Essential oils from the leaves and roots of
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9279",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"From their initial focus in manufacturing, the industrial engineering principles, tools, and techniques have spread across a spectrum of application areas. Topics covered in this book apply to this continuum of application, including operations planning, safety, quality, production control, inventory management, operations research, supply chain management, and continuous improvement. This edited book comes at an opportune time. It incorporates new knowledge and expertise in a rapidly changing engineering discipline that is a vital force in a wide range of manufacturing, service, educational, and government organizations. Such concepts as lean systems, sustainability, systems thinking, data analytics, and additive manufacturing, as well as utilization of advanced computer software, have further expanded industrial engineering’s breadth. Each chapter reflects important aspects of these advances.",isbn:"978-1-83880-936-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-935-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-937-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83281",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",numberOfPages:270,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",publishedDate:"January 7th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5997,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 19th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 8th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 27th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 26th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/16974/images/system/16974.jpg",biography:"Gary Moynihan is a Professor and Associate Department Head for Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering at the University of Alabama, and was formerly with the Department of Industrial Engineering. He received BS (Chemistry) and MBA (Operations Management) degrees from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and a Ph.D. (Industrial Engineering) from the University of Central Florida. Dr. Moynihan’s primary areas of research are project management, operations analysis, information systems development, and the application of industrial engineering techniques. Dr. Moynihan co-founded and served as Assistant Director for the U.S. Department of Energy-funded Alabama Industrial Assessment Center. He has published over 120 articles in books, journals, and conference proceedings, and has five software copyrights. Prior to joining The University of Alabama, Dr. Moynihan held positions in the aerospace, computer, and chemical processing industries.",institutionString:"University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"799",title:"Industrial Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-industrial-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"74074",title:"Introductory Chapter: Background and Current Trends in Industrial Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94606",slug:"introductory-chapter-background-and-current-trends-in-industrial-engineering",totalDownloads:446,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gary P. Moynihan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74074",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74074",authors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73361",title:"D Minus 1 Production Scenario: Production Model for Produced Hospital Furniture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93691",slug:"d-minus-1-production-scenario-production-model-for-produced-hospital-furniture",totalDownloads:390,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many kinds of production systems are used in medical equipment industries, one of which is through the work-in-process (WIP) buffer control system and feeding material scenarios to assure ability of the process to produce the expected throughput. The production model, known as the D minus 1 production scenario, is used to control production activities at the factory to be carried out using the day minus 1 rule. This rule is a time-based buffer production scenario in 1 day, ending at the finished goods assembly station used as the zero point (D0), from each workstation, pushed for one consecutive day to the beginning of the buffer. With the success of providing WIP buffers on D-1 and D-2 days, the product is certain to be ready on time. Production activities are modeled as Heaviside step function of the various processes involved therein. Production schedule, also production simulation, can be planned through a production dashboard provided for this purpose. Customers demand transformed to an integrated production schedule throughout the production flow, followed by production dispatching and execution. The integrated production schedule includes the supply of raw components, welding, paint, and product assembly to meet on time deliveries.",signatures:"Susanto Sudiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73361",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73361",authors:[{id:"321691",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Susanto",surname:"Sudiro",slug:"susanto-sudiro",fullName:"Susanto Sudiro"}],corrections:null},{id:"73262",title:"Continuous Improvement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93638",slug:"continuous-improvement",totalDownloads:301,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The principles and concepts originated mainly in Toyota in the 1950s and now presented in models such as Lean Thinking, Shingo Model, and The Toyota Way itself are powerful ideas to bring success to organizations, but the path is not easy. In theory, there are two main features to reach effective and sustainable success, the right vision (True North) and continuous improvement toward that vision. Those two main features are as easy to understand as they are difficult to accomplish. Even when senior leaders have full understanding and belief, the effective implementation on a daily basis is an enormous challenge. This chapter will show how organizations can implement sustainable and stable continuous improvement systems. It will describe the principles that must be followed, the necessary requirements that must be fulfilled, the way the organizations must be structured in teams, the necessary routines, and all the practical steps necessary to reach that sustainable and stable continuous improvement system.",signatures:"Dinis Carvalho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73262",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73262",authors:[{id:"322097",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",surname:"Dinis-Carvalho",slug:"jose-dinis-carvalho",fullName:"Jose Dinis-Carvalho"}],corrections:null},{id:"72719",title:"A Service Management Metric with Origin in Plant Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93139",slug:"a-service-management-metric-with-origin-in-plant-management",totalDownloads:375,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The discipline of industrial engineering (IE) was originated in the US by Frederick W. Taylor, who first applied what he termed scientific management to machine shop management in the 1880s. IE expanded world-wide with applications of work measurement to all manner of manufacturing, then to services. A century later, as the Japanese practice of Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) became known in the US, the associated equipment management metric Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) became well-known as a production metric that could be applied to individual manufacturing machines, production lines, and the overall production system. In this chapter, illustrations of the calculation of OEE are provided, along with modification of the three OEE inputs (availability, performance efficiency, and quality rate) to create a new service management metric Overall Service Effectiveness (OSE). Definitions and measures of service quality are reviewed. The first published application of OSE was to a city public transportation system, and is reviewed as a prototype. Essentially, applications of OSE require the industrial engineer to define service-specific measures of availability, processing rate, and quality at the management’s level of interest: work station, process, or system. The data collected to calculate OSE will also point toward actions that would improve OSE.",signatures:"Robert G. Batson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72719",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72719",authors:[{id:"226364",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Batson",slug:"robert-batson",fullName:"Robert Batson"}],corrections:null},{id:"73522",title:"Industrial Safety Management Using Innovative and Proactive Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93797",slug:"industrial-safety-management-using-innovative-and-proactive-strategies",totalDownloads:768,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Safety is considered a top priority due to its significance in safeguarding human lives and properties, especially in high-risk industrial sectors such as aviation, oil and gas, construction, transportation, steel manufacturing, and mining industries. These industries are plagued by workplace injuries, illnesses, and fatalities because of the dangerous work environments. As such, it is very vital to integrate safety into every work process in any industrial environment just like quality is built into products and services. It is important to establish and execute an effective safety management system to prevent the risks of irreversible accidents. This chapter begins with a background to safety management in industrial engineering and a discussion of the various issues of industrial safety management. It follows with an extensive description of existing and commonly used safety performance measurement methods. Several case studies are used to explain the methods and explore the important application areas relevant to most industrial sectors. The techniques and tools for safety data collection, analysis, and sharing are introduced together with their applications for safety management. The last section explains how emerging technologies can be implemented in most industrial sectors to enhance safety management.",signatures:"Siyuan Song and Ibukun Awolusi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73522",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73522",authors:[{id:"323367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibukun",surname:"Awolusi",slug:"ibukun-awolusi",fullName:"Ibukun Awolusi"},{id:"323375",title:"Dr.",name:"Siyuan",surname:"Song",slug:"siyuan-song",fullName:"Siyuan Song"}],corrections:null},{id:"72898",title:"Integrated Lean-Green-Six Sigma Practices to Improve the Performance of the Manufacturing Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93276",slug:"integrated-lean-green-six-sigma-practices-to-improve-the-performance-of-the-manufacturing-industry",totalDownloads:326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To survive in the global competitive market, the manufacturing organization must adopt changes in technologies and strategies into their processes on a continuous basis. So, nowadays, Lean, Green, and Six Sigma became business process strategies, which are employed in most of the organization to enhance their manufacturing performance. However, the significant information is that these strategies are implemented sequentially instead of simultaneously. The objective of this chapter is to propose an integrated Lean- Green-Six Sigma strategic framework for manufacturing industries that effectively implementing this approach will lead business processes to achieve operational, financial, social, and environmental growth. This will also guide the practitioner and academician those who are working on manufacturing strategies.",signatures:"Lokpriya M. Gaikwad and Vivek K. Sunnapwar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72898",authors:[{id:"246830",title:"Prof.",name:"Lokpriya Mohanrao",surname:"Gaikwad",slug:"lokpriya-mohanrao-gaikwad",fullName:"Lokpriya Mohanrao Gaikwad"},{id:"251857",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek K.",surname:"Sunnapwar",slug:"vivek-k.