Demographic characteristics of participants.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5464",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Salmonella and Salmonellosis",title:"Current Topics in Salmonella and Salmonellosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The genus Salmonella comprises an important number of bacterial species able to colonize and infect numerous animal species and humans. Although more than a hundred years passed since its discovery, Salmonella still represents a redoubtable and successful microorganism, difficult to deal with. Whether we discuss about typhoid fever or food poisoning, the public health and financial consequences are practically incalculable. The costs attributable to Salmonella contamination of meat, eggs, and vegetables are also very high worldwide. Antimicrobial resistance in Salmonella isolates is an emerging threat not only in humans, and special measures should be addressed to this global problem. The book Current Topics in Salmonella and Salmonellosis contains a series of reviews about all-important issues concerning these subjects. It comprises 14 chapters grouped in 4 sections emphasizing new insights into pathogenesis, bacterial detection and antibiotic resistance, infections in animals, risk factors, and control strategies. The new genomic data and the exhaustive presentation of molecular pathogenesis bring novelty to the book and can help to improve our knowledge about Salmonella-induced diseases.",isbn:"978-953-51-3066-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3065-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4883-8",doi:"10.5772/63008",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-topics-in-salmonella-and-salmonellosis",numberOfPages:284,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"932d68f1e681828a86223fc041723e5a",bookSignature:"Mihai Mares",publishedDate:"April 5th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5464.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17493,numberOfWosCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfDimensionsCitations:53,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:112,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 19th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 12th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/88785/images/system/88785.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mihai Mareș received his Ph.D. degree in Microbiology at Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Iași-Romania (2005) and had postgraduate training at University VII Denis-Diderot, Pasteur Institute, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, École du Val-de-Grâce - Paris (France), Complutense University – Madrid (Spain), Instituto de Salud Global - Barcelona (Spain), Karolinska Institute – Stockholm (Sweden), and Danish Technical University - Lyngby (Denmark). His areas of interest are medical mycology, antimicrobial resistance, mycobacteria, food microbiology, biofilms, microbial induced infertility, and bio-medical applications of plasma discharges and cold plasma activated water. Currently, Dr. Mareș is a Professor of Microbiology and Head of the Antimicrobial Chemotherapy Laboratory at Ion Ionescu de la Brad University – Iași (Romania). Also, he is a member of the EUCAST Antifungal Susceptibility Testing Subcommittee and ESCMID Study Group for Veterinary Microbiology. He has served as a scientific consultant for several pharmaceutical companies during the past few years.",institutionString:"Ion Ionescu de la Brad University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iași",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Ion Ionescu de la Brad University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iași",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"53851",title:"Insights from Comparative Genomics of the Genus Salmonella",doi:"10.5772/67131",slug:"insights-from-comparative-genomics-of-the-genus-salmonella",totalDownloads:1198,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Trudy M. Wassenaar, Se-Ran Jun, Visanu Wanchai, Preecha\nPatumcharoenpol, Intawat Nookaew, Katrina Schlum, Michael R.\nLeuze and David W. Ussery",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53851",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53851",authors:[{id:"136106",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Ussery",slug:"david-ussery",fullName:"David Ussery"},{id:"196510",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",surname:"Wassenaar",slug:"trudy-wassenaar",fullName:"Trudy Wassenaar"}],corrections:null},{id:"53363",title:"Computational Identification of Indispensable Virulence Proteins of Salmonella Typhi CT18",doi:"10.5772/66489",slug:"computational-identification-of-indispensable-virulence-proteins-of-salmonella-typhi-ct18",totalDownloads:970,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,signatures:"Shrikant Pawar, Izhar Ashraf, Kondamudi Manobhai Mehata and\nChandrajit Lahiri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53363",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53363",authors:[{id:"193216",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandrajit",surname:"Lahiri",slug:"chandrajit-lahiri",fullName:"Chandrajit Lahiri"},{id:"195060",title:"Mr.",name:"Shrikant",surname:"Pawar",slug:"shrikant-pawar",fullName:"Shrikant Pawar"},{id:"195061",title:"Mr.",name:"Md. Izhar",surname:"Ashraf",slug:"md.-izhar-ashraf",fullName:"Md. Izhar Ashraf"},{id:"195063",title:"Dr.",name:"K. M.",surname:"Mehata",slug:"k.-m.-mehata",fullName:"K. M. Mehata"}],corrections:null},{id:"53794",title:"Salmonella enterica: Latency",doi:"10.5772/67173",slug:"salmonella-enterica-latency",totalDownloads:1182,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Bianca Mendes Maciel, Rachel Passos Rezende and Nammalwar\nSriranganathan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53794",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53794",authors:[{id:"136320",title:"Dr.",name:"Bianca",surname:"Maciel",slug:"bianca-maciel",fullName:"Bianca Maciel"},{id:"163597",title:"Prof.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Rezende",slug:"rachel-rezende",fullName:"Rachel Rezende"},{id:"194952",title:"Prof.",name:"Nammalwar",surname:"Sriranganathan",slug:"nammalwar-sriranganathan",fullName:"Nammalwar Sriranganathan"}],corrections:null},{id:"53911",title:"Salmonella Fimbriae: What is the Clue to Their Hairdo?",doi:"10.5772/67189",slug:"salmonella-fimbriae-what-is-the-clue-to-their-hairdo-",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Karine Dufresne and France Daigle",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53911",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53911",authors:[{id:"79093",title:"Dr.",name:"France",surname:"Daigle",slug:"france-daigle",fullName:"France Daigle"},{id:"194959",title:"Ms.",name:"Karine",surname:"Dufresne",slug:"karine-dufresne",fullName:"Karine Dufresne"}],corrections:null},{id:"53977",title:"Current and Emerging Innovations for Detection of Food-Borne Salmonella",doi:"10.5772/67264",slug:"current-and-emerging-innovations-for-detection-of-food-borne-salmonella",totalDownloads:1388,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Wei Wu and Lingwen Zeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53977",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53977",authors:[{id:"190635",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wu",slug:"wei-wu",fullName:"Wei Wu"},{id:"190889",title:"Prof.",name:"Lingwen",surname:"Zeng",slug:"lingwen-zeng",fullName:"Lingwen Zeng"}],corrections:null},{id:"54452",title:"Factors Contributing to the Emergence and Spread of Antibiotics Resistance in Salmonella Species",doi:"10.5772/67701",slug:"factors-contributing-to-the-emergence-and-spread-of-antibiotics-resistance-in-salmonella-species",totalDownloads:1524,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Kabiru Olusegun Akinyemi and Samuel Oluwasegun Ajoseh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54452",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54452",authors:[{id:"68868",title:"Dr.",name:"Kabiru Olusegun",surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"kabiru-olusegun-akinyemi",fullName:"Kabiru Olusegun Akinyemi"},{id:"194984",title:"MSc.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Ajoseh",slug:"samuel-ajoseh",fullName:"Samuel Ajoseh"}],corrections:null},{id:"53793",title:"Quinolone Resistance in Non-typhoidal Salmonella",doi:"10.5772/67154",slug:"quinolone-resistance-in-non-typhoidal-salmonella",totalDownloads:801,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Siriporn Kongsoi, Chie Nakajima and Yasuhiko Suzuki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53793",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53793",authors:[{id:"124661",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuhiko",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"yasuhiko-suzuki",fullName:"Yasuhiko Suzuki"}],corrections:null},{id:"54428",title:"Salmonella in Wastewater: Identification, Antibiotic Resistance and the Impact on the Marine Environment",doi:"10.5772/67298",slug:"salmonella-in-wastewater-identification-antibiotic-resistance-and-the-impact-on-the-marine-environme",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Abdellah El Boulani, Rachida Mimouni, Hasna Mannas, Fatima\nHamadi and Nouredine Chaouqy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54428",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54428",authors:[{id:"191566",title:"Prof.",name:"Rachida",surname:"Mimouni",slug:"rachida-mimouni",fullName:"Rachida Mimouni"}],corrections:null},{id:"53878",title:"Dynamics of Salmonella Infection",doi:"10.5772/67284",slug:"dynamics-of-salmonella-infection",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Fathalla A. Rihan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53878",authors:[{id:"189722",title:"Prof.",name:"Fathalla",surname:"Rihan",slug:"fathalla-rihan",fullName:"Fathalla Rihan"}],corrections:null},{id:"53688",title:"Interaction between Salmonella and Plants: Potential Hosts and Vectors for Human Infection",doi:"10.5772/67061",slug:"interaction-between-salmonella-and-plants-potential-hosts-and-vectors-for-human-infection",totalDownloads:1297,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Eva Fornefeld, Jasper Schierstaedt, Sven Jechalke, Rita Grosch,\nKornelia Smalla and Adam Schikora",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53688",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53688",authors:[{id:"191815",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",surname:"Schikora",slug:"adam-schikora",fullName:"Adam Schikora"},{id:"191956",title:"MSc.",name:"Eva",surname:"Fornefeld",slug:"eva-fornefeld",fullName:"Eva Fornefeld"},{id:"191957",title:"MSc.",name:"Jasper",surname:"Schierstaedt",slug:"jasper-schierstaedt",fullName:"Jasper Schierstaedt"},{id:"191958",title:"Dr.",name:"Sven",surname:"Jechalke",slug:"sven-jechalke",fullName:"Sven Jechalke"},{id:"191959",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Grosch",slug:"rita-grosch",fullName:"Rita Grosch"},{id:"191960",title:"Prof.",name:"Kornelia",surname:"Smalla",slug:"kornelia-smalla",fullName:"Kornelia Smalla"}],corrections:null},{id:"54142",title:"Preharvest Salmonella Risk Contamination and the Control Strategies",doi:"10.5772/67399",slug:"preharvest-salmonella-risk-contamination-and-the-control-strategies",totalDownloads:1542,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Rebeca Zamora-Sanabria and Andrea Molina Alvarado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54142",authors:[{id:"190722",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebeca",surname:"Zamora",slug:"rebeca-zamora",fullName:"Rebeca Zamora"},{id:"191363",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Molina",slug:"andrea-molina",fullName:"Andrea Molina"}],corrections:null},{id:"54094",title:"Prevalence, Risks and Antibiotic Resistance of Salmonella in Poultry Production Chain",doi:"10.5772/67438",slug:"prevalence-risks-and-antibiotic-resistance-of-salmonella-in-poultry-production-chain",totalDownloads:1777,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,signatures:"Niki Mouttotou, Shakeel Ahmad, Zahid Kamran and Konstantinos\nC. Koutoulis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54094",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54094",authors:[{id:"183426",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Koutoulis",slug:"konstantinos-koutoulis",fullName:"Konstantinos Koutoulis"},{id:"194976",title:"Dr.",name:"Niki",surname:"Mouttotou",slug:"niki-mouttotou",fullName:"Niki Mouttotou"},{id:"194977",title:"Prof.",name:"Shakeel",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"shakeel-ahmad",fullName:"Shakeel Ahmad"},{id:"194978",title:"Prof.",name:"Zahid",surname:"Kamran",slug:"zahid-kamran",fullName:"Zahid Kamran"}],corrections:null},{id:"54265",title:"Effects of Environment and Socioeconomics on Salmonella Infections",doi:"10.5772/67501",slug:"effects-of-environment-and-socioeconomics-on-salmonella-infections",totalDownloads:1175,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Hafiz Anwar Ahmad and Luma Akil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54265",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54265",authors:[{id:"190744",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"hafiz-ahmad",fullName:"Hafiz Ahmad"},{id:"191350",title:"Dr.",name:"Luma",surname:"Akil",slug:"luma-akil",fullName:"Luma Akil"}],corrections:null},{id:"54112",title:"Application of Ionizing Radiation for Control of Salmonella in Food",doi:"10.5772/67408",slug:"application-of-ionizing-radiation-for-control-of-salmonella-in-food",totalDownloads:1245,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Małgorzata E. Szczawińska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54112",authors:[{id:"191335",title:"Dr.",name:"Małgorzata",surname:"Szczawińska",slug:"malgorzata-szczawinska",fullName:"Małgorzata Szczawińska"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"644",title:"Chlamydia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2630ab6bb67a91d15fff4592599268d3",slug:"chlamydia",bookSignature:"Mihai Mares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/825.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso J.",surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"799",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba452d8a24ef16b1267d2854b28f6e6a",slug:"salmonella-a-dangerous-foodborne-pathogen",bookSignature:"Barakat S. M. Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/799.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"322",title:"Flavivirus Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"269535b3a2f21a46216f4ca6925aa8f1",slug:"flavivirus-encephalitis",bookSignature:"Daniel Růžek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/322.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33830",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Ruzek",slug:"daniel-ruzek",fullName:"Daniel Ruzek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2068",title:"Understanding Tuberculosis",subtitle:"New Approaches to Fighting Against Drug Resistance",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"077a11a53e4b135020092b8c1143f93c",slug:"understanding-tuberculosis-new-approaches-to-fighting-against-drug-resistance",bookSignature:"Pere-Joan Cardona",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2068.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78269",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pere-Joan",surname:"Cardona",slug:"pere-joan-cardona",fullName:"Pere-Joan Cardona"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3842",title:"Leishmaniasis",subtitle:"Trends in Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"861f3ca84eede677ba6cd863093d62f8",slug:"leishmaniasis-trends-in-epidemiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"David M. Claborn",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"977",title:"Understanding Tuberculosis",subtitle:"Global Experiences and Innovative Approaches to the Diagnosis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cb8288ea48f14bd22680c6ae5b13745b",slug:"understanding-tuberculosis-global-experiences-and-innovative-approaches-to-the-diagnosis",bookSignature:"Pere-Joan Cardona",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/977.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78269",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pere-Joan",surname:"Cardona",slug:"pere-joan-cardona",fullName:"Pere-Joan Cardona"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"971",title:"Malaria Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7a9d672f9988a6d5b059aed14188896",slug:"malaria-parasites",bookSignature:"Omolade O. Okwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/971.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99780",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Omolade Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-olayinka-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1273",title:"Non-Flavivirus Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fa857119b76ce546ccf16503e982a08e",slug:"non-flavivirus-encephalitis",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1273.