Characteristics of human metabolic syndrome compared with the SHROB model
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10840",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Benzimidazole",title:"Benzimidazole",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Benzimidazole is a comprehensive survey of the known and new methods of benzimidazole synthesis, the spectral and theoretical aspects of existing benzimidazole derivatives, and the anticancer properties of a new class of benzimidazole derivatives. This book examines aspects and newer mechanisms of benzimidazoles containing heterocyclic moiety. Chapters report on anticancer properties of benzimidazole derivatives, novel methods of synthesis of benzimidazoles, versatile nature of the benzimidazoles, spectral and theoretical studies of benzimidazole derivatives, and medicinal importance and pharmacological aspects of benzimidazole derivatives.",isbn:"978-1-80355-121-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-120-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-122-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95148",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"benzimidazole",numberOfPages:162,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e28c770013e7a8dd0fc37aea6aa9def8",bookSignature:"Pravin Kendrekar and Vinayak Adimule",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",numberOfDownloads:466,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 6th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 3rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 2nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 21st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 19th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"310674",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",middleName:null,surname:"Kendrekar",slug:"pravin-kendrekar",fullName:"Pravin Kendrekar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310674/images/system/310674.jpg",biography:"Dr. Pravin Kendrekar, MSc, MBA, Ph.D., is currently a visiting scientist at the Lipid Nanostructure Laboratory, University of Central Lancashire, England. He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"85",title:"Organic Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"79835",title:"Advances of Benzimidazole Derivatives as Anticancer Agents: Bench to Bedside",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101702",slug:"advances-of-benzimidazole-derivatives-as-anticancer-agents-bench-to-bedside",totalDownloads:156,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Benzimidazole is one of the privileged nitrogen-containing scaffolds known for its versatile diversified role in insecticides, pesticides, dyes, pigments and pharmaceuticals. Due to its electron-rich environment, structural features and binding potency of various therapeutic targets, benzimidazole derivatives exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activity that majorly includes antimicrobial, antifungal, analgesics, anti-diabetic and anticancer agents. Several benzimidazole scaffolds bearing drugs are clinically approved; they are used for various indications. For example, Bilastine, Lerisetron, Maribavir and Nocodazole are the most widely used benzimidazole-based marketed drugs available as an antihistamine, antiviral and antimitotic agent, respectively. Another example is the recently approved anticancer drug Binimetinib and Selumetinib, which are indicated for BRAF mutated melanoma and plexiform neurofibromas. Not only this, many benzimidazole-based anticancer drugs are in late phases of clinical development. Due to the vast therapeutic potential of benzimidazole scaffold in cancer research, medicinal chemists have gained a lot of attraction to explore it more and develop novel, highly effective and target-specific benzimidazole-based potential anticancer drugs.",signatures:"Kashif Haider and Mohammad Shahar Yar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79835",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79835",authors:[{id:"427944",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Shahar Yar",slug:"mohammad-shahar-yar",fullName:"Mohammad Shahar Yar"},{id:"444809",title:"Mr.",name:"Kashif",surname:"Haider",slug:"kashif-haider",fullName:"Kashif Haider"}],corrections:null},{id:"79964",title:"The Anticancer Profile of Benzimidazolium Salts and Their Metal Complexes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101729",slug:"the-anticancer-profile-of-benzimidazolium-salts-and-their-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cancer is the most lethal ailment throughout the world in the present era. The development of new anticancer remedies with minor unhealthful effects and an alternate mechanism is crucial. Benzimidazole is a distinguished heterocyclic compound and is now recognized as the privileged scaffold for new drug discovery. This chapter deals with the anticancer capability of benzimidazolium salts and their metal complexes. The benzimidazolium derivatives have been prepared by the introduction of aliphatic and aromatic groups at two nitrogen atoms of the benzimidazole ring. Other modifications include hybridization with other pharmacophores and the preparation of metal complexes. The potent derivatives presented in this review can serve as novel drug candidates against cancer.",signatures:"Imran Ahmad Khan, Noor