-sunnapwar",fullName:"Vivek K. Sunnapwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"73438",title:"A Hybrid Human-Data Methodology for the Conception of Operational Performance Management Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93631",slug:"a-hybrid-human-data-methodology-for-the-conception-of-operational-performance-management-systems",totalDownloads:320,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To excel in the overall business performance, daily processes and activities connected to produce a good or service need to be outperformed. Even though there is extensive literature on performance management and performance management systems, there is still no consensus over the conceptual model of such systems, in what is designated as Operational Performance Management Systems (OPMS). This chapter proposes a new approach to conceive feasible and desirable OPMS tools to assist managers on controlling and responding to operational needs, by combining Design Thinking (DT) and Data Analytics (DA), that provide holistic and deep business knowledge, as well as a data-driven based management. The authors conduct an empirical application through a case study within the context of a European airport’s Baggage Handling System (BHS). The case study procedure follows the proposed methodology’s stages, where the authors construct the problem space with a wide array of collected data, along with the solution exploration and refinement.",signatures:"Diogo Ginjo Jantarada and Antonio Grilo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73438",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73438",authors:[{id:"321875",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diogo Ginjo",surname:"Jantarada",slug:"diogo-ginjo-jantarada",fullName:"Diogo Ginjo Jantarada"},{id:"321876",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Grilo",slug:"antonio-grilo",fullName:"Antonio Grilo"}],corrections:null},{id:"73057",title:"Exploring the Project Risk Management: Highlighting the Soft Side of Project Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93501",slug:"exploring-the-project-risk-management-highlighting-the-soft-side-of-project-management",totalDownloads:399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The majority of the approaches to managing project risk follow the logic of process groups. Project Management Institute (PMI) has 29 tools and techniques related to risk management process groups. Consequently, engineering and business schools have been accused of educating managers with sharp analytical skills but little understanding of social problems. The literature suggests that too much attention is focused on learning the techniques and formalities of risk management but not enough on the advanced issues of management. Also, the literature argues that there are two approaches to project management (hard and soft). The hard side only covers part of the managerial aspects which helps to manage foreseeable uncertainties. However, unforeseeable uncertainties need skills that related to soft side approaches such as emotional intelligence, navigating the organization’s culture, risk attitude, participative leadership style, and managing the relationship with stakeholders. This study provides an intensive review of the literature to discuss the need for integrating the hard and soft sides of management to achieve an effective risk management process. In addition, it proposes a conceptual framework that provides guidelines to enhance overall risk management efficiency.",signatures:"Muhammad T. Hatamleh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73057",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73057",authors:[{id:"321693",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Muhammad T.",surname:"Hatamleh",slug:"muhammad-t.-hatamleh",fullName:"Muhammad T. Hatamleh"}],corrections:null},{id:"73283",title:"Linear Programming Optimization Techniques for Addis Ababa Public Bus Transport",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93629",slug:"linear-programming-optimization-techniques-for-addis-ababa-public-bus-transport",totalDownloads:574,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Anbessa City Bus Service Enterprise (ACBSE) is the only public enterprise that provides transport services in the city of Addis Ababa. The enterprise uses a fixed bus schedule system to serve passengers in more than 125 routes. However, the current bus assignment and scheduling system are becoming a challenge in the company’s operational performances. The objective of this paper is to develop an optimum bus assignment method using linear programming (LP). After a thorough analysis of the existing bus scheduling system, the LP model is developed and used to determine the optimal number of busses for each route in four shifts. The output of the LP-model is then validated with the performances of the existing systems. The findings of the study showed that the new model reveals better performances on the operating costs, bus utilization, and trips and distance covered compared with the existing scheduling system. The bus utilization is improved by the new system and cut costs on the one hand and improves the service quality to passengers on the other hand. The authors recommended the enterprise to adopt the new bus assignment system so that busses can be assigned based on the demand distribution of passengers for each route at a given shift.",signatures:"Eshetie Berhan and Daniel Kitaw",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73283",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73283",authors:[{id:"323329",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Eshetie",surname:"Berhan",slug:"eshetie-berhan",fullName:"Eshetie Berhan"},{id:"325423",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Kitaw",slug:"daniel-kitaw",fullName:"Daniel Kitaw"}],corrections:null},{id:"73233",title:"Impact of ICT to Improve of the Manufacturing in a SME Biomedical of Mexicali, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93585",slug:"impact-of-ict-to-improve-of-the-manufacturing-in-a-sme-biomedical-of-mexicali-mexico",totalDownloads:324,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work presents a way to optimize the manufacturing processes in a small biomedical industry considered in the micro-, small-, and medium-sized enterprises (SME) group and located in the Mexicali city, using a specialized software that act as design and test of a new model, being the COSIMIR (Cell Oriented Simulation of Industrial Robots) software. With this software was designed a new industrial process in a workstation separated of the main step of a manufacturing line, where are fabricated biomechanical knees pads. The process was made as a manual activity in a work station and had to be separated from the conveyor belt of the main activities, because where previously made by an automatized device that was failing continually and was delaying the delivery to the next steps of the manufacturing processes and to the customers as a final product fabricated in this industry. In this place of the company, an operation was made to organize the biomechanical knee in a plastic container with divisions and to be transported safe and quickly to other area by a conveyor belt with linear process flow. The investigation was conducted from 2018 to 2019.",signatures:"Roberto Carlos Valdés Hernández, Juan Gabriel Lopez Hernandez, Adelaida Figueroa Villanueva and Vidblain Amaro Ortega",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73233",authors:[{id:"321026",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Lopez",slug:"gustavo-lopez",fullName:"Gustavo Lopez"},{id:"328683",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto Carlos",surname:"Valdés Hernández",slug:"roberto-carlos-valdes-hernandez",fullName:"Roberto Carlos Valdés Hernández"},{id:"329329",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelaida Figueroa",surname:"Villanueva",slug:"adelaida-figueroa-villanueva",fullName:"Adelaida Figueroa Villanueva"},{id:"329330",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidblain Amaro",surname:"Ortega",slug:"vidblain-amaro-ortega",fullName:"Vidblain Amaro Ortega"}],corrections:null},{id:"73213",title:"Fuzzy Monte Carlo Simulation to Optimize Resource Planning and Operations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93632",slug:"fuzzy-monte-carlo-simulation-to-optimize-resource-planning-and-operations",totalDownloads:370,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Resources planning and operations are essential concerns and specialty areas within industrial engineering and project management. Crew configuration plays a significant role in resource planning and operations. Crew configuration inefficiency is one of the most common reasons for the low productivity of manpower. Resources planning contains some inherent uncertainties and risks because it is an estimate of unknown values. Many factors affect resource planning. Some of these factors are fuzzy variables such as expert’s judgment, and some of them are random variables such as direct cost of equipment. The objective of this chapter is to present a method that combines fuzzy logic and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) for the selection of the best crew configuration to perform a certain task. The model presented in this chapter is a joint propagation method based on both the probability theory of MCS and the possibility theory of fuzzy arithmetic. The research outcomes indicate that the presented model can reduce the duration and cost of a certain task, which will help reduce the cost and duration of the project.",signatures:"Mohammad Ammar Alzarrad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73213",authors:[{id:"227043",title:"Dr.",name:"Ammar",surname:"Alzarrad",slug:"ammar-alzarrad",fullName:"Ammar Alzarrad"}],corrections:null},{id:"73342",title:"Weapon Target Assignment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93665",slug:"weapon-target-assignment",totalDownloads:454,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is mainly based on an important sector of operation research-weapon’s assignment (WTA) problem which is a well-known application of optimization techniques. While we discuss about WTA, we need some common terms to be discussed first. In this section, we first introduce WTA problem and then we present some prerequisites such as optimization model, its classification, LP, NLP, SP and their classifications, and applications of SP. We also discuss some relevant software tools we use to optimize the problems. The weapon target assignment problem (WTA) is a class of combinatorial optimization problems present in the fields of optimization and operations research. It consists of finding an optimal assignment of a set of weapons of various types to a set of targets in order to maximize the total expected damage done to the opponent. The WTA problem can be formulated as a nonlinear integer programming problem and is known to be NP-complete. There are constraints on weapons available of various types and on the minimum number of weapons by type to be assigned to various targets. The constraints are linear, and the objective function is nonlinear. The objective function is formulated in terms of probability of damage of various targets weighted by their military value.",signatures:"Mohammad Babul Hasan and Yaindrila Barua",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73342",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73342",authors:[{id:"322070",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Babul",surname:"Hasan",slug:"mohammad-babul-hasan",fullName:"Mohammad Babul Hasan"}],corrections:null},{id:"74370",title:"Automotive Industrial Supply Chain Performance Evaluation under Uncertain Constraints on Cloud Computing System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93679",slug:"automotive-industrial-supply-chain-performance-evaluation-under-uncertain-constraints-on-cloud-compu",totalDownloads:439,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Performance evaluation is a critical and complex task as well as uncertain demands for automotive supply chain. Several methods are applied and adopted to deal with current situations and maintain competitiveness such as fuzzy logic, neuro fuzzy, agent (multi) based evaluation, etc. However, such systems are not rapid enough to respond customer requirements by real-time on mobile cloud computing system. There are many companies that operate under the first tier company as subcontractors on the same goal. Cloud computing system is capable to monitor real-time production processes for every subcontractor to assist the 1st tier to make decision and respond customer effectively. Daily monitoring data of all subcontractors in the supply chain are stored in the central database and finally the performance evaluation can be done. The implication is cost reduction of the whole supply chain and increase competitiveness as well as continuous process improvement for all.",signatures:"Suthep Butdee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74370",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74370",authors:[{id:"322601",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suthep",surname:"Butdee",slug:"suthep-butdee",fullName:"Suthep Butdee"}],corrections:null},{id:"73431",title:"An Investigation of the Metal Additive Manufacturing Issues and Perspective for Solutions Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93630",slug:"an-investigation-of-the-metal-additive-manufacturing-issues-and-perspective-for-solutions-approach",totalDownloads:517,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metal Additive Manufacturing (MAM) is delivering a new revolution in producing three-dimensional parts from metal-based material. MAM can fabricate metallic parts with complex geometry. However, this type of Additive Manufacturing (AM) is also impacted by several issues, challenges, and defects, which influence product quality and process sustainability. In this chapter, a review has been made on the types of small to medium-sized metallic parts currently manufactured using the MAM method. Then, investigation was undertaken to analyze the defects, challenges, and issues inherent to the design for additive manufacturing, by using MAM method. MAM-related obstacles are discussed in depth in this chapter and these obstacles occur in all size of metal printed parts. The reasons and solutions presented by previous researchers of these obstacles are discussed as well. A potential approach based on the author’s knowledge and analysis for solving these issues and challenges is suggested in this chapter. Based on the author’s conclusion, the MAM is not limited by part size, material, or geometry. In order to validate the potential solutions developed by the author of this work, performing actual MAM process is required and a local visit to manufacturing factories are also important to visualize these challenges and issues.",signatures:"Omar Ahmed Al-Shebeeb",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73431",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73431",authors:[{id:"322096",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",surname:"Al-Shebeeb",slug:"omar-al-shebeeb",fullName:"Omar Al-Shebeeb"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6535",title:"Contemporary Issues and Research in Operations Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cda5f95443dc740a295ff54da00793f",slug:"contemporary-issues-and-research-in-operations-management",bookSignature:"Gary P. 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Health literacy skills allow patients to take control of their well-being by making smart healthcare choices, improving their communication with doctors, and giving them the information they need to advocate for themselves in a medical setting. Without health literacy, patients can suffer real consequences.
