment for uniform flow results in a design with total cost higher than the cost of the single jet design. For these cases, the single port design is accepted as the optimum design.
Once the optimum design variables are calculated (which satisfy all constraints),
Figure 5 shows the variation of
Variation of
An optimum design with multiple ports (which has lower cost than a single port design) can be found for all cases when the effluent plume is allowed to hit the surface. Figure 6 shows the variation of
Variation of
For the multiport diffuser designs calculated here, the ratio of offshore distance of the diffuser (
Figure 7 shows the comparison of total costs for the four designs (single jet and unidirectional diffuser with submerged and surfacing plume) with
Total costs of the four design alternatives to achieve desired excess salinity of 2 ppt at the impact point with
Figure 7 shows that for most of the pre-dilution cases, the design with a single jet is the optimum design when the regulations require the plume to be submerged. Thus, for these cases, the ‘
For the discharge of brine without pre-dilution or pre-concentration, the total costs (in million USD) of the four designs are
When brine is concentrated, the desired physical dilution increases rapidly with increase in
Design | Capital cost (million USD) | Operating cost (million USD) | Total cost (million USD) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Single jet with submerged plume | 1 | 11.9 | 17.7 | 3.6 | 2.6 | 6.2 |
Unidirectional diffuser with submerged plume | 39 | 2.7 | 8.5 | 1.4 | 1.7 | 3.1 |
Example showing calculated design variables for the discharge of concentrated brine (
Pre-concentration of brine increases the concentrations of contaminants present in brine. Thus, the total cost of discharging concentrated brine increases with
The costs in Figure 7 are calculated for salinity as the contaminant of concern. However, the relative importance of different types of contaminants (present in brine, TWE or CW) depends on the blending ratio (for pre-dilution with TWE and CW). At low blending ratio, the contaminants present in brine require higher dilution and are likely to be the constraining contaminants whereas contaminants present in TWE or CW require higher dilution at high blending ratio. Thus, the designs and the associated costs calculated above need to be adjusted at high blending ratio.
Since the outfall design depends on desired physical dilution, which in turn, depends on the threshold concentrations, it is important to analyze the effect of threshold concentrations on the optimum design. This is illustrated through an example in Figure 8 in which the threshold concentration of salinity (
Variation of
The required depths and total costs (for designs with submerged and surfacing plume) decrease with increase in threshold concentrations (for discharge through a single jet) because the additional mixing required to achieve those concentrations is less. For a design with multiple ports which requires the plume to be submerged and has the discharge velocity fixed to ensure uniform flow, the required depth is proportional to the inverse of desired dilution, i.e., the depth is proportional to
The optimum design at a location with a mild bottom slope, such as the Arabian Gulf which has bottom slopes as little as about
Comparison of total costs at locations with
A comparison of optimum design variables at locations with different bottom slopes is shown in Table 5 for discharge of brine without pre-dilution or pre-concentration. For this example, two bottom slopes (
Design | Variables | ||
---|---|---|---|
Single jet with submerged plume | 10.1 | 10.1 | |
5.4 | 5.4 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 5.2 | 35.9 | |
Single jet with surfacing plume | 8.2 | 5.2 | |
8.3 | 20.8 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 4.9 | 23.3 | |
Unidirectional diffuser with submerged plume | 2.8 | 1.4 | |
2.8 | 2.0 | ||
26 | 150 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 3.1 | 8.2 | |
Unidirectional diffuser with surfacing plume | 2.2 | 0.8 | |
4.8 | 8.2 | ||
29 | 174 | ||
TC (Million USD) | 3.0 | 6.4 |
Example showing calculated design variables for discharge of brine (without pre-dilution or pre-concentration) at two locations with
For the unidirectional diffuser designs in Table 5, the required water depths are 1.4 m and 0.8 m (for
As shown in Figure 7, the cost of discharging brine blended with TWE is less than the cost of discharging brine without pre-dilution for
Unlike TWE and CW, SW does not need a separate outfall. In fact, intake of seawater for pre-dilution adds an extra cost. Also, as shown in Figure 7, the total cost increases with increase in
For the calculations in this paper, a wide range of
Brine management strategies cause changes to the discharge flow rate, discharge concentrations of contaminants and the density difference between the effluent and seawater, and thus require changes to the outfall design. It is shown that pre-dilution with seawater is less economical than the discharge of brine without any pre-dilution. Thus, seawater should only be used for pre-dilution if there are restrictions on discharge concentrations of contaminants and other effluents (TWE or CW) are not available for pre-dilution. Concentration of brine is also not viable from an environmental standpoint. On the other hand, pre-dilution with TWE or CW is likely to be economically beneficial.