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62638",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"67322",slug:"corrigendum-to-sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",title:"Corrigendum to: Sexual Dysfunction in Patients with Systemic Sclerosis",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67322.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67322",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67322",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67322",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67322",chapter:{id:"66966",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",signatures:"Barbora Heřmánková",dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"66966",slug:"sexual-dysfunction-in-patients-with-systemic-sclerosis",signatures:"Barbora Heřmánková",dateSubmitted:"July 16th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 5th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 3rd 2019",datePublished:null,book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"8269",title:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Insights into Systemic Sclerosis",slug:"new-insights-into-systemic-sclerosis",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",bookSignature:"Michal Tomcik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8269.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193284",title:"Dr.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Tomcik",slug:"michal-tomcik",fullName:"Michal Tomcik"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"7582",leadTitle:null,title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Novel Results in Theory and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Nonlinear optics is a rapidly developing field of modern physics. Nonlinear optical phenomena such as self-focusing, self-phase modulation, soliton formation and propagation, higher harmonic generation, different types of stimulated light scattering, and four-wave mixing have attracted interest from the fundamental point of view of the investigation of light/matter interaction, and as a basis for applications in contemporary optical communications and optical signal processing. Nonlinear Optics - Novel Results in Theory and Applications contains novel results concerning the mathematical methods of nonlinear optical phenomena analysis, soliton formation and propagation in optical fibers, and peculiarities of nonlinear optical phenomena in micro- and nanostructures. The book may be interesting for researchers and engineers interested in nonlinear optics, lasers, and optical communications.",isbn:"978-1-78985-164-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-163-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-009-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77311",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"nonlinear-optics-novel-results-in-theory-and-applications",numberOfPages:154,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3ad4a3553a3ec59f7992d4f6495ac07",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",publishedDate:"February 6th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7582.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:4367,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 18th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 9th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 8th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 26th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 25th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2359/images/system/2359.jpg",biography:"Boris I. Lembrikov is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Electronics, Electrical and Communication Engineering of the Holon Institute of Technology (HIT), Holon, Israel. B. I. Lembrikov received his Ph.D. in Nonlinear Optics at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in 1996. Since then he was an invited researcher at the Haifa University, at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France, at the Technion, Haifa, Israel. Dr. B. I. Lembrikov is an author of the book \\Electrodynamics of Magnetoactive Media\\, a number of chapters in scientific books, a large number of papers in international peer reviewed journals and reports delivered at the international scientific conferences. He actively participated in a number of research projects concerning optics of nanoparticles, optical communications, UWB communications. The main research fields of interest of Dr. B. I. Lembrikov are nonlinear optics, optical and UWB communications, nanostructures, quantum dot lasers.",institutionString:"Holon Institute of Technology (HIT)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Holon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Israel"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1225",title:"Optical Physics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"65062",title:"Introductory Chapter: Nonlinear Optical Phenomena",slug:"introductory-chapter-nonlinear-optical-phenomena",totalDownloads:683,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}]},{id:"64727",title:"Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation",totalDownloads:825,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"198550",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jing",surname:"Huang",slug:"jing-huang",fullName:"Jing Huang"}]},{id:"63615",title:"Three Solutions to the Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation for a Constant Potential",slug:"three-solutions-to-the-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation-for-a-constant-potential",totalDownloads:569,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"93519",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabino",surname:"Torres-Vega",slug:"gabino-torres-vega",fullName:"Gabino Torres-Vega"}]},{id:"63619",title:"Hydrodynamic Methods and Exact Solutions in Application to the Electromagnetic Field Theory in Medium",slug:"hydrodynamic-methods-and-exact-solutions-in-application-to-the-electromagnetic-field-theory-in-mediu",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]},{id:"64097",title:"Polarization Properties of the Solitons Generated in the Process of Pulse Breakup in Twisted Fiber Pumped by ns Pulses",slug:"polarization-properties-of-the-solitons-generated-in-the-process-of-pulse-breakup-in-twisted-fiber-p",totalDownloads:462,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"63461",title:"Towards Enhancing the Efficiency of Nonlinear Optical Generation",slug:"towards-enhancing-the-efficiency-of-nonlinear-optical-generation",totalDownloads:421,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"63480",title:"Widely Tunable Quantum-Well Laser: OPO Diode Around 2 μm Based on a Coupled Waveguide Heterostructure",slug:"widely-tunable-quantum-well-laser-opo-diode-around-2-m-based-on-a-coupled-waveguide-heterostructure",totalDownloads:399,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"63398",title:"Stimulated Raman Scattering in Micro- and Nanophotonics",slug:"stimulated-raman-scattering-in-micro-and-nanophotonics",totalDownloads:679,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3674",title:"Ultra Wideband",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"ultra-wideband",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"189",title:"Novel Applications of the UWB Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed2f8e92a107244ca4c22888843e374f",slug:"novel-applications-of-the-uwb-technologies",bookSignature:"Boris Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/189.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An Outlook on the Phenomena and their Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d982c49fed4423a0ea7367af4f917b82",slug:"luminescence-an-outlook-on-the-phenomena-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6599",title:"Small Angle Scattering and Diffraction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b1efb6a54c3fbdadd875f7bac0f6718",slug:"small-angle-scattering-and-diffraction",bookSignature:"Margareth K. K. D. Franco and Fabiano Yokaichiya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186337",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi",surname:"Dias Franco",slug:"margareth-kazuyo-kobayashi-dias-franco",fullName:"Margareth Kazuyo Kobayashi Dias Franco"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10075",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"From Solitons to Similaritons",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b034b2a060292c8511359aec0db1002c",slug:"nonlinear-optics-from-solitons-to-similaritons",bookSignature:"İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10075.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186388",title:"Prof.",name:"İlkay",surname:"Bakırtaş",slug:"ilkay-bakirtas",fullName:"İlkay Bakırtaş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8350",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",subtitle:"Principle, Measurement and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d35774b28952d3c4c4643b58dec25549",slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",bookSignature:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shien-Kuei",surname:"Liaw",slug:"shien-kuei-liaw",fullName:"Shien-Kuei Liaw"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57391",title:"Influence of Parental Divorce on Anxiety Level of Adolescents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71287",slug:"influence-of-parental-divorce-on-anxiety-level-of-adolescents",body:'\nOne of the most important factors that determine the development of children is family, in which parents provide a secure place for psychosocial development, in which children learn behaviors and moral and ethical principles.
\nFrom birth to the maturation period, children pass through developmental stages which are marked by different challenges, but at the same time there are achievements of specific developmental milestones. Adolescence is a developmental stage which has particularly emphasized challenges in the field of rapid physical development, development of identity, and positioning of a young person into the world of adults. This is the stage which is marked by the transformation of physical identity, way of thinking, taking responsibility, and trying to become independent. Therefore, for a majority of youth, this is the period which is marked by turbulence and various kinds of fear from failure. This psychological state sometimes transforms into a condition that can be identified as anxiety in a young person which can interfere with normal psychological processes in adolescence. Adolescents are often in conflict with their parents because, they want to be independent, but at the same time their parents’ love and the sense of security in the family is necessary for them.
\nTendencies in modern society indicate an increased number of divorces and an increased number of families in which one parent takes care of the child, while the other parent only occasionally participates in the upbringing of children. In the most cases, divorce means frequent conflicts, and a tense and insecure atmosphere in the family. If a child grows up in such an atmosphere, his/her judgment of family insecurity may cause the development of anxiety symptoms. Having in mind the natural developmental processes happening during adolescence, we wanted to examine whether growing up in a family where the divorce of parents exists increase the probability of development of anxiety in adolescents. Since we know that family is an important factor in child development, we assume that young persons who grow up in divorced families have higher level of anxiety than those growing up in complete families.
\nIt is very difficult to make a definition of the concept of family that is common for all human societies. Societies give different meanings to the concept of family depending on their own structures. It is accepted by all societies that family is one of the essential structures of organization, and it is even the foundation of society [1].
\nVarious definitions are developed for the concept of family. Some of these definitions focus on the structure of family while the others focus on the functions of family. A common point of these definitions is that family is the most basic social foundation in any society. Family is a social structure making a person happy to be a member of it; it is a place where a person feels protected in every aspect of life. Basic needs in life are fulfilled by family. The first interaction is experienced within the family. Basic behaviors and habits related to life are acquired by an interaction in the family [2]. Family is the first place of learning which is very important for the child’s social and emotional development [3].
\nFamily setting in which the child grows up has an important role for the development of child personality; it provides the most useful adaptation skill to the society to which the child belongs. Parents’ support to the child in the adaptation process to the physical and social environment has a significant impact on child social and personality development [4]. A harmonious relationship between mother and father helps them develop a consistent, warm, and affective approach to their children. In that way, family represents an environment in which love, compassion, care, confidence, support, and democracy are provided. Furthermore, a democratic interaction between mother and father grounds the development of a healthy and efficient communication between mother-father and their children [5].\n
\nFrom the legal perspective, divorce is described as the termination of the marriage with the decision of judge based on anticipated reasons explained in the legislation. Different authors presented different factors that might cause divorce. Ozguven [6] presented the basic reasons for divorce as follows: inadequate familiarization of husband and wife during premarital process causes high probability for divorce; different socio-economic status of husband and wife and different cultural environment makes harmony difficult; communication problems among couples damage the relationship of husband and wife; an intervention by parents of husband and wife to family life dynamics cause conflicts and many problems in marriage; jealousy harms the trust and tolerance between husband and wife effecting happiness and harmony. In accordance to Ciftci and Bicici [7], the problems in marriage which can lead to divorce can be listed as follows:
Financial problems: it is frequently reported that the persistence of financial problems in the family run into the risk for divorce.
Communication problems: most of problems among people usually occur as a result of failing of communication or a faulty communication. Communication problems can happen between wife and husband, or parents and children, or wife-husband and their parents.
Environmental problems: environmental problems can cause the existence of some problems within the family by factors such as the effect of the working conditions of family members or neighborhood relations.
Even though divorce is perceived as a relief and rescue from an unhappy marriage for couples, it actually means the destruction of the family system and the marriage which was established with great expectations and hope. Very often problems would not be solved with divorce and it can affect couples in a negative way regarding psychosocial and financial aspects. Because of these reasons, divorce in general is not interpreted as a complete return to the premarital freedom or a rescue, meaning a new bachelorhood period. Divorce is actually the beginning of a difficult period which is not the end of unhappiness. Couples have the feeling of emptiness. They have needs of overcoming previous habits, and building a new life style and new relations [8].
\nToday, divorce has become a natural matter as a part of marriage life even though it is unfavorable for families, and especially children. In cases when divorce is the best solution for the family, realization of divorce in a civilized way causes less psychological and personal damage in husband and wife, and their children [9].
\nThe concept of mother/father in marriage is a vital element in terms of psychological development and social adaptation of the child. In other words, living with mother and father, growing up with mother and father, and having an unbroken family are the essential factors needed for emotional development, as well as social and psychological maturity of the child. However, if the concept of mother/father in marriage means family atmosphere with tense relations between mother and father and dominant presence of restlessness and conflicts, the family concept does not provide a secure environment for the child. It is indicated that the degree of impact of divorce on child depends on the way how divorce is realized [10]. Moreover, it is specified that the case of a stressful period of divorce, an unhealthy communication, and a lack of love and security issues affect the child deeply rather than divorce itself [11]. Getting over the case of divorce is very difficult for a child without an intense parental support. Child has the fear of being abandoned. Therefore, a child whose father and mother are divorced need more clear signs to be loved and valued. Each child is affected by the separation of mother and father. The degree of influence depends on some factors such as age, personality development, and parental attitude [12, 13].