\r\n\r\n\t
\r\n\tFrom a public health perspective, reduced health literacy can lead to widespread consequences. “Low health literacy is also costly for the country because when people don't understand health information and instructions, they are more likely to have worse health outcomes and unnecessarily use emergency room services,”. Experts agree that health literacy is vital to reducing healthcare costs and improving public health. The path to improving health literacy isn’t always straightforward, however.
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\r\n\t“Unfortunately, up to 9 out of 10 adults can have limited health literacy, and this can be fluid,” Blue says. “It can be more challenging to be health literate when we are sick or in pain, so even someone who normally has a high level of health literacy may struggle at times to understand and process health information.”
The need of reliable, precise, and fast techniques for biochemical and biological analysis has fostered the search for miniaturized systems integrating multiple laboratory techniques, assays, and procedures into a really small chip, up to few square centimeters in size. These small platforms, named lab-on-a-chip (LOC) or, less frequently, micro total analysis systems (μTAS), have historically been fabricated in silicon and/or glass using semiconductor processing techniques. More recently, polymer-based devices emerged, thanks to the introduction of soft lithography [1]. LOC devices can be considered as sophisticate microsystems embedding mechanical, electronic, and fluidic functions [2], aiming at mixing, pumping, and manipulating samples. It is possible to identify a wide literature concerning LOC systems, in which a variety of applications ranging from biological assays, drug sorting and testing, DNA extraction, cell manipulation, etc., have been explored.
\nThe use of LOC devices for laboratory tasks execution offers several advantages: reduced sample and reagent volumes, fast sample processing, high sensitivity and spatial resolution, increased detection accuracy, low contamination, high throughput, and reliability thanks to the possibility to automate some processes, without depending on human operator skills [3].
\nDue to the really small dimensions of LOC devices, the major role is played by surface effects with respect to inertial ones. Consequently, traditional actuation strategies cannot be exploited for actuation in LOCs. Fluidic actuation is the most commonly employed strategy, but electrostatic, magnetic, and chemical motion has been reported as well.
\nLOC systems can be distinguished in continuous-flow and stationary devices, depending on the role played by the fluidic actuation in the execution of the desired tasks. In continuous-flow devices, microfluidic forces are responsible for the effects experienced by the sample (e.g., beads, liquids, or droplets). In static flow devices, although the working environment is still a fluid, additional actuation strategies, such those based on magnetic fields, are exploited for effectively executing the desired task.
\nDepending on the working environment and on the object lengthscale, the most effective physical principle to be exploited in order to achieve the desired objective can change significantly. Figure 1 shows the trend of different physical effects at varying of the manipulated object dimension. At the microscale, due to the capillary forces and to low Reynolds numbers, it is quite hard to manipulate or mix liquids and particles by exploiting only fluidic forces or direct manipulation, and the exploitation of other actuation strategies showing high efficiency at the microscale is required. In this sense, magnetic field-based strategies exploitation could be a valid solution. In LOC scenarios, in fact, the magnetic field sources can be really close to the working environment, thus compensating the rapid decay of magnetic force with the distance between the source and the object [4]. Furthermore, the exploitation of magnetic fields enables non-contact manipulation [5] also for biological samples, thus paving the way for a wide variety of applications in biology and medicine. In this chapter, the force balance acting on a micro-object in a LOC will be analyzed with a particular focus on magnetism basic theory. The exploitation of magnetic fields for torque and force generation will be considered, especially for magnetic separation and magnetic manipulation applications. Techniques employed both to endow an object with magnetic properties and to characterize it will be described. Finally, potential applications of magnetic field-based strategies in LOCs will be reviewed. Throughout the chapter, technologies and examples not typical of LOCs but deriving, for example, from the world of microrobotics will be introduced, thus foreseeing a deeper and deeper interaction/integration between these two fields.
\nScaling of different forces in function of the size of the object.
According to Newton’s second law, when considering a magnetic microcarrier with mass
Several physical effects, including the magnetic force
Navier–Stokes equations completely define a fluid velocity in space and time. From these equations, it is possible to derive the Reynolds number (
Usually, in both microrobotics and LOC applications, a low-
where
Inertial and gravitational forces play a minor role at low
In Eq. (4),
The force acting on an object immersed in a magnetic field depends both on the field features and on the object properties. The magnetic force acting on a magnetic microstructure can be modeled by using the “effective” dipole moment method, in which a magnetic object is replaced by an “equivalent” point dipole with a moment mp,eff [6]. The force on the dipole is given by:
\nThe dipole moment
where M and V are the magnetization and the volume of the dipole, respectively.
\nAs mentioned, the force exerted on such dipole varies upon the features of the magnetic field sources. It also depends on the distance between the source and the target object. If considering a permanent magnet, the magnetic field density at a generic point P can be expressed as:
with
One of the greatest advantages of magnetic actuation lies in the possibility to transfer powering and actuation in a wireless fashion. Remote magnetic actuation relies on the coupling, namely the creation and maintenance of a magnetic link, between two objects showing magnetic properties. Typically, an external control platform, based on permanent magnets, electromagnets, or a combination of them, and a micro-object, that could be a magnetic bead, a magnetized cell, or a microrobot, constitute the key elements. Materials behavior in response to a magnetic field depends on the material atomic organization. In particular, the spatial organization of the material microscopic domains and the possible changes in this organization produced by the presence of an external magnetic field determine the material response. Indeed, the magnetization induced in a material is proportional to the ability of these domains to align or to form cooperative structures when a magnetic field is applied. This ability can be described by means of the magnetic susceptibility χ, a non-dimensional parameter defined by the ratio of the magnetization M induced in the material and the applied magnetic field H.
Depending on this parameter, it is possible to classify magnetic materials in three main categories: diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic (Figure 2) [7]. Diamagnetic materials, such as bismuth or brass, have no net atomic or molecular magnetic moment and do not retain magnetization when the external magnetic field is removed. When these materials are subjected to an applied field, atomic currents generate and produce a bulk magnetization antiparallel to the field H, thus resulting in negative and negligible susceptibility χ levels (~10−6 to ~10−3). Paramagnetic materials have a net magnetic moment at the atomic level which shows a random orientation when no magnetic field is acting. When the magnetic field H is applied, the moment tends to align with it. The susceptibility of such materials is in the range 10−6–10−1. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, on the other hand, have a net magnetic moment at the atomic level, but unlike paramagnetic materials, they show a strong coupling between neighboring moments as they align all in the same direction and parallel to each other to produce a larger magnetization state. This coupling gives rise to a spontaneous alignment of the moments over macroscopic regions, called domains, which undergo further alignment when the material is subjected to an applied field. Ferromagnetic materials can be permanently magnetized since they are able to retain residual magnetization after the removal of the applied magnetic field. They can be furtherly classified as soft or hard materials: The first ones are featured by a high permeability and a low coercivity Hc (the coercivity is defined as the magnetic field intensity needed to reduce the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material from its complete saturation to zero). This makes them easy to be magnetized and demagnetized. The second ones have a relatively low permeability and high coercivity which make them more suitable for the fabrication of permanent magnets [8, 9].
\nSchematic representation of diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic materials microscopic structures at rest and in the presence of a magnetic field H.
To enable magnetic field-mediated task execution in a LOC, it is necessary to provide the objects to be manipulated with magnetic properties. In some cases, magnetic manipulation relies on the intrinsic magnetic properties of the sample, as in the case of red blood cells [10]. More frequently, labeling and internalization of magnetic material, or fabrication of magnetic microcarriers, are required. To this aim, magnetic micro- and nanoparticles have gained growing attention in LOC systems and in microrobotics in general. Usually, polymeric or silica microparticles with embedded iron oxide nanoparticles are used. Simple iron oxide nanoparticles are also used, mainly magnetite (Fe3O4) and maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) ones. Due to the reduced dimensions of the magnetic core (diameter <1 μm), these particles usually consist of single magnetic domains showing a superparamagnetic behavior. The main advantages of using magnetic particles are that they have a large surface-to-volume ratio; they can be conveniently biofunctionalized, thus favoring their coating or enabling labeling molecules. To provide a micro-object with magnetic properties, two main strategies can be employed: (1) labeling with magnetic particles or (2) particle internalization. In both cases, sample incubation in the presence of a relatively high concentration of particles is required.