For the design of a new outfall for a desalination plant with known amount of pre-dilution or pre-concentration, design variables are calculated for both a single port and a multiport outfall. Depending on the environmental regulations which might have restrictions on plume visibility, design parameters are evaluated for a submerged plume or a surfacing plume. It is shown that when the plume is allowed to hit the water surface (no restrictions on plume visibility), the required water depth and total cost of the outfall can be significantly reduced. For such cases, the required water depth and the offshore distance decrease as the blending ratio increases. At locations which require the plume to be submerged, the design with a single jet is found to have lower cost than a design with multiple ports (for most values of the blending ratio). However, for locations with no restrictions on plume visibility, use of a multiport diffuser is recommended as it can result in much lower cost than a single jet.
The effect of bottom slope and threshold concentrations on outfall design is also explored. Locations with mild bottom slope encourage the use of outfalls with multiple ports which can reduce the required water depth and, in turn, the offshore distance of the outfall from the shoreline. An increase in threshold concentrations usually leads to a reduction in outfall cost as the outfall needs to achieve a smaller dilution. Similarly, more stringent regulations (smaller threshold concentrations) can lead to a rapid increase in outfall cost.
This work was supported by Kuwait-MIT Center for Natural Resources and the Environment (CNRE), which was funded by Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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This chapter dwells on the sources and reactivity of phenolic compounds in water, their toxic effects on humans, and methods of their removal from water. Specific emphasis is placed on the techniques of their removal from water with attention on both conventional and advanced methods. Among these methods are ozonation, adsorption, extraction, photocatalytic degradation, biological, electro‐Fenton, adsorption and ion exchange and membrane‐based separation.",book:{id:"6029",slug:"phenolic-compounds-natural-sources-importance-and-applications",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Natural Sources, Importance and Applications"},signatures:"William W. Anku, Messai A. Mamo and Penny P. 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Morales and Sagrario Martínez-Ramírez",authors:[{id:"107401",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia J",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández",slug:"lucia-j-fernandez",fullName:"Lucia J Fernández"}]},{id:"53128",doi:"10.5772/66368",title:"Phenolic Compounds: Functional Properties, Impact of Processing and Bioavailability",slug:"phenolic-compounds-functional-properties-impact-of-processing-and-bioavailability",totalDownloads:9381,totalCrossrefCites:77,totalDimensionsCites:148,abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss the influence of the processing methods on the content of phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables. The intake of fruits and vegetables based‐foods are associated with delayed aging and a decreased risk of chronic disease development. Fruits and vegetables can be consumed in natura, but the highest amounts are ingested after some processing methods, such as cooking procedures or sanitizing methods. These methods are directly methods are directly related to alteration on the phenolic content. In addition, the postharvest conditions may modify several phytochemical substances. Phenolic compounds are referred to as phytochemicals found in a large number of foods and beverages. The relative high diversity of these molecules produced by plants must be taken into account when methods of preparation are employed to obtain industrial or homemade products. Phenolic compounds comprise one (phenolic acids) or more (polyphenols) aromatic rings with attached hydroxyl groups in their structures. Their antioxidant capacities are related to these hydroxyl groups and phenolic rings. Despite the antioxidant activity, they have many other beneficial effects on human health. However, before attributing health benefits to these compounds, absorption, distribution, and metabolism of each phenolic compound in the body are important points that should be considered.",book:{id:"5609",slug:"phenolic-compounds-biological-activity",title:"Phenolic Compounds",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Biological Activity"},signatures:"Igor Otavio Minatel, Cristine Vanz Borges, Maria Izabela Ferreira,\nHector Alonzo Gomez Gomez, Chung-Yen Oliver Chen and\nGiuseppina Pace Pereira Lima",authors:[{id:"146379",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppina",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"giuseppina-lima",fullName:"Giuseppina