ul Amin Mohsin, Sana Aslam and Matloob Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79964",authors:[{id:"438709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Matloob",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"matloob-ahmad",fullName:"Matloob Ahmad"},{id:"438710",title:"Mr.",name:"Imran Ahmad",surname:"Khan",slug:"imran-ahmad-khan",fullName:"Imran Ahmad Khan"},{id:"438711",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor ul Amin",surname:"Mohsin",slug:"noor-ul-amin-mohsin",fullName:"Noor ul Amin Mohsin"},{id:"438712",title:"Dr.",name:"Sana",surname:"Aslam",slug:"sana-aslam",fullName:"Sana Aslam"}],corrections:null},{id:"80168",title:"Benzimidazole: Pharmacological Profile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102091",slug:"benzimidazole-pharmacological-profile",totalDownloads:98,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Benzimidazole is a bicyclic heterocyclic aromatic compound in which benzene fused to imidazole moiety. Benzimidazole holds a vital role in the field of medicinal chemistry which possesses wide variety of pharmacological activities like antibacterial, anti cancer, antifungal, antileishmanial, anti tubercular, anti viral and anti malarial respectively, hence the benzimidazole moiety attracting the medicinal chemist to synthesize the different benzimidazole derivatives with wide variety of pharmacological activities. The book chapter mainly discussed the anti cancer, anti HIV, antileishmanial and anti tubercular activites of recently synthesized benzimidazole derivatives.",signatures:"Mahender Thatikayala, Anil Kumar Garige and Hemalatha Gadegoni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80168",authors:[{id:"427725",title:"Mr.",name:"Thatikayala",surname:"Mahender",slug:"thatikayala-mahender",fullName:"Thatikayala Mahender"},{id:"427729",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil Kumar",surname:"Garige",slug:"anil-kumar-garige",fullName:"Anil Kumar Garige"},{id:"427734",title:"Dr.",name:"Hemalatha",surname:"Gadegoni",slug:"hemalatha-gadegoni",fullName:"Hemalatha Gadegoni"}],corrections:null},{id:"80130",title:"Exploring the Versatility of Benzimidazole Scaffolds as Medicinal Agents: A Brief Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101942",slug:"exploring-the-versatility-of-benzimidazole-scaffolds-as-medicinal-agents-a-brief-update",totalDownloads:75,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Benzimidazole, one of the finest classes of heterocyclic aromatic compounds have the characteristic structure of benzene fused with a five-membered imidazole ring. Despite being made their first appearance in the late 1870s, they are considered as a ‘privileged molecule’. The applications of this wonder molecule range from medicinal chemistry to material science. Benzimidazole being a potent inhibitor for various enzymes has got therapeutic effects like anticancer, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antioxidant, anticonvulsant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antihistaminic, antipsychotic, etc. It has also made its existence in various branches of medical science viz ophthalmology, neurology, cardiology and more. The applications of benzimidazole are not only limited to the biological field but also expanded to the field of material chemistry as well. This chapter summarizes the pharmacological properties of benzimidazole, illustrated on numerous derivatives since 2016.",signatures:"Gopakumar Kavya and Akhil Sivan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80130",authors:[{id:"428129",title:"Dr.",name:"Akhil",surname:"Sivan",slug:"akhil-sivan",fullName:"Akhil Sivan"},{id:"440653",title:"Ms.",name:"Gopakumar",surname:"Kavya",slug:"gopakumar-kavya",fullName:"Gopakumar Kavya"}],corrections:null},{id:"82029",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Properties of Novel Benzimidazole Amide Derivatives Bearing Thiophene Moiety",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104908",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-antimicrobial-properties-of-novel-benzimidazole-amide-derivatives-bea",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the present investigation, novel amide derivatives of benzimidazole (4a-f) with different thiophene acids (a-f) coupled in the presence of 1-[Bis (dimethylamino) methylene]-1H-1, 2, 3-triazolo [4, 5-b] pyridinium 3-oxide hexafluorophosphate (HATU) reagent at room temperature and as-synthesized derivatives were characterized by (1H-NMR and 13C-NMR) proton and carbon magnetic resonance, and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analytical techniques. The amide derivatives were tested for in vitro antimicrobial and antifungal activity and ciprofloxacin was used as standard. The antifungal activity was tested with Carbendazim and Fenbendazole cell lines using clotrimazole standard drug. The results indicated the potential activity toward S. bacillus with compounds having IC 50 of 4 (a), 4 (b), 4 (d) and 4 (e) against antimicrobial strains with IC50 of 51.8 μm, 57.4 μm, 54.5 μm and 56.5 μm respectively. However, compounds 4 (a), 4 (c) and 4 (d) showed greater inhibitions against Carbendazim fungal cell line with IC50 of 22.9, 26.8 and 28.8 μm. On the other hand IC50 values of the Fenbendazole for compounds 4 (a), 4(c) and 4 (d) were found to be 12.7, 10.2 and 12.7 μm, respectively. The thiophene-substituted