\nSample magnetic labeling relies on the possibility to properly functionalize particle surface to enable the binding with functional groups exposed on sample surface. This applies, for example, for cell labeling: functional micro- or nanoparticles are conjugated with antibodies corresponding to specific cell surface antigens [11].
\nIn the case of internalization, the magnetic particles are included in the sample structure itself by embedding the magnetic material during the micro-object fabrication process or exploiting transfection and magnetofection techniques in the case of biological samples. In this case, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs), usually properly modified to promote internalization, for example, through polystyrene or dextran coatings, or exploiting other transfection agents, such as peptides or antibodies [12], are widely employed.
\nAn alternative to sample magnetization through labeling or internalization is the exploitation of magnetic carriers or manipulation systems that avoid a direct contact between sample and magnetic material.
\nIn this case, magnetic properties can be imparted to a carrier, by simply including magnetic materials in its structure. To this aim, not only SPIONs have been employed: the integration of ferromagnetic materials, for example, in the form of powder, has been investigated in applications in which high magnetic responsivity and residual magnetization were required. Ferromagnetic materials, such as Ni, have been employed also in the form of surface coating, obtained through sputtering or evaporation techniques, with the aim to provide micro-objects showing complex geometries, fabricated, for example, through 2D or 3D lithography techniques, with magnetic properties [13].
\nOnce identified the methods allowing to magnetize the samples to be manipulated, it can be useful to briefly describe some techniques allowing to properly characterize a magnetic micro-object. When designing the hardware for a magnetic manipulation or separation platform, it is useful (in some cases even mandatory) to precisely know the magnetic properties of the beads or structures to be manipulated. Particularly, interesting parameters, most commonly evaluated, are the magnetic susceptibility χ, the saturation magnetization Ms and the coercivity field Hc. Considering that small entities usually show weak magnetic properties, traditional technologies employed at the macroscale, such as Hall sensor-based probes, do not result suitable for their characterization. Microstructured magnetic materials can be properly characterized through both inductive- and force-based techniques. Inductive methods, such as the vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) and the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometry, are usually employed for magnetic characterization at the micro-/nanoscale. In both cases, the measurement can be carried out at variable temperature and by applying different magnetic fields, thus allowing to obtain the typical material magnetization curves in a specific range of temperatures. In VSM, a magnetic sample is vibrated within a uniform magnetic field: sample vibration induces a current in dedicated sensing coils; by measuring the resulting voltage induced into the coil, it is possible to obtain sample magnetic moment and to magnetically characterize it. The sensitivity of this kind of technique can reach 10−6 emu. When the samples are really diluted or show really weak magnetic properties, thus claiming for higher sensitivities, SQUID-based magnetometry can be a suitable solution, enabling to reach sensitivities up to 10−8–10−12 emu. The magnetic properties of the material are measured by detecting quantum mechanical effects in conjunction with superconducting detection coils. In both VSM and SQUID magnetometry, however, the duration of a single measurement is in the order of some hours. This obviously represents a strong limitation for all cases in which the characterization of a large number of samples is needed. On the other hand, force-based methods, such as Gouy and Faraday balances, rely on the change in weight of a magnetic material when it is subjected to a uniform magnetic field. Commercial systems based on the Faraday method, such as the alternating gradient magnetometer (AGM), provide sensitivities in the 10−8–10−9 emu range with really fast measurement procedures [14, 15].
\nSome applications of magnetic fields in LOCs have already been mentioned and range from magnetic separation for chemical and biological analyses to sample manipulation for drug screening and cell sorting. In terms of magnetic actuation of samples, it is possible to classify the various applications in two main categories: (1) magnetic separation and (2) magnetic manipulation. In the first case, two or more classes of objects are separated depending on their magnetic properties, but without any need to properly drive them along complex paths or to guarantee the execution of specific tasks; in this case, magnetic fields are responsible for separation, but transportation is usually provided by fluidic forces. In the second case, a more accurate control is required to enable a single magnetic object or a swarm of them to follow a planned trajectory or to perform a specific task; larger magnetic fields and forces are required in this case, as they are responsible also for object transport.
\nMagnetic separation, often defined as magnetophoresis, is widely exploited in LOC applications. Magnetophoresis is a nondestructive method for the selective collection or separation of magnetic particles, by moving them in a viscous medium under the influence of an applied magnetic field [16]. Usually, in LOC applications, we refer to free-flow magnetophoresis, since the separation of particles or magnetic objects takes place in a liquid environment where magnetic particles are deflected from the direction of laminar flow by a perpendicular magnetic field (Figure 3); the extent of the deflection depends mainly on flow rate and on the susceptibility of the magnetic particle, or more precisely, on the susceptibility mismatch between the particle and the fluid.
\n\nThe vector
The magnetically induced flow velocity umag, can be expressed as the ratio of the magnetic force Fm exerted on the particle to the viscous drag force:
In a magnetophoresis application, the magnetic force depends on the particle features, mainly its volume Vp, on the mismatch in terms of magnetic properties between the particle and the fluid, and on the applied magnetic field B. Eq. (5) becomes consequently [17]:
Eq. (11) is suitable for both paramagnetic and superparamagnetic particles, since soft magnetism approximation, and lack of magnetic memory is considered for the particles, and for relatively high magnetic field strengths, able to induce in the particles a magnetization close to the saturation one. To this aim, macroscopic permanent magnets and electromagnets can be exploited, since they produce sufficiently strong fields (>0.5 T), able to saturate superparamagnetic particles.
\nTypical schematization of a magnetophoresis scenario in which a magnetic field perpendicular to the flow direction is exploited to deviate magnetic particles from the trajectory imposed by fluidic forces and thus to separate them from the rest of the sample. Complete separation of the species can be obtained through some consecutive steps.
It is possible to distinguish between positive and negative magnetophoresis depending on the sign of the susceptibility mismatch: if Δχ is positive, for example, in the case of magnetic micro-/nano-objects in a non-magnetic fluid, we talk about positive magnetophoresis and the particles are attracted by the externally applied magnetic field. On the other hand, when the susceptibility mismatch Δχ is negative, for example, in the case of diamagnetic particles in a magnetofluid, the particles are repelled from the magnetic field and negative magnetophoresis occurs. When designing a magnetophoresis device, it is necessary to assure the dominance of magnetic forces respect to the other physical contributions. Considering Eq. (11), Fm results proportional to the magnetic field gradients and to the susceptibility mismatch. Several strategies aiming at optimizing magnetophoresis have been investigated and proposed, and they may be essentially classified in two categories distinguishing between those aiming at maximizing the magnetic field gradients and those acting on the susceptibility mismatch [18].
\nIn the attempt to increase the magnetic field gradient, many solutions have been proposed in literature, all aiming at the generation of a nonuniform magnetic field distribution. In some cases, uniform external magnetic field sources, such as permanent magnets, were combined with wires [19], ferromagnetic strings [20], or magnetic microparticles embedded in the chip structure itself [21], whereas in other cases, the integration of small electromagnets produced intense magnetic field gradients [22]. Alternatively, permanent magnets can be actuated to generate a time-dependent magnetic field, for example, through the use of a rotating magnetic wheel [23], or arranged in an asymmetric configuration, thus generating spatial field variation or multiple magnetic separation stages [24]. One of the most commonly employed magnet configuration in magnetophoresis applications, able to maximize field distribution anisotropy, is the quadrupolar arrangement which creates a magnetic gradient radially outward from the center of the flow column [25]. In a variant of this, the fluid is static, while an applied magnetic field is moved up the container [26]. The particles move in the resulting field gradient at a velocity dependent on their magnetophoretic mobility. At the top of the container, they enter a removable section and are held here by a permanent magnet. The bottom section of the container moves to the next section where a magnetic field with different strength to the first is applied and the process repeats. The result is a fractionation of the sample into aliquots differing for magnetophoretic mobility [27].
\nThe alternative strategy to enhance the magnetic separation capabilities of the device lies in increasing the susceptibility mismatch by modifying either the susceptibility of the particle, or the one of the surrounding fluid. This can be accomplished (1) by labeling the cells or the desired microstructure with higher magnetic susceptibility beads (2) by internalizing higher quantity of magnetic material, and (3) by using a ferrofluid medium, for example, by adding gadolinium, and diamagnetic particles instead of the para/ferromagnetic ones [28].
\nMagnetic fields can be employed in LOC for the non-contact manipulation of biological samples or other magnetically labeled substances/structures. Apart from applications in which it is necessary to separate different types of samples or specific entities from the medium (tasks that can benefit from techniques mainly based on magnetophoresis), in some cases, precise manipulation or transport along defined paths is required. This kind of task is more complex in terms of extent of magnetic fields required and of control, considering that for 3D manipulation, torque equilibrium must be taken into account, in addition to force balance.