\nThe emotional reaction of adolescents on divorce is marked by pain, disbelief, anger, and the feeling of loss. Regarding their behavior, some adolescents show problems in behavior, such as running away from school, taking drugs and alcohol, failure at school and similar, which can be considered as a response to parent’s divorce. Adolescents often have the feeling of guilt toward parent’s divorce; they believe that either their behavior or the fulfillment of parents’ expectations is the cause of divorce. These feelings, besides the judgment of the loss of security of the family environment, reveal the cause of depression or the development of symptoms of anxiety. The reaction on parents’ divorce in adolescence is different according to gender. Young girls begin early sexual relations more often due to the lack of self-confidence, while boys often react on a behavior area by aggressive and delinquent behaviors. The risk for drug and alcohol abuse is present in both genders [14].
\nIt is also stated that divorce has rarely a positive effect on the child. Moreover, it is emphasized that lack of a parent, emotional and financial tightness, and sometimes continual conflicts between divorced parents would cause psychological problems for many children. However, it is also mentioned that even though children have adaptation problems for the new life, the sensitivity for divorce mostly depends on age, developmental maturity, length of passed time after divorce, and social support system. The reactions also change according to the maturity of the child and circumstances at home. Therefore, it is explained that the determination of the standard reactions of such situation is very difficult [15].
\nChildren usually assess divorce as the end of the family life, prediction of future period of uncertainty, and loss of love from at least one of the parents. Feelings of uncertainty and difficulties to predict and control the situation can cause anxiety. In addition to that, if parents, because of personal stress, do not pay attention to the child’s psychological reactions on divorce, there will be a great risk for development of psychological problems such as anxiety. Separation anxiety, specific phobia, and selective mutism might be more present in children in preschool period. Generalized anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and panic disorder might be more present in adolescence period [16].
\nAdolescence as a transitional stage is the period in which psychological, cognitive, and emotional changes are experienced as a result of seeking identity, the need for intimate relationship, cognitive development, rapid sexual development, and the struggle for being psychologically independent from family. The beginning, duration, and termination of this period depend on social and cultural factors as well as individual maturity levels [17].
\nVarious physiological, psychological, and social changes and developments occur in this stage. The outcomes of changes in adolescence period might have an impact on future life of the adolescent. This period is referred as “storm and stress” by many authors, has a crisis attribute with these developmental challenges. An adolescent has to cope with sex drives caused by biological changes in body by adjusting to them. The cognitive developments occur in parallel with the periodical maturity drive [18].
\nThe most important challenge in adolescence is the beginning of self-exploration as an individual. The adolescent begins to ask questions such as ‘Who am I?’, ‘What kind of person will I be?’, and ‘Who am I according to other people?’ During adolescence, psychosocial conflict of this stage develops as a result of getting in identity confusion against identity development. Identity problems come into prominence in this stage mostly. Achieving autonomy and adopting the new values are significant developmental points for adolescence. In this stage, conflicts with parents, failures at school, and problems in relations with persons of the same gender and peer of opposite sex stand out. According to Erikson’s theory, the most important developmental duty of adolescence is the identity achievement. There are many dimensions of identity concept. These dimensions may be grouped as sexual, social, physical, psychological, moral, ideological, and occupational dimensions. All these dimensions form the entire identity. Firstly, sexual and physical dimensions of identity develop. While adolescents are mostly interested in their body images and sexual identities in early adolescence, the choice of profession, ideologies, and moral values are considered more important in later years [19]. Psychological changes appearing during this period are results of rapid physical changes. The adolescent gets anxious, uneasy, unbalanced, and incompatible even though he/she was previously happy, easygoing, and balanced. Adolescent’s emotions and interests change, get waver and indecisive, while enthusiasm becomes excessive, limitless, or unbalanced [20]. Stress developing as a result of changes in adolescence causes the adolescent to be depressive, so the feeling of loneliness appears. Therefore, the adolescent needs parents who would provide trust and support in struggling with distress, pleasant feelings such as pessimism and uneasiness. If parents are able to listen to the adolescent without criticizing, despising, and judging, they provide an opportunity to him/her for self-expression and better condition for personality and identity development. However, the adolescent who does not have parental support may experience anxiety, fear, and the feeling of loneliness. Time spent with friends increase and the adolescent gets under the influence of friends more than he/she does during childhood. However, subjects that are under the influence of peers are limited and parents continue to be the source of information in important topics for a young person. The adolescent finds parents’ opinion to be important firstly in the subjects of future, school choice, and profession choice. The experienced conflicts are generally related with moral behavior, relations with family members, academic success, taking responsibilities, and social interactions such as dressing style and hair style [21].\n
\nAs it is obvious, many adolescents experience internal psychological conflicts and external conflicts with their family and peers at the same time. Frequent shifts from mature behaviors to childish behaviors while identity development continues make adolescents restless. Conflicting emotions generally increase in the effort to be independent of family. The adolescent is in emotion conflict with his need to be independent from family on one side, and the need for their support and love on the other. The adolescents dream about being grown-up and changed into an adult persona as fast as possible. In the same time they are not sure about new social roles and ways how to make personal choices and decisions. Even though adolescents try to deny the adequate role of parents and other significant people, they still feel safer to have parents around them. They usually resolve internal conflicts temporarily which give them the impression that they are independent and parents’ support is unneeded in their life. However, in most cases, it is just an impression and a feeling, but in fact, they need parent’s support, but on a different and more sophisticated way. The role of parents in adolescence period is supposed to be backed up in resolving conflicts and struggling in identity confusion. Very often, parents experiencing their personal crises because of marriage problems and a possible divorce are not able to offer relevant support to their children. Therefore, adolescents growing up in such families are faced with natural developmental challenges, problems in the family, and poor support from parents. All of this puts them into the more risky situation for the development of psychological problems such as anxiety [22].
\nAnxiety is defined as a state of extreme worry, fear, and uncertainty which results from the expectation of a threatening event or situation. It frequently causes disruption of physical and psychological functioning [23]. The way how anxiety disorder was presented has been changed through different Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders classifications (DSM). DSM 5th Edition (DSM-5) has several changes regarding the diagnostic category of Anxiety Disorders. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is among the change which is moved to its own chapter as a new entity. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is moved to a new chapter in which acute stress and adjustment disorders are included. Furthermore, anxiety disorders in childhood are not included as a separate chapter anymore. Panic disorder and agoraphobia are classified as separate disorders in Anxiety Disorders because each of them can exist alone. Moreover, a Panic Attack Specified is added to the DSM-5 to use for the case panic attacks existing in the context of another anxiety disorder. Moreover, selective mutism is added to the Anxiety Disorders. Furthermore, the 6-month duration for symptoms is possessed to all ages with DSM-5 [24]. Another change is that separation anxiety disorder is shifted into Anxiety Disorders which was included in the Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence part as previously [25].
\nIn DSM 5 Classification, different types of anxiety disorders are presented and symptoms and diagnostic criteria are explained. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) refers to the statement of the feeling of anxiety almost all the time in any kind of circumstances or the case that is characterized with a persistent and a long duration of anxiety, which makes it different from the other forms of anxiety disorders [24].\nAgoraphobia refers to the statement of intense fear that develops in places or situations in which is difficult to escape. According to the DSM-5, for diagnosing people with agoraphobia, there is a need of having symptoms of extreme fear in public places which are perceived as too open, dangerous, and crowded mostly. Panic attack refers to the repetitive state of anxiety and sudden panic attacks with the fear of outcomes of this state, such as the fear of death, being mad, or losing control. Panic disorder is the disorder which brings a serious loss of functionality and the state of distress for the person. Specific phobia is characterized by an intense and persistent fear of a particular situation or object. For people with specific phobia, an intense anxiety develops by the exposure to the particular object or situation causing the fear. People with specific phobia have the fear of getting harmed. Social Anxiety Disorder was named as Social Phobia in DSM-4. It was explained as a kind of anxiety that was developed as a result of the fear of getting insulted by others and the feeling of shame in social conditions which cause severe anxiety. According to DSM-5, Social Anxiety Disorder indicates a broader scope of the condition as covering variety of social conditions. The person with the Social Anxiety Disorder feels stressed in cases of performing a social performance, which can bring about a panic attack. People with the Social Anxiety Disorder have distress in public speeches, eating or writing in the presence of other people and they avoid such situations. Separation Anxiety Disorder is referred as an excessive statement of anxiety or feeling of fear for separation from attachment figure that is developmentally inappropriate. Duration of the disorder to meet diagnosis for the Separation Anxiety Disorder criteria is at least 6 months in adults and at least 1 month in children. Selective Mutism is identified with the person not being able to speak in specific social conditions (as in the school) in which speech is expected even though he/she is capable of speech in other conditions normally. One of the characteristics of selective mutism is that the person with selective mutism does not speak in specific social conditions though she/he speaks in other conditions. The important point is that children who suffer from selective mutism usually do not have any kind of language deficits. The onset of selective mutism is often under 5 years which is generally realized in school. The state of anxiety can be experienced in various severities from a mild restlessness and tension up to the degree of panic. It can be listed from psychological range to physical range specified as worry, tension, wince, feeling of loneliness, insecurity, fear, panic, astonishment, nervousness, unclear thinking, dry mouth, headache, dizziness, vomiting, weakness, lack of appetite, lower blood pressure or high blood pressure, muscle rigidity, stomach problems, hyperventilation, sweating, shaking, and insomnia. Moreover, anxiety can show behavioral indications varying from person to person [24].\n
\nIdentifying the causes of anxiety disorder still has an unclear answer. In early theories, anxiety is explained as a defense strategy mechanism against the unconscious conflict. It is explained as a kind of adaptive behavior that is needed for person with internal conflicts. We cannot ignore biological innate tendency to react on the new situation with fear and anxiety that many children perform in early childhood. Behavior learning theories claim that children learn anxiety feeling and behavior from their parents or important people. Parents with specific or generalized anxiety disorder usually teach children to worry all the time or to be scared of specific objects or situations. A new research has proved that anxiety is linked with specific neurobiological and hormonal changes and processes in the body. Factors related to family situation, parents’ anxiety, family atmosphere, are factors that should be considered as important causes for anxiety disorder in children. Among other family factors, parenting styles, such as rigid-authoritative or oppositely permissive parenting, can cause fear and nervousness in children. The way how family functions in everyday life, the way how parents cope with stress, solve family problems or use disciplinary methods, are important aspects of family life that influence child’s psychological development. Additional factors, such as marital relationship and parent-child relationship, are significant factors effecting child’s feelings and behavior. Parents’ reaction on child’s developmentally appropriate fears and behavior can even increase anxiety in children. Families with many marital problems that might result in divorce are weighed with stress as well as disturbed family atmosphere. Growing up in such an atmosphere, living with parents who worry or fight most of the time, has effected child psychological development [26, 27].\n
\nDescriptive research method was applied in order to determine the relationship between parental divorce as independent variable and anxiety as dependent variable. A quantitative method was applied to analyze the data.
\nThe study had following aims: to explore the differences in anxiety levels among adolescents from divorced and intact families; to explore the level of anxiety of adolescents from divorced and intact families with respect to their genders.
\nBased on research questions the following hypotheses are developed:
H1: There is statistically significant difference in level of anxiety between adolescents from divorced and intact families.
H2: There is no statistically significant difference in anxiety level among adolescents from divorced and intact families in regards to gender.
The sample consists of adolescents from five different high schools from Istanbul, Turkey. The participants of the study were chosen with systematic random sampling technique.
\nPrincipals from participating schools allowed the research. Departments in which the research was done are selected based on the information we get from schools’ managements, in which the departments containing children from divorced families were indicated. The study was conducted with 190 students. However, the analysis was done with 162 participants because some students did not give the data about whether or not they live in divorced families. Some participants did not respond to all questions from Back Anxiety Scale, therefore, all participants with incomplete data are excluded from the research. An additional selection of participants of the study in regards to parental divorce as independent variable was not done, however we come to an equal number of adolescents from divorced and intact families.
\nParticipants were provided with the information sheet and informed consent before the study. The questionnaires were distributed to the participants. The participants were asked to answer the questions. For the assessment of anxiety, the Beck Anxiety Inventory was applied with its Turkish adaptation. The instructions were given to the participants by explaining that they should select the closest statement in the answer box. The researcher was present during the survey, and as each was done, s/he would put them into the arranged box.
\nThe research was conducted in 2016–2017 academic year. Both female and male adolescents were included in the research. A total of 73 female and 89 male participants participated in the study.