Lima"},{id:"194002",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristine",middleName:null,surname:"Vanz Borges",slug:"cristine-vanz-borges",fullName:"Cristine Vanz Borges"},{id:"194003",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Otavio",middleName:null,surname:"Minatel",slug:"igor-otavio-minatel",fullName:"Igor Otavio Minatel"},{id:"194004",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"maria-izabela-ferreira",fullName:"Maria Izabela Ferreira"},{id:"194005",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Gomez",slug:"hector-gomez-gomez",fullName:"Hector Gomez-Gomez"},{id:"194006",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Yen Oliver",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chung-yen-oliver-chen",fullName:"Chung-Yen Oliver Chen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55500",title:"Interpretation of Mass Spectra",slug:"interpretation-of-mass-spectra",totalDownloads:12503,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"The chapter includes an introduction to the main ionisation techniques in mass spectrometry and the way the resulting fragments can be analysed. First, the fundamental notions of mass spectrometry are explained, so that the reader can easily cover this chapter (graphs, main pick, molecular ion, illogical pick, nitrogen rule, etc.). Isotopic percentage and nominal mass calculation are also explained along with fragmentation mechanism. A paragraph emphasises the ionisation energy issues, the basics of ionisation voltage, the developing potential and the energy balance. A frame time of the main theoretical milestones in both theory and experimental mass spectrometry is highlighted here. In the second part of the chapter, the molecular fragmentation for alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, halogen, alcohols, phenols, ethers, carbonyl compounds, carboxylic acids and functional derivatives, nitrogen compounds (amines, nitro compounds), sulphur compounds, heterocycles and biomolecules (amino acids, steroids, triglycerides) is explained. Fragmentation schemes are followed by the simplified spectra, which help the understanding of such complex phenomena. At the end of the chapter, acquisition of mass spectrum is discussed. The chapter presented here is an introduction to mass spectrometry, which, we think, helps the understanding of the mechanism of fragmentation corroborating spectral data and molecular structures.",book:{id:"5735",slug:"mass-spectrometry",title:"Mass Spectrometry",fullTitle:"Mass Spectrometry"},signatures:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu",authors:[{id:"196775",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodor Octavian",middleName:"Octavian",surname:"Nicolescu",slug:"teodor-octavian-nicolescu",fullName:"Teodor Octavian Nicolescu"}]},{id:"57909",title:"Validation of Analytical Methods",slug:"validation-of-analytical-methods",totalDownloads:6989,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Method validation is a key element in the establishment of reference methods and within the assessment of a laboratory’s competence in generating dependable analytical records. Validation has been placed within the context of the procedure, generating chemical data. Analytical method validation, thinking about the maximum relevant processes for checking the best parameters of analytical methods, using numerous relevant overall performance indicators inclusive of selectivity, specificity, accuracy, precision, linearity, range, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), ruggedness, and robustness are severely discussed in an effort to prevent their misguided utilization and ensure scientific correctness and consistency among publications.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Tentu Nageswara Rao",authors:[{id:"220824",title:"Dr.",name:"Tentu",middleName:null,surname:"Nageswara Rao",slug:"tentu-nageswara-rao",fullName:"Tentu Nageswara Rao"}]},{id:"55440",title:"Solubility Products and Solubility Concepts",slug:"solubility-products-and-solubility-concepts",totalDownloads:3090,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The chapter refers to a general concept of solubility product Ksp of sparingly soluble hydroxides and different salts and calculation of solubility of some hydroxides, oxides, and different salts in aqueous media. A (criticized) conventional approach, based on stoichiometry of a reaction notation and the solubility product of a precipitate, is compared with the unconventional/correct approach based on charge and concentration balances and a detailed physicochemical knowledge on the system considered, and calculations realized according to generalized approach to electrolytic systems (GATES) principles. An indisputable advantage of the latter approach is proved in simulation of static or dynamic, two-phase nonredox or redox