\nIt has been demonstrated that biological systems or chemical samples labeled with magnetic nanoparticles can be micro-/nano-manipulated or transported in three dimensions, by exploiting combinations of electromagnets or permanent magnets, possibly moved or rotated along three axes. Permanent magnets offer the advantage to produce large fields without the need of any electrical current, thus avoiding powering, heating and control issues, which have to be faced instead when using electromagnets. On the other hand, electromagnets offer the possibility to tune magnetic field gradients and field intensities by simply varying the currents across the coils. By properly combining electromagnets, it is possible to produce in the workspace both varying magnetic fields, without the need of moving parts, and spatially uniform magnetic fields and gradients. This makes possible to accomplish also quite complex manipulation and locomotion paradigms. Several architectures have been proposed, presenting different magnet and electromagnet arrangements. In LOC applications, due to the need to finely control the locomotion of small-scale entities, electromagnets are the most commonly employed solution.
\nGenerally, when an electrical current flows in a wire, a magnetic field is generated according to the Biot–Savart theory [9]. When considering a single circular coil in which a current with magniture
where
Often, specific coil pairs arrangements, namely Helmholtz and Maxwell coils, are exploited in micromanipulation applications. They consist of two identical circular magnetic coils symmetrically placed along a common axis, one on each side of the workspace, and separated by a distance
NH, IH, rH, NM, IM, rM are the numbers of windings, current, and radius of Helmholtz and Maxwell coils, respectively.
\nWhen considering a combination of Helmholtz and Maxwell coils (Figure 4A), the magnetic field B and magnetic field gradient ∇B in the workspace can be derived analytically by Eqs. (13) and (14) as follows:
Equations (15) and (16) clearly show that Helmholtz coils are able to generate a uniform magnetic field, whereas Maxwell coils produce a uniform magnetic field gradient along its axis. For this reason, combinations of Helmholtz and Maxwell coils have been exploited to obtain both a uniform field gradient and magnetic field uniformity [29].
\nNonuniform field setups have been developed as well. Despite the major complexity both in terms of design/fabrication and control, they enable an increase in the number of controlled degrees of freedom. In this sense, a representative example is the OctoMag system [30, 31] (Figure 4B), designed for the control of intraocular microrobots for minimally invasive retinal therapy and diagnosis, but showing also potentialities for use as a wireless micromanipulation apparatus. It consists of eight stationary electromagnets with soft-magnetic cores able to generate predefined values of magnetic field and gradient, providing the manipulated object with five degrees of freedom; this system can operate closed-loop position control by exploiting computer-assisted visual tracking or in open loop by relying only on the operator microscope-mediated visual feedback. Alternative approaches aim at exploiting other sources of nonuniform magnetic fields: Martel et al. [32] demonstrated the effectiveness of using an MRI scanner for the control of a swarm of magnetotactic bacteria in executing a manipulation task on micro-objects. Micro-assembly of micro-objects using a cluster of microparticles (with average diameter of 100 μm) and a magnetic-based manipulation system has also been shown in [33].
\nDifferent magnetic field generation setup exploited for magnetic manipulation. (A) Combination of Helmholtz and Maxwell coils; (B) OctoMag system [
Once provided the reader with an overview of physics at the microscale, as well as of magnetic materials properties and principles to be exploited, some real applications of LOCs will be described, where using magnetic fields. Such applications range from biological samples handling to chemical reactions and other manipulation tasks. As a consequence, in order to better analyze the potential of using magnetic fields in this context, it is useful to classify the applications in three main areas: (1) on-chip bioanalysis; (2) cell separation or manipulation; and (3) non-conventional manipulation techniques.
\nA vast number of reactions in genomics, proteomics, and clinical medicine need molecular mixing of fluids or recognition events between single strands of DNA, between antibodies and antigens, or between receptors and cells. Such reactions usually require a number of steps that must be performed sequentially, such as isolation, washing, or purification. In this kind of applications, the introduction of automation could lead to higher throughput and the use of magnetic fields, commonly mediated by the use of magnetic particles, has revealed to be extremely useful in some on-chip functions such as the mixing of fluids, selective capture of analytes, later to be transferred for further analysis steps, or the performance of stringency and washing. Usually two main properties of magnetic particles are exploited in analytical assays: the possibility to biofunctionalize them, thus enabling selective binding and related applications, and the capability to form supra-particle structures, such as chains, exploited mainly in fluid mixing and analytes capture applications [5].
\nUsually, magnetic particles are labeled with molecules, for example, antibodies, showing high affinity for the target species and able to mediate the binding with them. Often multistep binding processes are carried out to bind the particle–analyte complex, for example to fluorescent dies, thus to enable target detection [34]. In other cases, for additional purification steps after labeling, magnetic separation, mediated by magnetophoresis phenomena, or transfer processes are required to enable further purification/washing steps or analysis. This kind of procedures can be exploited both for the in vitro purification of nucleic acids or proteins and for biomolecules separation, as well as DNA sequencing. For example, in case of DNA extraction and separation processes, magnetic particles are firstly held in place by exploiting external magnetic fields, thus exposing their functional groups to specific DNA strands. Magnetic separation steps can consequently be performed to isolate the strands of interest from the rest of the sample [35]. In other cases, the target-binding capabilities, with analytes showing at least two epitopes, have been exploited to create large aggregates for albumin detection in buffer [36]: The binding between particles is mediated by the target molecule and thus the extent of the aggregate represents a measure of analytes concentration within the solution and the magnetic properties of the aggregate allow their detection. In this case, non-specific particle clustering should be avoided.
\nAnother interesting application is in the field of biosensing or surface binding bioassays: In this context, magnetic particles can be exploited as binding mediators between the target species and a functionalized surface. The most common configuration in this field is the sandwich one, in which the target molecule binds first the magnetic particles dispersed in the solution. Later, by exploiting magnetic field gradients, the complex can be moved toward the surface of the sensor where interactions at the molecular scale occur [37].
\nWhereas in detection applications, non-specific magnetic interaction within particles has to be avoided, there are applications in which the capability of magnetic particles to interact each other thanks to magnetic forces to form supra-particle structures can be advantageously exploited. When working with really precious/expensive fluids, really small volumes and microfluidic devices are employed. Due to the small scale and to the strong viscous force, fluid mixing is not straightforward. In this case, magnetic particles can be exploited to steer fluids. This is done specifically for supra-particle structures such as chains created by the dipole–dipole interactions between magnetic particles, and actuated, for example, by means of rotating magnetic fields [38].
\nCell manipulation by means of magnetic fields relies on cells magnetic labeling or, alternatively, on magnetic particles internalization through magnetic field-mediated transfection mechanisms (magnetofection). In a typical in vitro magnetofection system, target cells are located at the bottom of a fluidic chamber well of a culture plate, and a permanent magnet beneath the chamber provides a magnetic force that attracts the biofunctional particles toward the cells.
\nSeparation and isolation of rare cell populations from a heterogeneous suspension is essential for many applications, ranging from disease diagnostics to drug screening. Various separation techniques have been proposed, but magnetic fields emerged as very promising also in this kind of application thanks to the exploitation of the magnetic separation principles presented in the previous section.
\nMagnetic cell sorting can be operated in either a serial or a parallel manner, resulting in higher throughput with up to 1011 cells processed in 30 min. This process can be operated in both batch and continuous flow mode. In batch processing, the hardware is very simple, including a magnetic field source placed close to a column containing the cells to be separated. Several architectures were developed to this aim both at large scales, exploiting for example ferromagnetic columns [39] and at smaller scales with arrays of electrical wires exploited to produce local magnetic fields [40]. In the case of continuous flow cell sorting, instead, typical magnetophoresis principles are exploited.
\nMulticell sorting systems rely on the variation in the uptake of magnetic material between different cell populations and thus on the different path deviation produced by magnetic field gradients. They can be also used for the separation of different cell species from heterogeneous samples [41].
\nThe separation of a specific class of cells from a certain sample is extremely important for some applications, for example, for the detection of pathology or for the testing of a therapeutic strategy. For example, diagnosis and treatment of HIV disease rely on the efficient separation of human T-lymphocytes from whole blood [42], whereas in the diagnosis and treatment of malaria, the detection of infected red blood cells (RBCs) and their separation from healthy cells is mandatory [43]. Separation of neuronal cells has gained interest for its potential applications in cell replacement therapy of neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease [44]. Cell separation methods are also needed for separating nucleated RBCs from the peripheral blood of pregnant women, for monitoring maternal, fetal, and neonatal health [45].
\nMagnetic field-based cell counting techniques have also been developed. One method estimates the location and number of cells tagged by measuring the magnetic moment of the microsphere tags [46], while another uses a giant magnetoresistive sensor to measure the location of microspheres attached to a surface layered with a bound analyte [47].
\nWhen high sensitivity, not compatible with magnetophoretic techniques is required, and independence on the human operator are desirable, microrobotic manipulators acting at the cellular scale can offer significant benefits. Wirelessly controlled (i.e., untethered) cell-sized robots are highly noninvasive. At this length scale, where viscous fluid forces dominate inertial ones, mobile microrobots cause very little mixing or agitation of the surrounding environment. This is a significant advantage, for example, over suction pipetting for life scientists, since pipettes cause relatively large fluid disturbances [48]. Magnetic control of microrobots and microgrippers is gaining growing importance in micro-object manipulation: in addition to increasing the manipulation accuracy, the exploitation of such micro-systems avoids sometimes the direct magnetization of the sample, through internalization or labeling, thus helping in keeping its integrity. Many challenges have to be faced to enable single cell manipulation. When working with single cells or with really fragile samples, in fact, it is essential to have microstructures with sizes comparable to those ones of the target, to be able to finely control them within the workspace, and to avoid to affect cell viability or samples integrity due to the microrobot exploitation.