\nA demographic questionnaire was created and one data collection instruments were applied for the study. For assessment of anxiety level of participants Beck Anxiety Inventory was used. It is a self-report inventory which is developed by Aaron Beck in 1988 in order to measure intensity and severity of an individual’s anxiety. The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) is a 21-item Likert scale that is presented with four response choices (4-point scale) ranging from 0 to 3 as “Not at all”, “Mildly”, “Moderately”, and “Severely”. The total score has a minimum of 0 and maximum of 63. Results interpretation provides us with a possibility to discriminate participants as anxious and non-anxious group. Among anxious group the results from Back Anxiety Inventory discriminate participants with low anxiety, moderate anxiety and high anxiety. The adaptation of the scale in Turkish version is done by Ulusoy. Cronbach’s alpha is .92 while test-retest is found as r = 75 and r = 67 [28].
\nA quantitative method was applied to analyze the data. The analysis of data was done using IBM SPSS version 19.0. Descriptive statistics and frequencies were employed in this study for summarizing the statistical characteristics of adolescents from divorced and intact families. Independent samples t-test was applied for investigating the difference between adolescents from divorced and intact families in their anxiety levels. Moreover, two-way ANOVA was applied to examine the difference between male and female adolescents from divorced and intact families in their anxiety levels.
\nIn this part of the study, descriptions of the findings are presented. Firstly, a description of the characteristics and background of the participants of the study were illustrated. The collected data were analyzed by applying frequencies, descriptive statistics, correlations, independent samples t-test, and two-way ANOVA. Research questions and hypotheses are followed for the representation of the results and interpretations of the results one by one. The results are illustrated with tables.
\nIn \nTable 1\n demographic characteristic of participants are presented. The gender, chronological age, and information about parental divorce are in the focus of our study.
\n\n | \n | Frequency | \nPercent | \n
---|---|---|---|
Gender | \nFemale | \n73 | \n45.1 | \n
Male | \n89 | \n54.9 | \n|
Total | \n162 | \n100 | \n|
Age | \n15 | \n10 | \n6.2 | \n
16 | \n27 | \n16.7 | \n|
17 | \n84 | \n51.9 | \n|
18 | \n41 | \n25.3 | \n|
Total | \n162 | \n100.0 | \n|
Parental divorce | \nYes | \n81 | \n50.0 | \n
No | \n81 | \n50.0 | \n|
Total | \n162 | \n100.0 | \n
Demographic characteristics of participants.
Regarding the gender of participants, 45.1% of participants were female and 54.9% were male. Majority of participants are age 17 (51.9%), age 18 (25.3%), and 16 (16.7%.) Data presented in \nTable 1\n proved that our participants are in adolescence period, and that half of them live in divorced families and another half in intact families.
\nFrom the results in \nTable 2\n, we can conclude that 63.6% of our participants scored 21 and less, which can be interpreted as low level of anxiety. About 32.7% of our participants scored between 22 and 35, which indicates moderate anxiety of our participants. Approximately 3.7% adolescents scored 36 and more, which we considered as high anxiety. Although statistical data indicate that more than half of participants in the study have low level of anxiety, the fact that 36.4% of participants have moderate and high level anxiety is important information to be considered and discussed.
\nStatistics | \n||
---|---|---|
BAI (0–3) | \n||
N | \nValid | \n162 | \n
Missing | \n0 | \n|
Mean | \n17.67 | \n|
Std. error of mean | \n.758 | \n|
Median | \n15.50 | \n|
Mode | \n7 | \n|
Std. deviation | \n9.645 | \n|
Variance | \n93.031 | \n|
Range | \n36 | \n|
Minimum | \n3 | \n|
Maximum | \n39 | \n
BAI (0–3) | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Frequency | \nPercent | \nValid percent | \nCumulative percent | \n|
Valid | \n3 | \n1 | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n
4 | \n8 | \n4.9 | \n4.9 | \n5.6 | \n|
5 | \n6 | \n3.7 | \n3.7 | \n9.3 | \n|
6 | \n3 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n11.1 | \n|
7 | \n11 | \n6.8 | \n6.8 | \n17.9 | \n|
8 | \n6 | \n3.7 | \n3.7 | \n21.6 | \n|
9 | \n9 | \n5.6 | \n5.6 | \n27.2 | \n|
10 | \n6 | \n3.7 | \n3.7 | \n30.9 | \n|
11 | \n1 | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n31.5 | \n|
12 | \n10 | \n6.2 | \n6.2 | \n37.7 | \n|
13 | \n5 | \n3.1 | \n3.1 | \n40.7 | \n|
14 | \n6 | \n3.7 | \n3.7 | \n44.4 | \n|
15 | \n9 | \n5.6 | \n5.6 | \n50.0 | \n|
16 | \n4 | \n2.5 | \n2.5 | \n52.5 | \n|
18 | \n3 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n54.3 | \n|
19 | \n7 | \n4.3 | \n4.3 | \n58.6 | \n|
20 | \n7 | \n4.3 | \n4.3 | \n63.0 | \n|
21 | \n1 | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n63.6 | \n|
22 | \n5 | \n3.1 | \n3.1 | \n66.7 | \n|
23 | \n3 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n68.5 | \n|
24 | \n8 | \n4.9 | \n4.9 | \n73.5 | \n|
25 | \n4 | \n2.5 | \n2.5 | \n75.9 | \n|
26 | \n2 | \n1.2 | \n1.2 | \n77.2 | \n|
27 | \n5 | \n3.1 | \n3.1 | \n80.2 | \n|
28 | \n7 | \n4.3 | \n4.3 | \n84.6 | \n|
29 | \n5 | \n3.1 | \n3.1 | \n87.7 | \n|
30 | \n2 | \n1.2 | \n1.2 | \n88.9 | \n|
32 | \n3 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n90.7 | \n|
33 | \n3 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n92.6 | \n|
34 | \n1 | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n93.2 | \n|
35 | \n5 | \n3.1 | \n3.1 | \n96.3 | \n|
36 | \n3 | \n1.9 | \n1.9 | \n98.1 | \n|
38 | \n2 | \n1.2 | \n1.2 | \n99.4 | \n|
39 | \n1 | \n0.6 | \n0.6 | \n100.0 | \n|
Total | \n162 | \n100.0 | \n100.0 | \n\n |
Frequencies for Beck Anxiety Inventory scores.
The data present cumulative results for all participants in the study, which includes adolescents who live in divorced and intact families. These data are confirmed by the data analysis presented in \nTable 3\n.
\nDescriptive statistics | \n||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | N | \nRange | \nMinimum | \nMaximum | \nMean | \nStd. deviation | \nVariance | \n|
Statistic | \nStatistic | \nStatistic | \nStatistic | \nStatistic | \nStd. error | \nStatistic | \nStatistic | \n|
BAI (0–3) | \n162 | \n36 | \n3 | \n39 | \n17.67 | \n.758 | \n9.645 | \n93.031 | \n
Valid N (listwise) | \n162 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Descriptive statistic for Beck Anxiety Inventory scores.
In \nTable 4\n, data on anxiety level of adolescents from divorced families as well as adolescents from intact families are presented. We find out that adolescents from divorced families scored higher (M = 25.43, SD = 6.469) than adolescents from intact families (M = 9.90, SD = 4.823) in anxiety.
\nVariables | \nGroups | \nN | \nMean | \nSD | \ndf | \nT | \nSig | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Anxiety | \nAdolescent from intact families | \n81 | \n9.90 | \n4.823 | \n160 | \n17.322 | \n.003 | \n
Adolescent from divorced families | \n81 | \n25.43 | \n6.469 | \n\n | \n | \n |
Independent samples t-test result on the Beck Anxiety Inventory scores of adolescents from divorced and intact families.
Data presented in \nTable 4\n proved that there are statistically significant differences in anxiety level of adolescents from divorced and intact families (t = 17.322; p < .05). These results suggest that divorce has a statistically significant influence on adolescents’ anxiety level in our sample.
\nOne of the aims of our study was to investigate gender differences in anxiety level of our participants. In addition, we wanted to get an answer on the question if young boys and girls react differently on divorce in the family in regard to anxiety level.
\n\n\nTable 5\n illustrates results of two-way ANOVA on the Beck Anxiety Inventory scores of adolescents from divorced and intact families with respect to their genders. As it is evident from \nTable 5\n, there are no statistically significant differences in anxiety between male and female adolescents from divorced and intact families (p > .05). Results indicate that young boys and girls react the same way on parents’ divorce, and that divorce is a variable which has an influence on anxiety level, and that gender has no statistically significant influence on anxiety level.
\nTests of between-subjects effects | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable: BAI (0–3) | \n|||||
Source | \nType III sum of squares | \ndf | \nMean square | \nF | \nSig. | \n
Corrected model | \n8459.881\na\n\n | \n3 | \n2819.960 | \n100.696 | \n.000 | \n
Intercept | \n48166.439 | \n1 | \n48166.439 | \n1719.934 | \n.000 | \n
Gender | \n7.984 | \n1 | \n7.984 | \n.285 | \n.594 | \n
Parental divorce | \n8121.297 | \n1 | \n8121.297 | \n289.996 | \n.000 | \n
Gender × parental divorce | \n87.945 | \n1 | \n87.945 | \n3.140 | \n.078 | \n
Error | \n4424.761 | \n158 | \n28.005 | \n\n | \n |
Total | \n61626.000 | \n162 | \n\n | \n | \n |
Corrected total | \n12884.642 | \n161 | \n\n | \n | \n |
Two-way ANOVA result on the Beck anxiety inventory scores of adolescents from divorced and intact families with respect to gender.
R squared = .657 (adjusted R squared = .650).
Presented research findings served us to explore the issue of anxiety level in adolescents and the way how anxiety level could be connected to parents’ divorce. We also wanted to look at the role of gender on anxiety level in adolescents and its relationship to parents’ divorce. We have measured the level of anxiety by applying The Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) scale. The mutual developmental challenges and identity crises in adolescence period might be connected to the development of symptoms of anxiety in general. The results we got by measuring the anxiety level in adolescents in our study indicated present tendencies of anxiety level in adolescents. Results in \nTable 2\n explained that anxiety level among participants is not very high. Following the results of frequencies for Beck Anxiety Inventory scale, we can see that the majority of our participants have low level of anxiety. However, our study indicated that 36.4% of our participants have moderate and high level of anxiety, which means that every third participant have some symptoms of anxiety.
\nOur study indicated that adolescents from divorced families scored higher level of anxiety than adolescents from intact families, and that there are statistically significant differences in anxiety level of adolescents from divorced and intact families (t = 17.322; p < .05). If we compare the results from frequencies for Beck Anxiety Inventory scale presented in \nTable 2\n and the results presented in \nTable 4\n, we can conclude that, most likely, the majority of adolescents from divorced families belong to the group of 3.7% of adolescents who scored 36 and more, which we considered as high anxiety, and that the rest of participants from divorced families belong to the group of 32.7% of participants who scored between 22 and 35, which indicated moderate anxiety.
\nThose results can be confirmed with the results presented in \nTable 5\n. Results explored the issue of gender in regard to anxiety as dependent variable and divorce as independent variable. Data proved that adolescents from divorced families and intact families do not vary in their anxiety level in relation to gender in our sample. Our data indicate that adolescents react the same way on parents’ divorce, and that both young boys and girls react the same way.
\nAccording to Ref. [14] possible reactions of young boys and girls on divorce are different. Young girls react more emotionally, such as early sexual relations, lack of self-confidence, while young boys show aggressive and delinquent behaviors more frequently. Anxiety can be closely related to the mentioned behaviors in boys and girls. Anxiety could be a cause, but also a consequence, of inappropriate behaviors among youth, which indicates the tendencies that divorce, anxiety, and problems in behavior are closely related. According to the same source, school phobia is the most frequent reaction of adolescents on the loss of one parent due to divorce. Our study confirmed this statement considering that school phobia is one of the types of anxiety.
\nOur study has reached its aims, research hypotheses were proved, and direct findings answered our research questions. In order to broadly explore the issues of family, divorce, developmental challenges in adolescents in regard to anxiety level, it is important to be aware of some of the unavoidable limitations of the study as follows:
\nThis study was conducted in Istanbul Province, Turkey, with 162 participants in total. Therefore, research findings cannot be generalized to all adolescents from divorced and intact families. However, our research findings indicate the tendencies that could be discussed in connection with other research, knowledge, and practices as it is explained below.
\nDivorce of two persons formally marks the legal termination of mutual life and the division of common property. A particularly important issue is the division of responsibilities for the upbringing and education of children. Possible effects of divorce on the development of child and the connection to anxiety should be observed over a long period of time. Observational period starts from the childhood period before divorce, child’s assumption about life after divorce takes place and period of life when child lives with one parent and spends limited time with another one. The period before divorce is most often the period which is marked by problems in parents’ communication, whether the communication is insufficient or involves various forms of aggression. Such communication generates a tense atmosphere in family, which creates the feeling of tension and unpredictability for the child. Those feelings directly have an influence on development of fears, feeling of inability to control the situation in the family, which all are a precondition for development of anxiety in young persons. If this situation lasts quite long, which is very often the case, children start to develop very intensive specific fears which cannot be considered as “normal” or “typical” for a particular chronological age.