benzimidazole amide derivatives are the potential candidate drug for antibacterial and antifungal activity.",signatures:"Vinayak Adimule, Pravin Kendrekar and Sheetal Batakurki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82029",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82029",authors:[{id:"310674",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",surname:"Kendrekar",slug:"pravin-kendrekar",fullName:"Pravin Kendrekar"},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule"},{id:"472031",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheetal",surname:"Batakurki",slug:"sheetal-batakurki",fullName:"Sheetal Batakurki"}],corrections:null},{id:"80377",title:"Spectral and Theoretical Studies of Benzimidazole and 2-Phenyl Substituted Benzimidazoles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101966",slug:"spectral-and-theoretical-studies-of-benzimidazole-and-2-phenyl-substituted-benzimidazoles",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses about the spectral and theoretical aspects of selected benzimidazole and 2-phenyl substituted benzimidazole molecules. The synthesis of these benzimidazoles was reported in many methods by the reaction between o-phenylenediamine with formic acid, aromatic aldehydes and N-benzylbezene-1,2-diamine in presence of oxidant tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP). The spectral analysis of these molecules mainly such as UV-visible, fluorescence in solvents will be included in this chapter and discussed about the absorption, fluorescence maximum, conjugation, transition. Further the optimized structure of these molecules will be given using Gaussian 09 W (DFT 6-31G method). And also will be discussed about structural parameters, highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) – lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy energy values, natural bond orbital (NBO), molecular electrostatic potential map (ESP). Many benzimidazole molecules having tautomers in the structure will be explained with the help of theoretical parameters to describe the structural properties.",signatures:"A. Antony Muthu Prabhu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80377",authors:[{id:"428250",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"A. Antony Muthu",surname:"Prabhu",slug:"a.-antony-muthu-prabhu",fullName:"A. Antony Muthu Prabhu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:{id:"15",series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",issn:"2632-0983",editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of abnormalities that are often associated with prediabetes, a condition present prior to the onset of diabetes (1). The hallmark of both metabolic syndrome and prediabetes is insulin resistance, an impairment of insulin action within tissues at the level of the insulin receptor and subsequent cellular events. Insulin resistance resides mainly within muscle, liver and adipose tissues (2). Type 2 diabetes arises from a combination of insulin resistance and a relative impairment of insulin secretion in response to meal ingestion. Type 2 diabetics differ in the relative contributions of insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion to the development of hyperglycemia (3). Some diabetic patients predominantly have a secretory defect, while others may have normal or even excessive insulin secretion. The latter subgroup of diabetics has insulin resistance as the primary defect in their glucose homeostasis. Hyperglycemia by itself does not indicate whether there is an insufficiency of insulin secretion or a deficit in insulin action. Type 2 diabetics lie along a continuum between these two extremes, with a variable mix of secretory and cell signaling deficits. During the progression from normal glucose tolerance to impaired glucose tolerance to prediabetes to diabetes to severe diabetes over a number of years, individuals show a progressive decline in pancreatic insulin secretion in response to a glucose load(3). Insulin resistance may show progressive deterioration, but generally insulin resistance is the major defect early in the development of diabetes whereas late in the course of the disease pancreatic islet cell failure is more notable.
In Type 2 diabetes, determining the relative contribution of insulin secretion versus action has clinical implications. Knowledge of the predominant abnormalities in glucose homeostasis may well affect the choice of therapeutic agent for the treatment of diabetes. For example, metformin acts to reduce insulin resistance, particularly within the liver (4), and therefore is of considerable utility in early stages of Type 2 diabetes where insulin resistance is predominant. Sulfonylureas such as glyburide, in contrast, promote the secretion of endogenous insulin in response to a meal (5) and might therefore be more useful when insulin secretion is declining.
However, some have alleged that sulfonylureas may accelerate beta cell exhaustion over time and thereby accelerate the deterioration of diabetes (5). The incretin mimetic agents such as exendin and the DPP-IV inhibitors also promote insulin release from pancreatic islets but may also be cytoprotective within pancreatic islets and thereby delay the progression of diabetes (6). As shown in the Results section below, DPP-IV inhibitors are also effective in reversing metabolic syndrome prior to the onset of diabetes.