\nSome research groups focusing on microtechnologies have been working toward a high efficiency in vitro fertilization (IVF) process [49] (Figure 5A). The IVF goal is to fertilize oocytes, and it consists of several manually or teleoperated manipulation steps that require important practical skills. Sakar et al. [50] developed microtransporters using a simple, single-step microfabrication technique allowing parallel fabrication. They demonstrated that the microtransporters can be navigated to separate individual targeted cells with micron-scale precision and deliver microgels without disturbing the cells in the neighborhood and the local microenvironment. Yamanishi et al. [51] presented an innovative driving method, devised for cell sorting, for an on-chip robot actuated by permanent magnets in a chip, where a piezoelectric ceramic is applied to induce ultrasonic vibration to the microfluidic chip and the high-frequency vibration reduces significantly the effective friction on a magnetically driven microtool.
\n\nOther interesting magnetic microstructures, devised for cell manipulation in in vitro environments for LOC applications, but finally eligible in the future for in vivo applications, have been recently proposed. Examples are novel microgrippers, in which both the navigation and the gripper actuation rely on magnetic fields [52] (Figure 5B), 3D laser lithography microcages devised to act as cell carriers (Figure 5D) [53] or thin magnetic films working at the air fluid interface and exploiting surface tension phenomena together with magnetic navigation and showing compatibility with cell manipulation applications [54] (Figure 5C). Interesting is also the development of manipulation strategies for precise non-contact handling of small and fragile samples based on complex control algorithms aiming at creating vortexes, as demonstrated for crystal harvesting applications (Figure 5E) [55].
\nOverview of non-conventional manipulation systems for microrobotics and LOC applications. (A) Conceptual overview of a microfluidic cell manipulation system based on magnetically driven microtools and exploited for oocytes handling [
LOC technologies represented a real breakthrough in the last decades for in vitro laboratory analyses. However, the integration of really complex functions in a limited space results extremely challenging and further efforts are required to make LOC systems accurate and operating in an automated fashion. Magnetic fields exploitation revealed to be extremely promising and effective in the execution of certain tasks, with the aim of overcoming some of the limitations connected to human operators and enabling procedures impossible with traditional laboratory techniques.
\nIn this sense, the role played by magnetic nanoparticles is extremely important, but alternative techniques providing the samples to be manipulated with magnetic properties have been investigated and show great potentialities.
\nIn some cases, magnetic field-based technologies appear more advantageous compared with other LOC actuation strategies, first of all the fluidic one. However, in view of more reliable systems, a possible future trend, already investigated in many applications focuses on combining several effects, including chemical binding, microfluidic actuation, magnetic and electric fields, to obtain more efficient analytical and biological testing platforms. A further enhancement of LOC devices, and especially of those exploiting magnetic fields, may derive from the integration of technologies that are typical of the microrobotics world. Some examples have been reported in the Section 5.3 and an interesting contribution could derive from microrobotics, both in terms of cell carriers and manipulation systems fabrication, and in terms of control strategies.
\nThe development of cheaper and more reliable LOCs could enable many steps forward in really important fields, such as nanomedicine, personalized medicine, and cellular studies. The advantages and technological progresses offered by magnetic technologies at all the scales and in different fields could surely help to reach this goal.
\nThe genus Teclea Delile subsumed into Vepris Mziray (Rutaceae-Toddalieae) were merged because of their similarity in morphological characteristics [1]. Currently, there are about 86 species in the genus vepris comprising of evergreen shrubs and trees, predominantly of tropical lowland evergreen forest, but with some species extending into submontane forests and some into drier forests and woodland distributed in Africa, Saudi Arabia and India. In Africa, the species in the genus vepris are widely distributed in countries like Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, Cameroon, South Africa, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania [2].
The percentage extraction yield of the leaves of
Phytochemical analyses of the leaves, fruits, roots and stem bark have indicated presence of several phytochemicals. For instance, ethanol extract
Alkaloids are organic heterocyclic nitrogen compounds that are weak bases. They form a bicyclic system in which benzene and a pyridine ring are fused together. There are several quinoline, furoquinoline and acridone alkaloids identified in the different plant parts. For instance, furoquinoline alkaloids; tecleabine [18], tecleoxine [7], isotecleoxine [19], methylnkolbisine [5], chlorodesnkolbisine [20], pteleine [21], isohaplopine-3,3-dimethylallylether [22], nobiline [23] haplopine-3,3-dimethylallylether [24] anhydroevoxine [9], kokusaginine [12] and 8-methoxyflindersine [25]; and acridone alkaloid, arborinine [26] were isolated from the aerial parts of
Similarly, furoquinoline alkaloids including nobiline [23], montrifoline [8], skimmiamine [4], flindersiamine [6] and maculine [11] were isolated from the leaves; and isoplatydesmine [2], ribalinine [27] and edilinine [1] isolated from both the leaves and fruits [8]. The fruits of
Terpenes form the largest group of natural compounds and they are usually identified on the basis of the number of isoprene units they possess. For instance, terpenes with one, two and three isoprene unit are called hemiterpene, monoterpenes and sesquiterpene, respectively. Essential oils mainly comprise of monoterpenes or/and sesquiterpenes. Ocheng et al. [14] and Al-Rehaily [7] evaluated essential oil profile of the roots and leaves respectively. In both studies, Germacrene-D [14] and Ocimene [17] were the major sesquiterpene and monoterpene hydrocarbon (Table 1). A study by Al-Rehaily et al., [19] also isolated sesquiterpenes, teclenone A [30] and teclenone B [31] from the aerial parts while a study by Al-Rehaily et al., [5] isolated lupeol from the leaves of V. nobilis. β-sitosterol was one of the setroids isolated from the aerial parts of
Compound | % Area | |
---|---|---|
Root [29] | Leaves [7] | |
8.5 | ||
Ocimene isomer | 22.3 | |
Epoxyocimene | 0.2 | |
α-Copaene-11-ol | 0.7 | |
δ-Cadinene | 7.3 | 1.9 |
γ-Elemene | 2.4 | |
Elemol | 2.9 | |
Spathulenol | 0.2 | |
Guaiol | 3.9 | |
Bulnesol | 2.5 | |
Benzyl benzoate | 0.3 | |
Elemene | 1.5 | |
Germacrene D | 54.4 | 19.0 |
α-Gurjunene | 4.9 | |
α-Cardinol | 9.1 | |
Tau-Cardinol | 2.0 | |
Nerolidol | 1.9 | |
Muurolol | 3.4 | |
Phytol | 1.2 | |
Methyl isoeugenol | 1.7 | |
Palmitic acid | 2.1 | |
β-Myrcene | 0.1 | |
Linalool | 1.6 | |
Dihydroedulan II | 1.0 | |
Dihydroedulan I | 0.5 | |
α-Copaene | 0.6 | |
β-Bourbonene | 0.4 | |
Cyperene | 0.2 | |
Methyl-N-methyl | 0.3 | |
β-Caryophyllene | 0.9 | |
α-Humulene | 1.3 | |
Other compounds less than 1% in the oil. | 1.1 |
Essential oils from the leaves and roots of
Flavonoids are a class of polyphenol phytochemicals made up of a skeleton of 15-carbon atoms which consists of two benzene rings (ring A and B) linked via a heterocyclic pyrane ring [26]. Depending on the chemical structures, flavonoids are divided into clases like anthocyanins, flavones, flavonols, flavanones, dihydroflavonols, chalcones, aurones, flavonons, flavan and proanthocyanidins, isoflavonoids, isoflavones, isoflavonones, isoflavons, isoflavene, biflavonoids, neoflavonoids and flavonoid alkaloids. A study conducted by Al-Rehaily et al. [5] isolated flavanone 4,5-dihydroxy-7- prenyloxyflavanone from aerial parts of
Pyrexia or fever is the increase in body temperature above normal physiological range, which may result due to physiological stress such as during microbial infections as natural defense system of the body is activated [32]. Usually, at the elevated body temperature, there is increased production of proinflammatory mediators’ cytokines such as interleukin 1β, β, α and TNF-α which enhance the formation of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) near the peptic hypothalamus area and the prostaglandin in turn act on the hypothalamus. To lower the elevated body temperature, antipyretic drugs administered usually inhibit COX-2 expression thereby inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis.
Since
A study conducted by Mascolo et al. [2] by intravenous administration of 50 mg/kg of dried leaf extract of
Inflammation is a normal, protective response to tissue injury caused by physical trauma, noxious chemicals, or microbiologic agents with the aim to inactivate or destroy the invading organism, remove irritants and set the stage for tissue repair. In the process, proinflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β are produced in large quantities by macrophages and monocytes that stimulate the cellular responses via increasing prostaglandins (PGs) and reactive oxygen species [33]***. In laboratory animal experiments, inflammatory pain can be induced by acetic acid due it is ability to induce capillary permeability and liberating endogenous substances that excite pain nerve endings [34].