\nThe parents’ response to these fears is often inadequate, and involves the advice that the child should ignore the fears, or these fears are even mocked by them. Over time, children learn to hide their fears, or pretend not to have them at all. The accumulation of hidden fears often results in social phobias or panic attacks in the adolescent period [16].\n
\nAnother important aspect of divorce begins with bringing the decision that parents will divorce, and the way how they communicate that decision to children. Children are rarely ready for such a decision, parents often hide that decision in order to protect their children, or to give themselves enough time to accept the fact that they are getting divorced. The moment the child realizes that the parents are getting divorced, the grief process starts due to the breakdown of the family, fears develop about what the future will bring, and a sense of confusion starts to develop about to whom the child should be more loyal, the parent with whom child continues to live, or the one who is “less responsible” for divorce. Living in such a situation is associated with a high level of stress for both the child and parents, which is an additional risk factor for the development of anxiety.
\nThe role and responsibility of parents often change because the conditions in which marital union functions are marked by frequent conflicts, lack of understanding, and violent relations among married partners at times. Parents because of their own problems spend less time with their children, have less patience in communicating with them, and bring their own frustrations into the parent-child relationship. Children often become the object of arguments and unsolved partner relations. In this way, the expected positive role of parents on the development of children becomes an additional risk for the development of psychological problems in youth, which includes anxiety as well. Parents are supposed to provide support, love and understanding, with clearly established rules and limitations, which would provide a good structure for adolescent to overcome developmental challenges and stress because of divorce.
\nThe period of adolescence, besides the developmental challenges already mentioned above, is the period in which stress related to the inadequate family relations is most accumulated. Young persons are very critical toward their parents during adolescence, and the act of divorce for them causes either anger toward their parents because of their inability to solve the problem, or otherwise a complete withdrawal from society and difficulties to define and achieve life goals. In both cases, a young person manifests a high level of frustration and the difficulty of adjusting behavior to the new role an adolescent has.
\nFindings of the research [29] about the perceptions of youth concerning the values of parenting indicate that adolescents highly value warmth, love, understanding and support of their parents, regardless of the fact that they pay a great importance to their peers at the same time. Parents who are getting divorced or are already divorced often face themselves with the difficulty to provide an emotional support to their children because of personal or environmental reasons.
\nOur research was conducted on a relatively small sample, and in one geographical area, however, results point to significant tendencies of higher anxiety level in adolescents who grow up in divorced families. The fact that, in this study, we found that boys and girls respond equally to divorce when it comes to anxiety, and that there is no statistically significant differences in gender, further confirm our elaboration. The causes of anxiety can be found in already explained situational, relational, and emotional effects of divorce on the psychological development of youth.
\nOur research findings should help researchers to explore other components which link divorce, adolescence and anxiety, such as the developmental period when divorce occurred, causes of divorce, support of other family members, additional financial effects of divorce, etc. This study should draw the attention of parents who are getting divorced that support for their children during such process is necessary in all aspects of psychosocial development.
\nSpinal cord injury (SCI) can be defined as damage to the spinal cord (SC). It causes anatomical and physiological changes that result in permanent or temporary alterations in its function [1]. The injury causes ionic deregulation, edema, ischemia, bleeding, free radicals production, and a generalized inflammatory response that will cause partial or total loss of sensitive and motor function below the site of injury [2, 3].
\nIn the United States, there are around 17,500 new cases of SCI per year, with an approximate prevalence of 280,000 people [4]. SCI is found most frequently in men (79.8%) than women (20.2%) and the age distribution reflects a bimodal performance with a peak between 15 and 29 years of age and another one on ages above 50 years [4, 5, 6]. Traffic accidents are the main cause of traumatic SCI (38%), and they are most prevalent in young people. The low impact accidents like falls are the second cause of SCI (31%), and they are more common among people older than 60 years old [5]. In Mexico, the estimated annual incidence of SCI is about 18.1 per million inhabitants. Statistically, the number of people involved rises each year [7].
\nThe Spinal Cord Injury could be divided by its etiology in traumatic and nontraumatic. The traumatic type is caused by physical damage (traffic accident, sportive, and fall), whereas nontraumatic is occasioned by an illness/sickness, such as tumors, infections or degenerative diseases which directly affect the SC [8]. In addition, SCI can be divided into primary and secondary injury [1, 9].
\nPrimary injury is caused at the moment of physical damage and leads to irreversible affection on gray matter during the first hour post-lesion. There are three main mechanisms of injury: contusion, when there is not a visible alteration in its morphology, producing a necrotic region at the injury area; laceration or transection, when there is an extreme trauma or penetration, affecting SC conduction of nervous impulses depending on whether the tissue is partial or totally transected; compression from vertebral fractures leading ischemic damage in the area where blood flow was disrupted [10, 11].
\nAfter injury, superficial blood vessels undergo to vasospasm which provokes damage in the microvasculature of gray matter [12]. Reduction in the perfusion has two important implications: hypoxia and ischemia; which may involve to neurogenic shock characterized by arterial hypotension, bradycardia, arrhythmia, and intraparenchymal hemorrhage that causes neuronal death by necrosis. Afterwards, primary injury provokes the rupture of blood brain barrier and a cascade of destructive secondary phenomena leading to a further damage in SC and neurological dysfunction [1, 13]. Therefore, the primary lesion results in the development of a succession of cellular and molecular changes that alter gene expression patterns, which are processes that are already part of the secondary injury [11, 12]. During the acute phase, injury to the blood vessels and severe hemorrhages cause massive influx of inflammatory cells, cytokines, and vasoactive peptides. This phase is almost characterized by ionic deregulation that leads to edema, thus interrupting the conduction of nerve impulses. Following, subacute phase involves a sequence of events like ischemia, vasospasm, thrombosis, inflammatory response, free radicals (FR) production, lipid peroxidation (LPO), and activation of autoimmune responses causing apoptosis. The huge inflammatory responses after the acute and subacute phase, together with the disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), contribute to the progressively swelling of the SC. This generalized edema may increase the mechanical pressure of the SC, aggravating the injury [1, 11, 14].
\nTo counteract all these acute effects after SCI, neuroprotective strategies have been investigated to rapidly intervene decreasing the neuronal death occurring after damage mechanisms. Many pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies have been developed, and others are still under investigation, this in order to improve the quality of life of patients.
\nAs we review previously, SCI leads to motor and sensory dysfunction, first with the primary mechanical injury and then with the complex cascade of secondary damaging events [15]. For several years, basic science, preclinical, and clinical studies are focused in overcoming elements involved in accurate recovery from SCI [1]. An ideal neuroprotective therapy must reduce neurological symptoms including degenerative changes; starting from there, we can discriminate between potential clinical therapies, which could have a better effect [16]. While these therapies are being searched, there are many preclinical and clinical investigations exploring pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments.
\nThis range of therapeutic approaches includes: ionic channel blockers, inhibitors of NMDA and AMPA-kainate receptors, inhibitors of FR and LPO, anti-apoptotic drugs, calpain inhibitors, immunosuppressive or immunomodulatory drugs, immunophilin ligands, immunomodulatory peptides, hypoglycemic agents, and gonadal hormones.
\nTetrodotoxin (TTX) is a low-molecular-weight guanidine neurotoxin that acts as a specific blocker of voltage-gated sodium (NaV) channel [17]. TTX has neuroprotective properties by blocking NaV channels, preventing neuronal death by diminishing depolarization, cellular Na+/Ca+2 exchange, and neuronal glutamate release [18].
\nThe beneficial effects of TTX in preclinical studies include a reduction of white matter loss after SCI [17, 18, 19], promoting a motor function restoration. The effect of TTX is time-dependent [20]. The administration of TTX 15 minutes after a SCI helps to restore the function of hindlimbs [21]. Despite these promissory effects, there are some limitations for the use of TTX in patients, one of them is its toxicity. This may appear as a consequence of its systemic distribution and it can involve the blocking of diaphragmatic nerves ending in respiratory tract paralysis [17]. Even with previous findings, current studies are needed to improve its use in SCI.
\nRiluzole is a benzothiazole anticonvulsant drug with neuroprotective effects in the SCI [22]. One of the mechanisms by which riluzole operates is the inhibition in the presynaptic terminals of glutamate, and this helps to limit the glutamate-induced toxicity [23]. In addition, riluzole blocks the NaV-gated channels, avoiding swelling and neuronal acidosis. Riluzole blocks the entry of H+ to the neurons through the Na+/H+ exchanger; this prevents the Ca+2 from inducing the release of glutamate and excitotoxicity [22]. Investigations have shown that the interruption of events associated with glutamate release on the presynaptic space by reducing Ca+2 influxes provokes a glutamate-mediated LPO reduction [23, 24]. Administration of riluzole within 12 hours of SCI was well tolerated and suggests that it may have a beneficial effect on motor outcome [25].
\nNimodipine is a dihydropyridinic Ca+2 channel antagonist that boosts the brain’s blood flow, without compromising metabolism [26, 27]. It reduces malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, ED-1 markers for activated macrophages and myeloperoxidase (MPo). Studies have shown that nimodipine helps reducing FR, oxidative damage, resulting in the reduction of the damaged area and the infiltration of the inflammatory cells to the region, allowing SCI restoration [26]. Furthermore, the effect of inhibiting Ca+2 flux by nimodipine reduces apoptosis and tissue damage after SCI, increasing cell viability [27].
\nMemantine is a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, which through the inhibition of hypoxic or ischemic damage/necrosis helps to prevent the secondary damage in SCI [28, 29]. The use of an NMDA antagonist limits neuronal glutamate exposure caused by excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters [29]. The use of memantine with anti-apoptotic agents like Q-VD-OPh boosts the neuroprotective effect through the reduction in apoptosis and necrosis mechanisms. Moreover, it provides better clinical and histological outcomes by limiting neuronal necrosis [28, 29].
\nGacyclidine is a noncompetitive NMDA antagonist that is able to reduce the extension of ischemic lesions in SCI. It has been proven that gacyclidine is efficient in enhancing the functional and histological condition of the injury, but their neuroprotective effects are time and dose-dependent [30, 31].
\nNBQX is an AMPA/kainate antagonist that during acute SCI improves mitochondrial function and diminishes reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation as well as LPO production [32, 33]. The treatment with NBQX reduces white matter loss following SCI. Further studies are needed to know more about its efficacious effects in acute SCI.
\nOmega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) are structural compounds of the phospholipid membrane. They produce beneficial effects in neurodegenerative diseases by its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and membrane stabilizing properties [34]. ω-3 PUFAs, particularly docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), exert profound anti-inflammatory effects on the central nervous system (CNS), confer significant protection to the white matter, and help to increase neurite growth and synapse formation. DHA acts on cyclooxygenases (COX), cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kB) [35, 36]. Deficiencies of lipids affect neural responses in CNS injuries, and this must predispose nerve cells to dysfunction [37]. According to previous findings, there are some investigations (Table 1) that have previously shown the effects of PUFAs in preclinical models.
\nTreatment outcome | \nRef. | \n
---|---|
α-linolenic acid (ALA) and DHA reduce lesion size and increase motor recovery and neuronal survival. | \n[34] | \n
DHA reduces microglia activation in both ventral and dorsal horns and increases motor recovery, promoting beneficial functional effect in SCI. | \n[38] | \n
ALA, combined with DHA, protects against neuronal necrosis and apoptosis. | \n[39] | \n
DHA induces a reduction in neutrophil number in SC epicenter. The administration confers histological protection and improves motor recovery. | \n[40] | \n
Prophylactic therapy with ω-3 has shown a reduction in cellular vulnerability. Supporting functional recovery, there is also an increase in levels of protein kinase B/Akt and CREB. | \n[37, 41] | \n
DHA plus rehabilitation enhance a functional, anatomical, and synaptic plasticity in cervical SCI. | \n[42] | \n
Polyunsaturated fatty acids in spinal cord injury.
Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide compound constituted by glutamine, glycine, and cysteine. The reduced form of GSH is glutathione-monoethyl-ester (GSHE), which is an endogenous, rechargeable antioxidant. Besides its anti-oxidant functions, GSHE plays a role in regulation of apoptosis, and it is important for cellular defense against ROS [43, 44]. Some studies have reported that GSHE diminishes SC LPO after SCI, while also acting as a vasodilator under conditions of oxidative stress [44, 45]. In addition, GSHE plays an anti-excitotoxic role by inhibiting the binding ligands to ionotropic glutamate receptors under redox modulation, which have been involved in excitotoxicity after SCI. As a consequence of the reduction of GSH after an injury, there is neuronal loss in the SC, probably due to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Combined therapy of GSHE with A91 resulted in a better motor recovery and axonal sparing associated with a higher axonal myelination [46]. The use of GSHE could be an interesting alternative for SCI therapy; however, it should be strongly evaluated before its use in clinical trials.