systems.",book:{id:"5891",slug:"descriptive-inorganic-chemistry-researches-of-metal-compounds",title:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds",fullTitle:"Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry Researches of Metal Compounds"},signatures:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk, Aneta Spórna-Kucab and\nTadeusz Michałowski",authors:[{id:"35273",title:"Prof.",name:"Tadeusz",middleName:null,surname:"Michalowski",slug:"tadeusz-michalowski",fullName:"Tadeusz Michalowski"},{id:"203867",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk",slug:"anna-maria-michalowska-kaczmarczyk",fullName:"Anna Maria Michałowska-Kaczmarczyk"},{id:"203868",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneta",middleName:null,surname:"Spórna-Kucab",slug:"aneta-sporna-kucab",fullName:"Aneta Spórna-Kucab"}]},{id:"62736",title:"Radioisotope: Applications, Effects, and Occupational Protection",slug:"radioisotope-applications-effects-and-occupational-protection",totalDownloads:4543,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"This chapter presents a brief introduction to radioisotopes, sources and types of radiation, applications, effects, and occupational protection. The natural and artificial sources of radiations are discussed with special reference to natural radioactive decay series and artificial radioisotopes. Applications have played significant role in improving the quality of human life. The application of radioisotopes in tracing, radiography, food preservation and sterilization, eradication of insects and pests, medical diagnosis and therapy, and new variety of crops in agricultural field is briefly described. Radiation interacts with matter to produce excitation and ionization of an atom or molecule; as a result physical and biological effects are produced. These effects and mechanisms are discussed. The dosimetric quantities used in radiological protection are described. Radiological protections and the control of occupational and medical exposures are briefly described.",book:{id:"5903",slug:"principles-and-applications-in-nuclear-engineering-radiation-effects-thermal-hydraulics-radionuclide-migration-in-the-environment",title:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering",fullTitle:"Principles and Applications in Nuclear Engineering - Radiation Effects, Thermal Hydraulics, Radionuclide Migration in the Environment"},signatures:"Sannappa Jadiyappa",authors:[{id:"239626",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Sannappa J.",slug:"sannappa-j.",fullName:"Sannappa J."}]},{id:"58596",title:"Linearity of Calibration Curves for Analytical Methods: A Review of Criteria for Assessment of Method Reliability",slug:"linearity-of-calibration-curves-for-analytical-methods-a-review-of-criteria-for-assessment-of-method",totalDownloads:8095,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Calibration curve is a regression model used to predict the unknown concentrations of analytes of interest based on the response of the instrument to the known standards. Some statistical analyses are required to choose the best model fitting to the experimental data and also evaluate the linearity and homoscedasticity of the calibration curve. Using an internal standard corrects for the loss of analyte during sample preparation and analysis provided that it is selected appropriately. After the best regression model is selected, the analytical method needs to be validated using quality control (QC) samples prepared and stored in the same temperature as intended for the study samples. Most of the international guidelines require that the parameters, including linearity, specificity, selectivity, accuracy, precision, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), matrix effect and stability, be assessed during validation. Despite the highly regulated area, some challenges still exist regarding the validation of some analytical methods including methods when no analyte-free matrix is available.",book:{id:"6379",slug:"calibration-and-validation-of-analytical-methods-a-sampling-of-current-approaches",title:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Calibration and Validation of Analytical Methods - A Sampling of Current Approaches"},signatures:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi and Sussan Ghassabian",authors:[{id:"216099",title:"Dr.",name:"Sussan",middleName:null,surname:"Ghassabian",slug:"sussan-ghassabian",fullName:"Sussan Ghassabian"},{id:"216101",title:"Mr.",name:"Seyed Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Moosavi",slug:"seyed-mojtaba-moosavi",fullName:"Seyed Mojtaba Moosavi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"8",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83005",title:"Catalytic Behavior of Extended π-Conjugation in the Kinetics of Sensitizer-Mediator Interaction",slug:"catalytic-behavior-of-extended-conjugation-in-the-kinetics-of-sensitizer-mediator-interaction",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106511",abstract:"This