A study conducted on ethanol extract dose-related effect of
A similar study conducted by Omujal et al. [17] found that 400 and 600 mg ethanolic root bark extract / kg of body weight on formalin induced paw oedema in mice was inhibited much better than by 25 mg of Diclofenac sodium /kg body weight, and indicated that compounds including,
Microbial infection is the process of invasion of infectious agents into the organism. These infectious agents mainly include bacteria, virus, parasite and fungi naturally occurring in the environment [24]. Antimicrobial activity can be defined as a collective term for all active principles (agents) that inhibit the growth of bacteria, viruses and fungi. Although antibiotics play an essential role in treating microbial infections, extracts of plants have also been attributed to contribute significantly to antibiotic activity. Currently, some of the antimicrobial drugs on the market have been isolated from natural sources.
Studies on the antimicrobial activity of the leaves; stem bark and roots of
A study conducted by Kisangau et al. [12] also determined the antimicrobial activity of petroleum ether extract of the leaves of
Although Onyacha et al. [15] and Kuete et al. [25] found that kokusaginine, dictamine, 8-Dimethoxy-7-(3-methyl-but-2-enyloxy)-furo [2, 3-
Although a study by Al-Rehaily [7] indicated no microbiological potential of the essential oil from the leaves against a number of micro-organism, a study by Ocheng et al. [29] reported that essential oils from the root possessed antimicrobial sensitivity to periodontopathic and cariogenic bacteria clinically present in the dental plaque including A
Malaria is one of the major parasitic infection in many tropical and subtropical regions that has contributed the largest burden on public health of most developing countries with global estimates of 600 million new infections annually and at least 1 million of these infections being fatal [35].
Further investigation of anti-plasmodial activity of skimmianine alkaloid from the arial parts and leaves of
In another study by Waffo et al. [36] there was antimalarial activity of 12.3 μM of arborinine alkaloid against a Nigerian CQS strain. Similarly, Mwangi et al. [29] found anti-plasmodial activities of arborinine and skimmianine alkaloids from
However, furaquinoline alkaloids including teclealbine, −tecleoxine, isotecleoxine, methylnkolbisine, chlorodesnkolbisine, anhydroevoxine and pteleine were reported to be ineffective in antimalarial tests [4]. Similarly, in vitro antimalarial activity of teclenone A and teclenone B against
Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by a protozoa parasite from over
Snakebite envenomations continue to be a threat to public health in some parts of the world. At least 1,841,000 snakebites resulting in about 94,000 deaths are recorded annually. Venomous snakebites have been traditionally treated with medicinal plants. Pharmacological invitro evaluation of aqueous methanol crude plant extract of
Helminth infections cause major morbidity and mortality in both human and animals. In developing countries, helminth infections pose a major threat to public health and contribute to the prevalence of malnutrition, anemia, eosinophilia and pneumonia [21]. Anthelmintics can be defined as drugs that either kill or expel infesting helminths or their larvae from the gastrointestinal tract or that live in tissue. Natural products have been found as potential sources for new, effective and safe anthelmintic drug. Although
Depression is an illness which involves not only mood or emotion disorder but also the physical body and thought process disorder including loss of interest, reduced energy and concentration. This disease is estimated to affect about 21% of the world population. Although there are existing drugs for treatment of depression, they are associated with side effects like dry mouth, fatigue, gastrointestinal or respiratory problems, anxiety, agitation, drowsiness, and cardiac arrhythmias. There are several phytochemicals with antidepressant activity. Adamska-Szewczyk et al. [18] has indicated that alkaloids like kokusaginine and skimmianine in
Assessing the safety of medicinal plants has been regarded to be essential even if it has been used for decades. A study by Mailu et al., [11] on toxicity of dichloromethane and ethanol extracts of aerial parts of
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
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Nanoparticles of alkali metals and noble metals (copper, silver, platinum, palladium, and gold, etc.) have a broad absorption band in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum of light, because the solutions of these metal nanoparticles show the intense color, which is absent in their bulk counterparts as well as their atomic level. The main cause behind this phenomenon is attributed to the collective oscillations of the free conductive electrons that are induced by an interaction with electromagnetic field. The whole incidence is known as localized surface plasmonic resonance. Out of these, we have selected the silver nanoparticles for the studies. In this article, we will discuss the synthesis, characterization, and application of the silver nanoparticles. Future prospective and challenges in the field commercialization of the nanosilver is also discussed.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Neelu Chouhan",authors:[{id:"208475",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Neelu",middleName:null,surname:"Chouhan",slug:"neelu-chouhan",fullName:"Neelu Chouhan"}]},{id:"51598",doi:"10.5772/64001",title:"Graphene‐Based Materials Functionalization with Natural Polymeric Biomolecules",slug:"graphene-based-materials-functionalization-with-natural-polymeric-biomolecules",totalDownloads:3394,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The use of 2D nanocarbon materials as scaffolds for the functionalization with different molecules has been rising as a result of their outstanding properties. This chapter describes the synthesis of graphene and its derivatives, particularly graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). Both GO and rGO represent a tunable alternative for applications with biomolecules due to the oxygenated moieties, which allow interactions in a either covalent or non‐covalent way. From here, other discussed topics are the biofunctionalization with keratin (KE) and chitosan (CS). The non‐covalent functionalization is based primarily on secondary interactions such as van der Waals forces, electrostatics interactions, or π–π stacking formed between KE or CS with graphenic materials. On the other hand, covalent functionalization with KE and CS is mainly based on the reaction among the functional groups present in those biomolecules and the graphenic materials. As a result of the functionalization, different applications have been proposed for these novel materials, which are reviewed in order to offer an overview about the possible fields of application of 2D nanocarbon materials. In a nutshell, the objective of this work is as follows: first, overhaul different aspects about the synthesis of graphene chemically obtained, and second, make a review of different approaches in the functionalization of 2D carbon materials with specific biomolecules.",book:{id:"5293",slug:"recent-advances-in-graphene-research",title:"Recent Advances in Graphene Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Graphene Research"},signatures:"Edgar Jimenez‐Cervantes Amieva, Juventino López‐Barroso, Ana\nLaura Martínez‐Hernández and Carlos Velasco‐Santos",authors:[{id:"178665",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velasco-Santos",slug:"carlos-velasco-santos",fullName:"Carlos Velasco-Santos"},{id:"178667",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Hernandez",slug:"ana-laura-martinez-hernandez",fullName:"Ana Laura Martínez-Hernandez"},{id:"183423",title:"MSc.",name:"Edgar",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Cervantes A.",slug:"edgar-jimenez-cervantes-a.",fullName:"Edgar Jimenez-Cervantes A."},{id:"183424",title:"MSc.",name:"Juventino",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Barroso",slug:"juventino-lopez-barroso",fullName:"Juventino Lopez-Barroso"}]},{id:"55009",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68355",title:"Nanotechnology in Herbicide Resistance",slug:"nanotechnology-in-herbicide-resistance",totalDownloads:1944,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Herbicide market in agriculture is a multi‐billion dollar industry with sophisticated multi‐impact issues, with increased weed resistance at the topmost. Nanoherbicides under development in the current decade could be a new strategy to address all the problems caused by the conventional non‐nanoherbicides. With polymeric nanoparticles often used as nanocarriers for herbicide delivery, the current era has seen the rise of new nanoparticles‐based delivery systems. As the potential use of nanostructured materials enables the use of herbicides effectively and rules out the emergence of weed‐resistant population at an early stage, these very desirable nanotechnological practices in agriculture are reviewed here.",book:{id:"5734",slug:"nanostructured-materials-fabrication-to-applications",title:"Nanostructured Materials",fullTitle:"Nanostructured Materials - Fabrication to Applications"},signatures:"Evy Alice Abigail and Ramalingam Chidambaram",authors:[{id:"199591",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramalingam",middleName:null,surname:"Chidambaram",slug:"ramalingam-chidambaram",fullName:"Ramalingam Chidambaram"},{id:"203102",title:"Dr.",name:"Evy Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Abigail",slug:"evy-alice-abigail",fullName:"Evy Alice Abigail"}]},{id:"61686",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77075",title:"Biological Activity of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Applications in Anticancer Therapy",slug:"biological-activity-of-silver-nanoparticles-and-their-applications-in-anticancer-therapy",totalDownloads:1704,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Nanotechnology delivers materials and nanoparticles (NPs) with high biological potential, useful in bioengineering, nanomedicine, and human health protection. Silver nanoparticles (NPs), because of their wide spectrum of activities and physical and chemical properties, are nowadays extensively researched. However, careful studies on living organism should be performed, with strong attention to biocompatibility. Multiple cellular effects, displayed after AgNP treatments, show interesting potential of metal-based NPs, not only in bio-nanotechnology but also in molecular medicine and anticancer therapy. AgNPs are promising anticancer agents, influencing the cell cycle, inhibiting cancer proliferation, and inducing oxidative stress and propagation of programmed cellular death (apoptosis). Additionally, they protect against bacterial, fungal, and viral infections. During chemo- and radio-therapies, such antimicrobial protection will be desirable because of the decreased immunological resistance of cancer patients. In conclusion, AgNPs often present in the human environment should be studied for novel findings and better characteristic. This article discusses advantages of AgNP’s “eco-friendly” production, followed by green synthesis, with particular consideration of antimicrobial and anticancer properties. Cellular processes, induced after AgNP treatments, are focused on antiproliferative, pro-oxidative, and pro-apoptotic activities of NPs.