\nCaspase inhibitor Z-DEVD-fmk is a selective caspase-3 inhibitor that also has anti-inflammatory properties. Anti-apoptosis compounds are used to block apoptotic cell death but also to inhibit cytokine production. Treatment of SCI with z-DEVD reduces secondary tissue damage, ischemic injury, preserves motor function, and provides neuroprotection via the inhibition of cell death in all of cell types in the SC [47, 48]. Low doses of z-DEVD-fmk combined with basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) reduce neurological deficit in ischemia, therefore providing neuroprotection [49].
\nCaspase inhibitor z-LEHD-fmk acts as a selective caspase-9 inhibitor with anti-apoptotic properties. This drug helps decreasing levels of apoptosis biochemical markers, reducing lesion size and remaining active during treatment to maintain its therapeutic effect. Treatment with z-LEHD-fmk helps to prevent apoptosis in a variety of cell types like neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia populations [50]. Further studies are needed to understand more about its effects and benefits in acute SCI.
\nCalpains belong to the family of calcium-dependent nonlysosomal cysteine proteases, which can be found expressed through the CNS. They are involved in neurodegeneration, degradation of cytoskeleton, and apoptosis via caspase-3 due to its proteolytic activities, in SCI. The influx of Ca+2 stimulates Ca+2-dependent enzymes, within them are calpains, which seem to play a role in proteolysis by contributing to apoptosis in CNS cells. The cell death decreases mRNA expression and transcription of myelin basic protein (MBP) and proteolipid protein (PLP), which are axonal neurofilament proteins [49, 51, 52]. The administration of a calpain inhibitor such as E-64-d (1 mg/kg) to injured rats blocks apoptosis and helps to re-establish MBP and PLP genes [51]. The administration of other calpain inhibitors such as SJA 6017 and calpeptin has demonstrated their ability to induce neuroprotection after SCI [53, 54]. Despite the study efforts and the promising therapeutic effects for functional neuroprotection, there are no clinical trials testing these drugs, so further studies are needed for the use of calpain inhibitors in patients.
\nIndomethacin, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) drug, acts as a nonselective cyclooxygenase inhibitor. It has shown that it inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandins and ameliorates the effects of secondary injuries like tissue necrosis in SCI [55, 56, 57]. RhoA is a convergent intracellular pathway that limits axonal growth; its inhibition with indomethacin prevents oligodendrocyte loss and induces myelination across damaged white matter [58]. Nevertheless, the administration of nonselective cyclooxygenase inhibitors is a controversial issue since these compounds could inhibit platelet aggregation and may produce gastrointestinal ulceration [55]. Moreover, there is evidence that a single injection of indomethacin in SCI had a minimal effect on functional recovery and anatomical repair [57].
\nMeloxicam is a drug derived from enolic acid, which inhibits prostaglandin biosynthesis under inflammatory conditions via the inhibition of COX-2. It has minimal gastric toxicity. Meloxicam has shown to reduce SCI-induced oxidative stress and exert neuroprotection by inhibiting LPO, GSH depletion, and DNA fragmentation [59, 60]. Despite these interesting results, meloxicam has not been further studied. Therefore, more studies are needed to know about its clinical management in SCI.
\nCyclosporine A (CsA) is an immunosuppressant agent compound formed by 11 amino cyclic peptides, and it is obtained from Tolypocladium inflatum. CsA inhibits T-helper lymphocytes, cytotoxic and inflammatory responses in macrophages, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOs) expression avoiding the formation of nitric oxide (NO)-derived cytotoxic species, Cox-2 mRNA accumulation, tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) production and reduces cytokines and interleukins production (IL-1, IL-2, and IL-6). Also, CsA reduced the apoptosis of SC cells and increased the protein expression levels of cyclophilin-D (Cyp-D) and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) [61, 62]. This compound is capable of inducing motor recovery after SCI [63].
\nTacrolimus or FK506 is an immunosuppressant macrolide drug, isolated from Streptomyces tsukubaensis, and it is approved by The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [64, 65]. An indirect neuroprotective effect results from its immunosuppressant action on T-cells that infiltrate SCI, and this action modulates inflammation. On the other hand, FK506 inhibits caspase-3 and NF-kB, improving functional recovery with the increase of rostral axonal sparing and oligodendroglial survival [66, 67]. Additionally, this compound is capable of reducing FR and thereby LPO. These neuroprotective effects improve if the administration of FK506 is during the first 30 min after injury [65]. The studies suggest that FK506 might be a good drug for treating SCI in humans.
\nImmunization with neural derived peptides (INDP) such as A91, a peptide derived from the 87–99 immunogenic sequence of myelin basic protein has shown to induce neuroprotection and motor recovery after SCI [68]. Its mechanism of action is related to the activation of T-lymphocytes inducing an anti-inflammatory Th2 response that allows microglia to differentiate into a M2 phenotype. Th2 response is capable of producing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a molecule strongly related to tissue protection [69]. INDP has shown that anti-A91 T-lymphocytes promote tissue protection by inhibiting the expression of iNOS, reducing ON production [68] and decrease LPO after SCI [70]. On the other hand, it has been shown that all these beneficial effects contribute to the preservation of neural tissue by preventing apoptosis [71], the survival of neurons in rubrospinal tract [72] and promoting a better neurological recovery in models of SCI [46]. Studies suggest that A91 might be an immune modulating treatment for SCI.
\nMetformin is a hypoglycemic agent used for therapy of type 2 diabetes mellitus; it is an AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) agonist. Metformin also acts through signaling pathway of mTOR and p70S6K causing an inhibition of apoptosis and inflammation. This drug is also capable of stimulating autophagy and reducing expression of NF-kB-mediated inflammation [73, 74]. Studies indicate that long-term use of metformin has been proved effective as a pharmacological treatment for some CNS disorders like Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and ischemic brain injury. Using a rat model of traumatic SCI, the administration of metformin helps restoring the dysfunctional autophagy-lysosome pathways providing neuroprotection, decreasing neuronal death and mitigating apoptosis [75, 76]. The immediate administration of metformin after the injury showed diminishing complications, reflecting a decrease on histopathological signs of neuroinflammation, including TNFα and IL-1β inflammatory cytokines in the SC [73]. Although these outcomes are promising, subsequent studies are required to determine the risk ad optimal doses for the use of metformin on clinical studies.
\nAndrogens and estrogens are multi-active steroidal hormones that have neuroprotective effects in neural injuries; both testosterone and estradiol improve safeguard against apoptosis and promote motor and sensitive recovery. Also, reduce inflammation and FR generation and have been involved in regulating the expression of cytoskeletal proteins, promoting them as an increasing in neurite outgrowth [77, 78]. Studies in rats treated with estradiol have shown a reduction in the lesion size, an increase in white matter sparing, and an improving in motor function [77, 79, 80]. On the other hand, testosterone has shown to exert similar but not identical effects; it is neuroprotective against apoptosis in oxidative stress [77, 78]. A study with young adult female rats implanted with testosterone-filled silastic capsules reported regressive changes in motoneuron and muscle morphology after a SCI providing the possibility of improving motor function [81]. A study with administration of progesterone in rats improves neurological deficits and reduces inflammatory response. Prevents degeneration of motor neurons and reestablishes proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocytes [82]. At the moment, investigations on the field conclude that gonadal hormones could be an effective alternative after SCI.
\nMethylprednisolone, minocycline, GM-1-ganglioside, and glyburide are some of the most investigated pharmacological therapies in clinical settings.
\nMethylprednisolone (MP) is a synthetic glucocorticoid, with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects [83, 84]. MP blocks the inflammatory cascade and disrupts neuron regeneration by inhibiting immunological cells [85, 86]. The potential neuroprotective effects of MP have been reported especially in the acute phase of SCI. According to some investigations, MP is capable of reducing FR production, Ca+2 influx, excitotoxicity, and immune-mediated phagocytosis over the course of hypoperfusion of SCI [87]. In addition, MP appears to have effect in apoptosis and autophagy regulation; however, the mechanisms are not clear [84]. While it remains the only option for acute SCI treatment in clinical settings, a debate regarding optimal dose, time of administration, efficacy, and adverse effects has dominated the field for years. There are three National Acute SCI Studies (NASCIS) and other clinical or biomedical investigations, in which the safety and efficacy of MP were assessed (Table 2) [88]. Despite the intense investigation, currently there is an important controversy regarding the real utility of this drug.
\nTreatment outcome | \nRef. | \n
---|---|
NASCIS I: Treatment with a dose 1.0 g daily promotes neurological recovery. The morbidity and mortality is increased. | \n[89] | \n
NASCIS II: Administration of (30 mg/kg intravenous bolus plus 23 hour infusion of 5.4 mg/kg) during the first 8 hours after injury causes neurological recovery seen from 6 weeks after the SCI. | \n[86] | \n
NASCIS III: Administration within 8 hours from the SCI, should maintain the administration for 48 hours to improve neurological function. | \n[90] | \n
Combination of riluzole and MP improves functional recovery and tissue sparing. In addition, beneficial effects on oxidative stress were observed. | \n[91] | \n
MP may cause acute corticosteroid myopathy, at doses recommended by the NASCIS. | \n[92] | \n
High-dose MP inhibits glucocorticoid receptors as well as having effects in LPO; however, their beneficial effects are independent of LPO inhibition. | \n[55] | \n
Administration of MP for treatment of SCI is not recommended. There is evidence that high-dose steroids are associated with harmful side effects including death. | \n[93] | \n
A comparative study of MP vs. A91-immunization showed that A91-immunization has a better efficiency promoting motor recovery. Combining MP with A91-immunization allowed to observe that MP has a transient immunosuppressive effect that eliminated the beneficial actions of A91-immunization. | \n[94] | \n
Effects of methylprednisolone in spinal cord injury.
Minocycline is a second generation tetracycline, a semi-synthetic antibiotic able to cross blood brain barrier, and it can be used to treat rheumatoid arthritis [95, 96]. Minocycline has neuroprotective effects when administered during the acute neural trauma. Current data suggest that minocycline has anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and neuroprotective effects. These beneficial actions are achieved as a result of the inhibition of iNOS matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), PLA2, TNF-α, caspase-1, and caspase-3. Moreover, minocycline enhances Bcl-2 and thus, reduces apoptosis, also, it decreases p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and inhibits PARP-1 [97, 98, 99, 100]. Other studies report that minocycline can bind to Ca+2 and Mg+, reduces reactive astrocytes to increase oligodendrocyte viability in white matter, and inhibits the activation of microglial cells [101, 102]. A multi-center phase II trial was performed to explore the neuroprotective effect of minocycline; however, the results of the study did not establish a real improvement in SCI. Authors suggest further investigations in a multi-center phase III trial [103].
\nGangliosides (GM-1) are sialic acid-containing glycosphingolipids, present in cell membranes of CNS cells, specifically in the external leaflet of plasma membranes. They participate in the repair and maintenance of CNS [104, 105]. A randomized placebo-controlled (Phase II) trial with administration of GM-1 within 24 hours after injury was realized in 37 patients with SCI. The results of this study showed that GM-1 enhances the recovery of neurologic function after 1 year [104]. Further studies should be designed in order to provide more evidence about the efficacy of GM-1.
\nGlyburide (glibenclamide) is a FDA approved sulfonylurea drug widely used to treat type 2 diabetes; it has the ability to target receptor (SUR1) regulated Ca+2 activated [ATP] cation (NCCa-ATP) channels [96, 106]. After SCI, there are small hemorrhagic lesions at the epicenter of gray matter. Glyburide diminishes the progressive hemorrhage necrosis by jamming the interaction between SUR-1 and preforming subunits of NCCa-ATP channels located in endothelial cells. In addition, improves neurological function [107]. Actually, a phase I/II clinical trial is currently under way to test the safety and neuroprotective effectiveness of glyburide in patients with SCI [88].
\nThe most common preclinical nonpharmacological therapies in the acute phase of SCI are antioxidants, growth factors, and transplant of cultured cells like neural stem cells (NSCs), bone marrow stem cells (BMSCs), olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), and Schwann cells (SCs).
\nFirst damage in the acute phase of injury is generated in membranes, membranes which are susceptible to the attack of ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). ROS are produced in metabolic and physiological processes of cells; however, they are overproduced by inflammatory response. ROS and RNS induce LPO, which leads to demyelinating processes. Among the nonpharmacological therapies to prevent damage from FR are nonenzymatic antioxidants like vitamins.