chapter discusses the catalytic effect of extended π-conjugation on the electron transfer process between ferricyphen-ferrocyanide and ferricypyr-ferrocyanide in an aqueous medium. Ferricyphen and ferricypyr may be feasible options for the sensitizer in dye-sensitized solar cells due to their high reduction potential, stability, capability as an outer-sphere oxidant, and photosensitivity. Meanwhile, ferrocyanide could be used as a mediator in DSSCs instead of iodide to avoid iodate production and achieve a similar reduction potential and stability. This chapter compared the ability of competent putative sensitizers to oxidize the likely mediator in water. In contrast to the 2,2′-dipyridyl chelate, the extended π-conjugation in 1,10-phenanthroline accelerated the redox process by increasing the electron affinity of ferricyphen as compared to ferricypyr. The reactions had the same kinetics but different rate constants, indicating that the ferricyphen-ferrocyanide reaction was several times faster than the ferricypyr-ferrocyanide reaction, revealing and confirming the catalytic influence of extended π-conjugation on the redox process.",book:{id:"11217",title:"Recent Advances in Chemical Kinetics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11217.jpg"},signatures:"Rozina Khattak"},{id:"83004",title:"Pyridine Heterocycles in the Therapy of Oncological Diseases",slug:"pyridine-heterocycles-in-the-therapy-of-oncological-diseases",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106406",abstract:"Oncological diseases pose a major challenge for modern medicine. Heterocyclic compounds play a vital role in modern medical and pharmaceutical science as most medicinal substances incorporate them. Nitrogen-containing heterocycles serve as the basis of numerous drugs and, therefore, are deeply involved in the design and synthesis of promising new therapeutic agents. Pyridine or pyrimidine scaffolds, with a number of substituents attached, comprise a large portion of FDA-approved drugs. They are chemically stable in the human body, manifest an affinity for DNA via hydrogen bonding, and present an opportunity for the development of novel anticancer agents. A large number of pyridine-based molecules are synthesized and tested for anticancer activity each year. The present chapter aims to introduce the most current synthetic approaches, published in scientific literature, and would also elaborate on structure-activity relationships described therein.",book:{id:"11562",title:"Chemistry with Pyridine Derivatives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11562.jpg"},signatures:"Lozan T. Todorov and Irena P. Kostova"},{id:"82969",title:"Utilizing Photocatalysts in Reducing Moisture Absorption in Composites of Natural Fibers",slug:"utilizing-photocatalysts-in-reducing-moisture-absorption-in-composites-of-natural-fibers",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106543",abstract:"Due to growing environmental consciousness and the depletion of oil supplies, numerous efforts have been made to replace synthetic fibers in fiber-reinforced composites with natural fibers (NFr). The low cost and abundance of NFr and its biodegradability and low density have encouraged researchers worldwide to study their potential applications in several industrial sectors. However, NFr has several disadvantages: excessive moisture absorption and subsequent swelling and degradation, low chemical and fire resistance, and insufficient interfacial interactions with polymers. Consequently, there is great interest in modifying the surface of NFr using a variety of methods. This chapter presents an overview of the NFr, its characterization, the problems associated with adding NFr to polymer composites. This literature survey suggests an in-depth review of photocatalysis by utilizing photocatalysts nanoparticle (PHNPs) aimed at increasing the hydrophobicity and interfacial bonding between the NFr and the matrix Using a photo-induced oxidation mechanism to disassemble water molecules, pollutants, and bacteria in a wet environment. Additionally, we reviewed the effects of these PHNPs on the moisture absorption, mechanical characteristics, and dimensional stability of NFr composites. As a result, this review article may make a valuable contribution to researchers interested in coating and treating NFr to further enhance their surface characteristics.",book:{id:"11559",title:"Photocatalysts - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11559.