Diabetes typically manifests itself in the context of other abnormalities, especially the principal components of metabolic syndrome, namely hypertension and hyperlipidemia (2). The SHROB or Koletsky rat is a leading animal model of metabolic syndrome (7;8), as summarized in Table 1.
Trait | SHR(7) | SHROB(7) | Human Metabolic Syndrome(9) |
Hypertension | SBP = 195 | SBP = 185 | SBP "/> 130 |
Insulin resistance | Absent | Profound | Present |
Fasting glucose | Normal | Normal to slightly high | Normal to slightly high |
Glucose tolerance | Normal | Impaired | Impaired |
Triglycerides | Absent | "/>200 mg/dL | "/>150 mg/dL |
Total Cholesterol | Normal | Slightly elevated | "/>200 mg/dL |
Visceral obesity | Absent | Present | Present |
Fasting insulin | Normal | Elevated 20-fold | Elevated |
Fasting glucagon | Normal(10) | Elevated 2-fold(10) | Elevated(11;12) |
Characteristics of human metabolic syndrome compared with the SHROB model
Each of the primary abnormalities expressed in human metabolic syndrome are present in the SHROB rat. Other obese rodents fail to show these characteristics. In particular, the SHROB is only rodent model that incorporates hypertension and related cardiovascular changes together with insulin resistance and abnormal glucose homeostasis. The SHROB has marked hyperinsulinemia without hyperglycemia. Other rodent models show diabetes that ranges from mild (Zucker fatty rat) to fulminant Type 2 diabetes (db/db mouse) (8;13). In contrast, the SHROB is a model for the prediabetic state accompanied by hypertension and hyperlipidemia as well as obesity. Prediabetes can lead to secondary disease complications even in the absence of fasting hyperglycemia (14). The SHROB model can be used to understand the complex physiologic processes that contribute to metabolic syndrome. Dietary and pharmacologic interventions in this model may help identify the best prevention strategies and treatment combinations for metabolic syndrome as well.
Insulin release in response to a glucose load occurs in two phases in humans and in rodents. The early phase peaks within the first 15-30 min and is responsible for limiting the initial rise in glucose upon meal ingestion. The late phase of insulin secretion occurs later than 30 min after a meal, and may persist for several hours. This delayed burst of insulin secretion is responsible for returning glucose to baseline fasting levels. In the face of insulin resistance, the late phase of insulin secretion persists for an extended period and contributes to excessive insulin levels even after a return to the fasted state, resulting in fasting hyperinsulinemia (2).
Insulin and glucagon, derived from beta and alpha pancreatic islet cells, respectively, are the two most important hormones involved in glucose homeostasis. Together they determine whether food is utilized immediately for energy or put into storage for later use. Abnormalities in the release or actions of either or both of these hormones can be involved in the development of hyperglycemia and diabetes. Glucagon levels may influence glucose tolerance (11), although this hormone is seldom considered in the context of oral glucose tolerance. Glucagon raises glucose levels, and a higher level of insulin is needed to control glucose in the presence of glucagon (10).
The phases of insulin secretion in response to the oral ingestion of glucose are cephalic, gastric and intestinal. The cephalic phase begins with the sight of food and is strongly triggered by sweet taste receptors on the tongue (17). The cephalic and gastric phases are considered part of the early response, while the intestinal response is later. Interestingly, sweet taste receptors are also present in the small intestine and may shape the physiological response to carbohydrates (18;19). Sweet taste receptors in the small intestine not only regulate the rate of glucose absorption through glucose transporters (19), but also trigger the release of GLP-1 and cholecystokinin (18). GLP-1 and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) are incretins, gut hormones secreted from enteroendocrine cells into the blood in response to meal ingestion. Importantly, incretin secretion only occurs with oral ingestion of nutrients. Incretin secretion is not triggered in response to intravenous feeding, as the intestinal receptors are not activated when glucose is delivered through the circulation. Indeed, incretins were discovered as a result of the observation that the insulin stimulation and glucagon suppression by glucose was much greater when glucose was delivered orally or into the gut rather than by any other route (20). Thus, the normal physiological response to food ingestion can only be elicited through the oral route of administration.