\nVitamins are one of the main natural antioxidants. Table 3 shows some vitamins and their neuroprotective effect after SCI.
\nTreatment | \nNeuroprotection mechanism | \nRef. | \n
---|---|---|
Vitamin E | \nIncreases functional recovery. Reduces cavitation and decreases FR, LPO, and glutathione peroxidase and improves functional recovery. | \n[108, 109, 110, 111, 112] | \n
Vitamin C | \nStops lipid hydroperoxyides formation and decreases membrane damage. Reduces necrotic tissues and improves functional recovery in rats. Inhibits ROS generation and LPO. Decreases levels of proteins like NF-kB, iNOS, and COX-2. Down-regulates the levels of TNFα and IL-1β. Modulates antioxidant status and MPO activity | \n[113, 114] | \n
Vitamin C + fluoxetine | \nCo-treatment with vitamin C + fluoxetine inhibits the blood-SC barrier disruption after SCI. Inhibits capillary fragmentation by reducing mRNA levels of MMP-9. Prevents degradation of tight-junction proteins, inhibits infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages. Inhibits apoptotic cell death and improves functional recovery. | \n[115] | \n
Vitamin A | \nIncreases the expression of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα after SCI. Systemic administration reduces early transcript levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα. Reduces blood-SC-barrier permeability and improves functional recovery | \n[116] | \n
Decreases levels of β-catenin, P120 catenin, occluding, and claudin5. Inhibits endocytoplasmic reticulum stress and caspase-12 expression. | \n[117] | \n
Vitamins in spinal cord injury.
Resveratrol is a natural polyphenolic compound that has exhibited beneficial health properties as well as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects. Resveratrol exerts a neuroprotective effect by regulating apoptosis [118]. Studies have shown that the anti-inflammatory effects of resveratrol are mediated mainly by sirtuin (SIRT) 1 [119, 120]. Resveratrol enhances locomotor recovery [121, 122, 123]. Furthermore, resveratrol increases nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf-2) activation, providing antioxidant effects [121]. Further investigation is needed in order to provide more evidence about the efficacy of this treatment.
\nThe use of growth factors like BDNF, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) as a therapy to improve morphological and behavioral outcomes after SCI has been topic of study of many investigations.
\nBDNF exerts a relevant function in the repair of neural tissue and plasticity in CNS [124, 125]. Nevertheless, recent studies have also shown that BDNF is capable of exerting neuroprotective effects. In acute phases of injury, several reports indicate that both, BDNF alone [126, 127] or in any combination [128, 129] has improved functional recovery, neuronal survival, and tissue preservation. Moreover, BDNF has potent antioxidant effects and may be involved in regulation of immune responses after an SCI [130]. BDNF after SCI requires careful selection to consider the location, mode, and time of application after an injury.
\nTGF-β is a pleiotropic molecule with specific key functions in cell differentiation, proliferation, migration, immunosuppression, and extracellular matrix metabolism [131]. TGF-β could also be contributing to neuroprotective mechanisms after SCI since it participates in the regulation of neuronal survival and orchestrates repairing processes in the CNS [132]. It has been previously observed that TGF-β administration reduces microglial activation and increases neuronal survival [133]. The early induction of TGF-β after SCI modulates the acute immune response, the formation of glial scar and improves functional recovery [134].
\nIGF-1 belongs to the family of insulin-related peptides, and it is the mediator of the anabolic and mitogenic activity of the growth hormone [135]. Aside from this, IGF-1 acts as a strong antioxidant [136] and pro-survival [137] factor in the CNS since it diminishes caspase-9 and elevates Bcl2 [138]. Experimental studies have shown that IGF-1 reduces edema and the upregulation of iNOS after SCI [139]. In the same way, it has been suggested that IGF-1 and erythropoietin protect against ischemic SCI in rabbits [140]. Therefore, the beneficial properties of IGF-1 make this molecule an interesting neuroprotective strategy in the acute phase of SCI.
\nStem cells have also been the focus of several investigations. Table 4 summarizes some of the neuroprotective effects exerted by stem cells like NSCs, BMSCs, OECs, and SCs.
\nTherapy | \nNeuroprotective effects | \nRef. | \n
---|---|---|
NSCs | \nIncrease functional recovery. Reduction in neutrophils and M1 macrophages. Downregulation of TNFα, IL-1 β, IL-6, and IL-12. Improve functional recovery and reduce neuronal apoptosis, microglia activation, reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6. Improve locomotor and sensory function and increase mRNA expression of BDNF. | \n[141, 142, 143, 144] | \n
BMSCs | \nImprove locomotor function and tissue protection. Increase the neurotrophic growth factor. Stimulate M2 macrophage activation. Reduce cystic cavities size and suppress glial scar formation. | \n[145, 146, 147, 148] | \n
BMSCs + SCs | \nReduce the formation of the glial scar, remyelinate the injured axons, and promote functional recovery | \n[149] | \n
BMSCs + IGF-1 | \nInduce modulation of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress. Increase functional recovery and reduce activation of glial fibrillary acidic protein and increase myelination 4 weeks following SCI. | \n[150] | \n
BMSCs + OECs | \nReduce apoptosis and increase locomotor recovery. | \n[151] | \n
OECs | \nReduce cavity size, increase the neurofilaments sprouting and serotonin axons, and improve functionality. | \n[152] | \n
OECs + SCs | \nDiminish astrocyte number, microglia/macrophage infiltration and expression of CCL2 and CCL3. | \n[153] | \n
SCs | \nUpregulate the expression of NOS, activate the NO-dependent cyclic-GMP pathway, which enhances neuronal survival. Stimulate the expression of neural growth factor and BDNF. Reduce inflammatory cytokines and ROS. | \n[154, 155] | \n
SCs + NSCs | \nPromote neuronal differentiation, increase axonal regeneration/myelination, reduce neuronal loss, and improve functional recovery. | \n[156] | \n
Stem cell therapy in spinal cord injury.
Nonpharmacological therapies with clinical studies are hence limited in acute phases of the injury.
\nPilot studies cover the acute phase of SCI.
\nTransplants with human NSCs in phase I/IIa assessed the safety and neurological effects after SCI. Of 19 treated subjects, 17 were sensorimotor complete and two were motor complete and sensory incomplete. They demonstrated that 1 year after cell transplantation, there was no evidence of SC damage, syrinx or tumor formation, neurological deterioration, and exacerbating neuropathic pain or spasticity [157]. Additional studies should be designed in order to afford more evidence about the efficacy of NSCs.
\nRegarding bone marrow stem cells (BMSC), an interesting study reported data from 20 patients with complete SCI who received transplants of BMSC. They showed improvement in motor and sensory functions [158]. In addition, a study with autologous BMSCs in three patients in the sub-acute phase of injury (<6 months of disease) demonstrated that, these cells could be safely administered through intrathecal injection in SCI patients [159]. Other study showed that 45.5% of transplanted patients presented improved neurological function. They showed some degree of improvement in sensitivity and motor function as well as in sexual function. In two patients, neuropathic pain disappeared and bladder and bowel control increased [160]. Nevertheless, more investigation through clinical trials is required with a larger population of patients before further conclusions can be drawn.
\nTransplants with autologous OECs in three patients indicated that there were no adverse effects 1 year after transplantation. The neurosurgical process did not lead to any negative sequelae either during the operation or postoperatively. Additionally, they demonstrated the possibility of taking a nasal biopsy and reliably generating enough cells for transplantation within 4 weeks [161]. These observations suggest that autologous transplantation is safe but further researches are needed.
\nA Phase I clinical trial with autologous human SCs was conducted to evaluate the safety of transplantation into the injury of six subjects with subacute SCI. There was no evidence of additional SC damage, mass lesion or syrinx formation. They conclude that it is feasible to identify eligible candidates, appropriately obtain informed consent, perform a peripheral nerve harvest to obtain SCs within 5–30 days of injury, and perform intra-spinal transplantation of highly purified autologous SCs within 4–7 weeks of injury [162]. Studies in acute phases using SCs are very few: therefore, more studies are needed in this area.
\nTiming as a specific prognostic factor in rehabilitation results and confirms that early specific rehabilitation treatment is associated with greater improvement. Several studies investigate the early rehabilitation as a therapeutic strategy to improve locomotor function, some of them have even shown physical functional independence [163, 164, 165]. Other studies indicated that in acute SCI physical therapy of body weight support on a treadmill and defined overground mobility therapy did not produce different results [166]. Further studies are required to afford conclusive results.
\nIn conclusion, there are several pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatments that have been tested in preclinical and clinical phases. However, so far have not yielded fully satisfactory results; even using combined therapies. Further studies are needed in order to identify novel therapeutic targets and strategies that provide a better medical care avoiding complications.
\nWe gratefully acknowledge to Universidad Anáhuac México Norte for the support to this chapter.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
As this section deals with legal issues pertaining to the rights of individual Authors and IntechOpen, for the avoidance of doubt, each category of publication is dealt with separately. Consequently, much of the information, for example definition of terms used, is repeated to ensure that there can be no misunderstanding of the policies that apply to each category.