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammed Mohammed and Rozyanty Rahman"},{id:"82853",title:"Revealing Retention Mechanisms in Liquid Chromatography: QSRR Approach",slug:"revealing-retention-mechanisms-in-liquid-chromatography-qsrr-approach",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106245",abstract:"One-factor-at-a-time experimentation was used for a long time as gold-standard optimization for liquid chromatographic (LC) method development. This approach has two downsides as it requires a needlessly great number of experimental runs and it is unable to identify possible factor interactions. At the end of the last century, however, this problem could be solved with the introduction of new chemometric strategies. This chapter aims at presenting quantitative structure–retention relationship (QSRR) models with structuring possibilities, from the point of feature selection through various machine learning algorithms that can be used in model building, for internal and external validation of the proposed models. The presented strategies of QSRR model can be a good starting point for analysts to use and adopt them as a good practice for their applications. QSRR models can be used in predicting the retention behavior of compounds, to point out the molecular features governing the retention, and consequently to gain insight into the retention mechanisms. In terms of these applications, special attention was drawn to modified chromatographic systems, characterized by mobile or stationary phase modifications. Although chromatographic methods are applied in a wide variety of fields, the greatest attention has been devoted to the analysis of pharmaceuticals.",book:{id:"11557",title:"Chemometrics - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11557.jpg"},signatures:"Jovana Krmar, Bojana Svrkota, Nevena Đajić, Jevrem Stojanović, Ana Protić and Biljana Otašević"},{id:"82796",title:"A Revisit of the Underlying Fundamentals in the Laser Emission from BODIPYs",slug:"a-revisit-of-the-underlying-fundamentals-in-the-laser-emission-from-bodipys",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106334",abstract:"This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the laser performance of commercially available laser dyes based on the boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) chromophore in a liquid state, as well as to remark the main underlying photophysical signatures triggering such photonic behavior. First, we describe their light absorption and fluorescence properties in solution. This spectroscopic study is supplemented with quantum mechanics calculations and electrochemical measurements. Afterward, the dyes are tested as active media of tunable lasers under transversal pumping. The recorded laser efficiencies and photostabilities are correlated with the registered photophysical properties identifying the main structural guidelines and photonic parameters, which rule the laser bands’ position, intensity, and stability. As a result, we provide a comparative dataset of the laser performance, not available hitherto. Besides, the unraveling of the complex molecular structure-photophysics-laser relationship should help in the rational design of new tunable dye lasers with an improved photonic response along the entire visible region and reaching eventually the near infrared.",book:{id:"12081",title:"Dyes and Pigments - Insights and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12081.jpg"},signatures:"Alaitz Peñafiel, Ainhoa Oliden-Sánchez, Edurne Avellanal-Zaballa, Leire Gartzia-Rivero, Rebeca Sola-Llano and Jorge Bañuelos"},{id:"82706",title:"Applications of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) in Fish Value Chain",slug:"applications-of-near-infrared-spectroscopy-nirs-in-fish-value-chain",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105736",abstract:"Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has undergone a significant evolution in the last years due to the numerous scientific studies that revealed its potential for industrial applications, attracting a growing interest in the food sector. Furthermore, new advances have allowed the reduction in size and cost of the NIR devices, making them appropriate for on-site determinations. The complex structure of the fish value chain, combined to its high market value, makes this sector particularly vulnerable to fraud and adulteration practices. Also, the perishable nature of fish and fish products, as well as the lack of traceability, arises the urgent need for a fast, reliable and portable tool capable of precisely characterizing the quality and authenticity of the product while also ensuring its safety. In this chapter, the capabilities of NIRS combined to several chemometric techniques for quality, authenticity and safety applications are presented through an extensive review of the most recent research works.",book:{id:"11564",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11564.jpg"},signatures:"Sonia Nieto-Ortega, Rebeca Lara, Giuseppe Foti, Ángela Melado-Herreros and Idoia Olabarrieta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:58},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11415,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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