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Magdalena Skonieczna and Dorota Hudy",authors:[{id:"243029",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Skonieczna",slug:"magdalena-skonieczna",fullName:"Magdalena Skonieczna"},{id:"249509",title:"MSc.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Hudy",slug:"dorota-hudy",fullName:"Dorota Hudy"}]},{id:"59905",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75363",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:6762,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:6762,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]},{id:"55609",title:"Polymer Nanocomposites",slug:"polymer-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:1937,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The development of polymer nanocomposites has advanced, especially due to their new properties after nanoparticle incorporation. Many nanocomposites composed of synthetic polymers and/or biopolymers have been studied after incorporation of a diversity of nanoparticles, which differ in form, shape, surface area and chemical organization. In this chapter, some examples of nanocomposites based on poly-vinyl alcohol (PVA); polycarbonate (PC) and matrixes of dental resins are presented. These nanocomposites could be obtained by three basic methods: in situ polymerization, solution casting and melt extrusion. The best method is determined by the relation and route to the polymer-nanoparticle pair. The dispersion and distribution of nanoparticles in the polymer matrix is the key to obtaining new materials with synergism of compounds properties. This synergism depends on how strong is the intermolecular interaction between the polymer matrix and nanoparticles. The evaluation of new nano systems can be done by different techniques, usually microscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis and so on. Low-field NMR relaxometry has been used to evaluate polymer nanocomposites. This technique provides valuable information related to the interaction of the nanoparticles with the polymer matrix, and it also indicates the dispersion and distribution of these nanoparticles in the matrix.",book:{id:"5734",slug:"nanostructured-materials-fabrication-to-applications",title:"Nanostructured Materials",fullTitle:"Nanostructured Materials - Fabrication to Applications"},signatures:"Maria Inês Bruno Tavares, Emerson Oliveira da Silva, Paulo Rangel\nCruz da Silva and Lívia Rodrigues de Menezes",authors:[{id:"195554",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Maria Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Tavares",slug:"maria-ines-tavares",fullName:"Maria Ines Tavares"},{id:"195603",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo Sergio",middleName:"Rangel Cruz",surname:"Silva",slug:"paulo-sergio-silva",fullName:"Paulo Sergio Silva"},{id:"195604",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson O",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",slug:"emerson-o-silva",fullName:"Emerson O Silva"},{id:"195605",title:"Dr.",name:"Livia R",middleName:null,surname:"Menezes",slug:"livia-r-menezes",fullName:"Livia R Menezes"}]},{id:"51090",title:"Optimization of the Synthesis Procedures of Graphene and Graphite Oxide",slug:"optimization-of-the-synthesis-procedures-of-graphene-and-graphite-oxide",totalDownloads:3452,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The optimization of both the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) synthesis method to prepare graphene and the Improved Hummers method to prepare graphite oxide is reported. Copper and nickel were used as catalysts in the CVD-graphene synthesis, CH4 and H2being used as precursor gases. Synthesis variables were optimized according to a thickness value, calculated using a homemade Excel-VBA application. In the case of copper, the maximum thickness value was obtained for those samples synthesized at 1050°C, a CH4/H2 flow rate ratio of 0.07 v/v, a total flow of 60 Nml/min, and a time on stream of 10 min. In the case of nickel, a reaction temperature of 980°C, a CH4/H2 flow rate ratio of 0.07 v/v, a total flow of 80 Nml/min, and a time on stream of 1 min were required to obtain a high thickness value. On the other hand, the Improved Hummers method used in the synthesis of graphite oxide was optimized. The resultant product was similar to that reported in literature in terms of quality and characteristics but both time and cost of the synthesis procedure were considerably decreased.",book:{id:"5293",slug:"recent-advances-in-graphene-research",title:"Recent Advances in Graphene Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Graphene Research"},signatures:"María del Prado Lavín López, José Luis Valverde Palomino, María\nLuz Sánchez Silva and Amaya Romero Izquierdo",authors:[{id:"31322",title:"Dr.",name:"Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez-Silva",slug:"luz-sanchez-silva",fullName:"Luz Sanchez-Silva"},{id:"182943",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Maria Del Prado",middleName:null,surname:"Lavin Lopez",slug:"maria-del-prado-lavin-lopez",fullName:"Maria Del Prado Lavin Lopez"},{id:"187130",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Valverde",slug:"jose-luis-valverde",fullName:"Jose Luis Valverde"},{id:"187131",title:"Dr.",name:"Amaya",middleName:null,surname:"Romero",slug:"amaya-romero",fullName:"Amaya Romero"}]},{id:"60180",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Properties of Silver Nanocomposites",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-antimicrobial-properties-of-silver-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:1894,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Nanoparticles and polymers in their respective fields have contributed greatly in the form of science and hence in daily life application products. But due to lack in emerging technologies for developing silver nanocomposites with polymers and other materials, the nanoparticle-based products have conquered little less attention. Hereby, an effort is made to put a light on already developed functional materials containing silver nanoparticles and also to look forward their scope in daily life applications. A little more insight into antimicrobial properties of such materials will also be elaborated. Finally, the optimal amounts of silver that cannot be health hazardous to living being especially human and overall environmental impacts of Nanocomposites are presented.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Mudassar Abbas, Nida Naeem, Hina Iftikhar and Usman Latif",authors:[{id:"225082",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mudassar",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",slug:"mudassar-abbas",fullName:"Mudassar Abbas"},{id:"240184",title:"Ms.",name:"Nida",middleName:null,surname:"Naeem",slug:"nida-naeem",fullName:"Nida Naeem"},{id:"240185",title:"Ms.",name:"Hina",middleName:null,surname:"Iftikhar",slug:"hina-iftikhar",fullName:"Hina Iftikhar"},{id:"240186",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman",middleName:null,surname:"Latif",slug:"usman-latif",fullName:"Usman Latif"}]},{id:"59848",title:"Application of Silver Nanoparticles for Water Treatment",slug:"application-of-silver-nanoparticles-for-water-treatment",totalDownloads:2214,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"In recent past development of silver nanoparticles and their application in the treatment of wastewaters is becoming a major area of research. It is mainly applicable to the removal of three major pollutants like pesticides, heavy metals, and microorganisms. Variety of synthesis techniques have been reported for preparation and characterization of silver nanoparticles. In our research, we synthesized Ag nanoparticles supported on ZrO2 and ZrO2-CeO2 by a “deposit-precipitation method” as the first step and later sequentially synthesized Ag-Au supported on ZrO2 and ZrO2-CeO2 by Redox method. Catalysts were evaluated in catalytic wet air oxidation (CWAO) of methyl tert-butyl ether and phenol. The CWAO is a liquid phase process for the treatment of organic pollutants operating at temperatures in the range of 100–325°C at 5–200 bar pressures. The selectivity and efficient of catalysts were evaluated by total organic carbon (TOC) and high-performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC). Ideally, the total mineralization of pollutants into CO2 and H2O is preferred.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Zenaida Guerra Que, José Gilberto Torres Torres, Hermicenda Pérez\nVidal, María A. Lunagómez Rocha, Juan C. Arévalo Pérez, Ignacio\nCuauhtémoc López, Durvel De La Cruz Romero, Alejandra\nE. Espinosa De Los Monteros Reyna, José G. Pacheco Sosa, Adib A.\nSilahua Pavón and Jorge S. Ferráez Hernández",authors:[{id:"228497",title:"Dr.",name:"Hermicenda",middleName:null,surname:"Perez Vidal",slug:"hermicenda-perez-vidal",fullName:"Hermicenda Perez Vidal"},{id:"229146",title:"Dr.",name:"Zenaida",middleName:null,surname:"Guerra Que",slug:"zenaida-guerra-que",fullName:"Zenaida Guerra Que"},{id:"240565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Gilberto",middleName:null,surname:"Torres Torres",slug:"jose-gilberto-torres-torres",fullName:"Jose Gilberto Torres Torres"},{id:"240661",title:"Dr.",name:"María A.",middleName:null,surname:"Lunagómez Rocha",slug:"maria-a.-lunagomez-rocha",fullName:"María A. Lunagómez Rocha"},{id:"240662",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Arévalo Pérez",slug:"juan-c.-arevalo-perez",fullName:"Juan C. Arévalo Pérez"},{id:"240663",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Cuauhtémoc López",slug:"ignacio-cuauhtemoc-lopez",fullName:"Ignacio Cuauhtémoc López"},{id:"240664",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra E.",middleName:null,surname:"Espinosa De Los Monteros Reyna",slug:"alejandra-e.-espinosa-de-los-monteros-reyna",fullName:"Alejandra E. Espinosa De Los Monteros Reyna"},{id:"240665",title:"Dr.",name:"Durvel",middleName:null,surname:"De La Cruz Romero",slug:"durvel-de-la-cruz-romero",fullName:"Durvel De La Cruz Romero"},{id:"240666",title:"Dr.",name:"José G.",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco Sosa",slug:"jose-g.-pacheco-sosa",fullName:"José G. Pacheco Sosa"},{id:"240667",title:"MSc.",name:"Adib A.",middleName:null,surname:"Silahua Pavón",slug:"adib-a.-silahua-pavon",fullName:"Adib A. Silahua Pavón"},{id:"240668",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ferráez Hernández",slug:"jorge-s.-ferraez-hernandez",fullName:"Jorge S. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:10,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. 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Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. 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