",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\n\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\\n\\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\\n\\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \\n\\t\\t\\t\\n\\t\\t\\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\n\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t 5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10689",title:"Risk Management in Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e3805b3d2fceb9d33e1fa805687cd296",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10689.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:81},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"189",title:"Obstetrics and Gynecology",slug:"obstetrics-and-gynecology",parent:{title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"},numberOfBooks:55,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1287,numberOfWosCitations:460,numberOfCrossrefCitations:294,numberOfDimensionsCitations:750,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"obstetrics-and-gynecology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9507",title:"Family Planning and Reproductive Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a51ae8a0488480238f4cbbbe425058f2",slug:"family-planning-and-reproductive-health",bookSignature:"Zouhair Amarin and Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9507.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101551",title:"Prof.",name:"Zouhair",middleName:null,surname:"Amarin",slug:"zouhair-amarin",fullName:"Zouhair Amarin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7725",title:"Innovations In Assisted Reproduction Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24289d13780a3e4215f5a085923990f7",slug:"innovations-in-assisted-reproduction-technology",bookSignature:"Nidhi Sharma, Sudakshina Chakrabarti, Yona Barak and Adrian Ellenbogen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7725.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7961",title:"Induced Abortion and Spontaneous Early Pregnancy Loss",subtitle:"Focus on Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02cfa65d8d630b8cacd78aafa3f2f42e",slug:"induced-abortion-and-spontaneous-early-pregnancy-loss-focus-on-management",bookSignature:"Igor Lakhno",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8454",title:"Recent Advances in Cesarean Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cf497986f3bacb156aa16c955b83ff2",slug:"recent-advances-in-cesarean-delivery",bookSignature:"Georg Schmölzer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179622",title:"Dr.",name:"Georg",middleName:null,surname:"Schmolzer",slug:"georg-schmolzer",fullName:"Georg Schmolzer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9165",title:"Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b802d11709666bd2574b2bb487c8376",slug:"polycystic-ovarian-syndrome",bookSignature:"Zhengchao Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9165.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204883",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengchao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zhengchao-wang",fullName:"Zhengchao Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8484",title:"Non-tubal Ectopic Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3168b3b6a134f1664b6dfa5e15368e2",slug:"non-tubal-ectopic-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Julio Elito Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8484.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35132",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",middleName:null,surname:"Elito Jr.",slug:"julio-elito-jr.",fullName:"Julio Elito Jr."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9160",title:"Childbirth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8a7e8e48791d2155bf6ef4c5c1c0075c",slug:"childbirth",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric and Svetlana J. Milenkovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9160.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7969",title:"Leiomyoma",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"659a9fef0f90168b2184c86af85d3a42",slug:"leiomyoma",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"S",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7143",title:"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:"An Overview with Some Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cfca671469ec9093b41cd7a144b2a6a9",slug:"gestational-diabetes-mellitus-an-overview-with-some-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Amita Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7143.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"251100",title:"Prof.",name:"Amita",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"amita-ray",fullName:"Amita Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8471",title:"Prediction of Maternal and Fetal Syndrome of Preeclampsia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"327257ae2f4783050d327cd524bf2a3e",slug:"prediction-of-maternal-and-fetal-syndrome-of-preeclampsia",bookSignature:"Nidhi Sharma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8471.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8584",title:"Molecular Bases of Endometriosis",subtitle:"The Integration Between Research and Clinical Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9cc793fe99169a1dc09ad735d5d0955f",slug:"molecular-bases-of-endometriosis-the-integration-between-research-and-clinical-practice",bookSignature:"Giovana Aparecida Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8584.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:55,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"30747",doi:"10.5772/27200",title:"Cervical Cancer in Sub Sahara Africa",slug:"cervical-cancer-in-sub-sahara-africa",totalDownloads:7543,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:28,book:{slug:"topics-on-cervical-cancer-with-an-advocacy-for-prevention",title:"Topics on Cervical Cancer With an Advocacy for Prevention",fullTitle:"Topics on Cervical Cancer With an Advocacy for Prevention"},signatures:"Atara Ntekim",authors:[{id:"69178",title:"Dr.",name:"Atara",middleName:"I",surname:"Ntekim",slug:"atara-ntekim",fullName:"Atara Ntekim"}]},{id:"43348",doi:"10.5772/55562",title:"Molecular Mechanisms of Platinum Resistance in Ovarian Cancer",slug:"molecular-mechanisms-of-platinum-resistance-in-ovarian-cancer",totalDownloads:3603,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:18,book:{slug:"ovarian-cancer-a-clinical-and-translational-update",title:"Ovarian Cancer",fullTitle:"Ovarian Cancer - A Clinical and Translational Update"},signatures:"Gonzalo Tapia and Ivan Diaz-Padilla",authors:[{id:"157073",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Diaz-Padilla",slug:"ivan-diaz-padilla",fullName:"Ivan Diaz-Padilla"},{id:"166871",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonzalo",middleName:null,surname:"Tapia Rico",slug:"gonzalo-tapia-rico",fullName:"Gonzalo Tapia Rico"}]},{id:"37219",doi:"10.5772/47914",title:"Determining Factors of Cesarean Delivery Trends in Developing Countries: Lessons from Point G National Hospital (Bamako - Mali)",slug:"determining-factors-of-cesarean-delivery-trends-in-developing-countries-lessons-from-point-g-nat",totalDownloads:2530,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"cesarean-delivery",title:"Cesarean Delivery",fullTitle:"Cesarean Delivery"},signatures:"I. Teguete, Y. Traore, A. Sissoko, M. Y. Djire, A. Thera, T. Dolo, N. Mounkoro, M. Traore and A. Dolo",authors:[{id:"87496",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahima",middleName:null,surname:"Teguete",slug:"ibrahima-teguete",fullName:"Ibrahima Teguete"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"41087",title:"Endoscopy versus IVF: The Way to Go",slug:"endoscopy-versus-ivf-the-way-to-go",totalDownloads:3849,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"enhancing-success-of-assisted-reproduction",title:"Enhancing Success of Assisted Reproduction",fullTitle:"Enhancing Success of Assisted Reproduction"},signatures:"Atef Darwish",authors:[{id:"29304",title:"Prof.",name:"Atef",middleName:"M.M.",surname:"Darwish",slug:"atef-darwish",fullName:"Atef Darwish"}]},{id:"60402",title:"Abnormalities of the Placenta",slug:"abnormalities-of-the-placenta",totalDownloads:2292,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"congenital-anomalies-from-the-embryo-to-the-neonate",title:"Congenital Anomalies",fullTitle:"Congenital Anomalies - From the Embryo to the Neonate"},signatures:"Roxana Cristina Drăgușin, Maria Șorop-Florea, Ciprian Laurențiu\nPătru, Lucian Zorilă, Cristian Marinaș, Bogdan Virgiliu Șorop, Răzvan\nCăpitănescu and Dominic Gabriel Iliescu",authors:[{id:"212459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Iliescu",slug:"dominic-iliescu",fullName:"Dominic Iliescu"},{id:"212490",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragusin",middleName:null,surname:"Roxana",slug:"dragusin-roxana",fullName:"Dragusin Roxana"},{id:"212493",title:"Dr.",name:"Pătru",middleName:null,surname:"Ciprian",slug:"patru-ciprian",fullName:"Pătru Ciprian"},{id:"212494",title:"Dr.",name:"Șorop-Florea",middleName:null,surname:"Maria",slug:"sorop-florea-maria",fullName:"Șorop-Florea Maria"},{id:"222056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Marinaș",slug:"cristian-marinas",fullName:"Cristian Marinaș"},{id:"222057",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian George",middleName:null,surname:"Zorila",slug:"lucian-george-zorila",fullName:"Lucian George Zorila"},{id:"222058",title:"Dr.",name:"Bogdan Virgiliu",middleName:null,surname:"Sorop",slug:"bogdan-virgiliu-sorop",fullName:"Bogdan Virgiliu Sorop"},{id:"246816",title:"Dr.",name:"Capitanescu",middleName:null,surname:"Razvan",slug:"capitanescu-razvan",fullName:"Capitanescu Razvan"}]},{id:"56365",title:"Massive Postpartum Hemorrhage: Protocol and Red Code",slug:"massive-postpartum-hemorrhage-protocol-and-red-code",totalDownloads:1761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"obstetrics",title:"Obstetrics",fullTitle:"Obstetrics"},signatures:"Jaume Miñano Masip, Laura Almeida Toledano, Sílvia Ferrero\nMartínez and María Dolores Gómez Roig",authors:[{id:"202446",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Roig",slug:"maria-dolores-gomez-roig",fullName:"Maria Dolores Gómez Roig"},{id:"202447",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaume",middleName:null,surname:"Miñano Masip",slug:"jaume-minano-masip",fullName:"Jaume Miñano Masip"},{id:"202448",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida",slug:"laura-almeida",fullName:"Laura Almeida"},{id:"202449",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrero",slug:"silvia-ferrero",fullName:"Silvia Ferrero"}]},{id:"62854",title:"The Surgical Technique of Caesarean Section: What is Evidence Based?",slug:"the-surgical-technique-of-caesarean-section-what-is-evidence-based-",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"caesarean-section",title:"Caesarean Section",fullTitle:"Caesarean Section"},signatures:"Jan-Simon Lanowski and Constantin S. von Kaisenberg",authors:[{id:"100660",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:"Sylvius",surname:"Von Kaisenberg",slug:"constantin-von-kaisenberg",fullName:"Constantin Von Kaisenberg"},{id:"240353",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan-Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Lanowski",slug:"jan-simon-lanowski",fullName:"Jan-Simon Lanowski"}]},{id:"64704",title:"Normal Menstrual Cycle",slug:"normal-menstrual-cycle",totalDownloads:2050,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"menstrual-cycle",title:"Menstrual Cycle",fullTitle:"Menstrual Cycle"},signatures:"Barriga-Pooley Patricio and Brantes-Glavic Sergio",authors:[{id:"250273",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Patricio",middleName:null,surname:"Barriga",slug:"patricio-barriga",fullName:"Patricio Barriga"}]},{id:"62277",title:"Basic Antenatal Care Approach to Antenatal Care Service Provision",slug:"basic-antenatal-care-approach-to-antenatal-care-service-provision",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"selected-topics-in-midwifery-care",title:"Selected Topics in Midwifery Care",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Midwifery Care"},signatures:"Thembelihle Sylvia Patience Ngxongo",authors:[{id:"243711",title:"Dr.",name:"Thembelihle Sylvia Patience",middleName:null,surname:"Ngxongo",slug:"thembelihle-sylvia-patience-ngxongo",fullName:"Thembelihle Sylvia Patience Ngxongo"}]},{id:"61034",title:"Recurrent Pelvic Organ Prolapse",slug:"recurrent-pelvic-organ-prolapse",totalDownloads:1007,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"pelvic-floor-disorders",title:"Pelvic Floor Disorders",fullTitle:"Pelvic Floor Disorders"},signatures:"Nidhi Sharma and Sudakshina Chakrabarti",authors:[{id:"220214",title:"Prof.",name:"Nidhi",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"nidhi-sharma",fullName:"Nidhi Sharma"},{id:"224544",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudakshina",middleName:null,surname:"Chakrabarti",slug:"sudakshina-chakrabarti",fullName:"Sudakshina Chakrabarti"}]},{id:"58770",title:"Congenital Abnormalities of the Fetal Face",slug:"congenital-abnormalities-of-the-fetal-face",totalDownloads:1329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"congenital-anomalies-from-the-embryo-to-the-neonate",title:"Congenital Anomalies",fullTitle:"Congenital Anomalies - From the Embryo to the Neonate"},signatures:"Maria Șorop-Florea, Roxana-Cristina Dragușin, Ciprian Laurențiu\nPătru, Lucian George Zorilă, Cristian Marinaș, Virgiliu-Bogdan\nȘorop, Cristian Neamțu, Alina Veduța, Dominic Gabriel Iliescu and\nNicolae Cernea",authors:[{id:"212459",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Iliescu",slug:"dominic-iliescu",fullName:"Dominic Iliescu"},{id:"212490",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragusin",middleName:null,surname:"Roxana",slug:"dragusin-roxana",fullName:"Dragusin Roxana"},{id:"212493",title:"Dr.",name:"Pătru",middleName:null,surname:"Ciprian",slug:"patru-ciprian",fullName:"Pătru Ciprian"},{id:"212494",title:"Dr.",name:"Șorop-Florea",middleName:null,surname:"Maria",slug:"sorop-florea-maria",fullName:"Șorop-Florea Maria"},{id:"222056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Marinaș",slug:"cristian-marinas",fullName:"Cristian Marinaș"},{id:"222057",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucian George",middleName:null,surname:"Zorila",slug:"lucian-george-zorila",fullName:"Lucian George Zorila"},{id:"222058",title:"Dr.",name:"Bogdan Virgiliu",middleName:null,surname:"Sorop",slug:"bogdan-virgiliu-sorop",fullName:"Bogdan Virgiliu Sorop"},{id:"222526",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Neamțu",slug:"cristian-neamtu",fullName:"Cristian Neamțu"},{id:"222699",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicolae",middleName:null,surname:"Cernea",slug:"nicolae-cernea",fullName:"Nicolae Cernea"}]},{id:"18348",title:"Anaesthetic Considerations during Laparoscopic Surgery",slug:"anaesthetic-considerations-during-laparoscopic-surgery",totalDownloads:27890,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"advanced-gynecologic-endoscopy",title:"Advanced Gynecologic Endoscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Gynecologic Endoscopy"},signatures:"Maria F. Martín-Cancho, Diego Celdrán, Juan R. Lima, Maria S. Carrasco-Jimenez, Francisco M. Sánchez-Margallo and Jesús Usón-Gargallo",authors:[{id:"14715",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Margallo",slug:"francisco-miguel-sanchez-margallo",fullName:"Francisco Miguel Sánchez-Margallo"},{id:"29449",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Martín-Cancho",slug:"maria-fernanda-martin-cancho",fullName:"Maria Fernanda Martín-Cancho"},{id:"39772",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan R.",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"juan-r.-lima",fullName:"Juan R. Lima"},{id:"39773",title:"Mr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Celdran",slug:"diego-celdran",fullName:"Diego Celdran"},{id:"39774",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Usón-Gargallo",slug:"jesus-uson-gargallo",fullName:"Jesus Usón-Gargallo"},{id:"62320",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Sol",middleName:null,surname:"Carrasco-Jiménez",slug:"maria-sol-carrasco-jimenez",fullName:"Maria Sol Carrasco-Jiménez"}]},{id:"41721",title:"Artificial Insemination in Poultry",slug:"artificial-insemination-in-poultry",totalDownloads:8356,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"success-in-artificial-insemination-quality-of-semen-and-diagnostics-employed",title:"Success in Artificial Insemination",fullTitle:"Success in Artificial Insemination - Quality of Semen and Diagnostics Employed"},signatures:"M.R. Bakst and J.S. Dymond",authors:[{id:"155683",title:"Dr.",name:"Murray R.",middleName:null,surname:"Bakst",slug:"murray-r.-bakst",fullName:"Murray R. Bakst"},{id:"167852",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",middleName:null,surname:"Dymond",slug:"jessica-dymond",fullName:"Jessica Dymond"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"obstetrics-and-gynecology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"75256",title:"Bleeding and Hysteroscopy in Uterine Myomatosis",slug:"bleeding-and-hysteroscopy-in-uterine-myomatosis",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94174",book:{title:"Fibroids"},signatures:"Sergio Rosales-Ortiz, Tammy Na Shieli Barrón Martínez, Diana Sulvaran Victoria, Jocelyn Arias Alarcon, Janeth Márquez-Acosta and José Fugarolas Marín"},{id:"74376",title:"Extra-Uterine Fibroids",slug:"extra-uterine-fibroids",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95127",book:{title:"Fibroids"},signatures:"Rakesh Kumar Gupta and Poonam Wasnik"},{id:"73825",title:"Physiopathology and Management of Uterine Fibroids",slug:"physiopathology-and-management-of-uterine-fibroids",totalDownloads:47,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94162",book:{title:"Fibroids"},signatures:"Joel Noutakdie Tochie, Gaelle Therese Badjang, Gregory Ayissi and Julius Sama Dohbit"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:9},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/172980/takanori-iwata",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"172980",slug:"takanori-iwata"},fullPath:"/profiles/172980/takanori-iwata",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()