Both incretins are rapidly deactivated by a degradative enzyme called dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) (21). Since 2005, two new classes of drugs based on incretin action have been approved for Type 2 diabetes therapy: incretin analogs and incretin enhancers, which inhibit DPP4. DPP4 inhibitors act by slowing the breakdown of endogenous incretin peptides, thus extending their actions.
An OGTT is used clinically to diagnose impaired glucose tolerance and as a standardized test of carbohydrate metabolism and insulin secretion. The test is based on oral administration of glucose and subsequently following plasma glucose and insulin levels over time. A prolonged elevation (>120min) in both plasma glucose and insulin constitutes impaired glucose tolerance and insulin resistance and can be used in conjunction with fasting hyperglycemia in diagnosing Type 2 diabetes. A prolonged elevation in glucose with minimal changes in insulin secretion would be suggestive of impaired glucose stimulated insulin secretion. This procedure is directly applicable to rats and mice.
The OGTT was introduced first as a diagnostic tool for diabetes. Later studies focused on identifying patterns of the glucose curve during the OGTT that predicted the onset of diabetes years later. An OGTT profile during pregnancy can accurately predict which women will later develop Type 2 diabetes when they reach middle age (22). Clinically, the use of OGTT has fallen off because of the need for glucose loading, which many patients perceive as unpleasant. Furthermore, 4 to 6 separate blood samples are necessary. In the modern clinic, the OGTT has generally been supplanted by measuring fasting blood glucose, random post prandial blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin values.
The OGTT is influenced by many factors including age, diet, state of health, GI function, medications and emotional state. As age increases, the excursion of glucose during the OGTT progressively increases as a consequence of declining insulin sensitivity of target tissues, such as in muscle, fat and liver. The dose of glucose and standardization of measured responses including glucose levels and insulin have been debated over the years. When used in large population studies the OGTT test overestimates the prevalence of diabetes. In other words, it has a high false positive rate.
The intravenous glucose tolerance test is not sensitive for the diagnosis of diabetes and is used mainly as an assessment purely of glucose disposal i.e. the time required for glucose to clear circulation. It can be used as an index of residual beta cell function as well. The test bypasses the GI tract and eliminates the influence of intestinal hormones, especially incretins, on insulin and glucagon levels and subsequent glucose disposal. The endocrine system of the small intestine is important in the development of diabetes and has spawned new drugs to treat diabetes. The relative advantages of OGTT over other methods of assessing glucose homeostasis in the laboratory are summarized in Table 2.
The hyperinsulemic clamp has been described by some authors as “the gold standard” yet has a number of limitations. Indwelling catheters are required, necessitating some trauma. Even with time for recovery, glucose homeostasis can be altered by ongoing wound healing and pain. For highly insulin resistant individuals, insulin must be elevated to very high levels. For example, insulin levels in SHROB rats must be raised to levels that would result in convulsions and death from hypoglycemia in a lean animal (results not shown). The OGTT allows all of the normal stages of insulin secretion and glucose processing to take place in sequence without causing stress or trauma to the subject.
OGTT | IVGTT | Hyperinsulinemic Clamp | |
Incorporates cephalic phase | Yes | No | No |
Incorporates gut-pancreatic axis | Yes | No | No |
First pass through liver and portal circulation | Yes | No | No |
Raises insulin to nonphysiologic levels | No | No | Yes |
Requires surgery | No | Yes | Yes |
Advantages of OGTT over IVGTT and hyperinsulinemic clamps
Special diets are fed for 30 to 90d prior to the OGTT. Antihypertensive or antidiabetic medications are given in the drinking water or incorporated into the food and given for 42 to 90d. We carry out the OGTT by fasting animals for 18h, taking a baseline 200 µL blood sample from the tail under local anesthesia, and then gavaging with 12 mL/kg of a 50% glucose solution, which delivers 6g of glucose per kg of body weight. Blood samples are taken 30, 60, 120, 180, 240 and 360 minutes after the glucose meal and analyzed for blood glucose with a clinical meter. Plasma samples are frozen for later analysis of rat insulin by ELISA. The 240 and 360 minute time points are not typically used in OGTT, but the SHROB is so profoundly glucose intolerant that extended sampling is required to reliably establish the area under the curve. Area under the curve is determined for each subject using curve fitting software (Prism 5.0, GraphPad software, San Diego, CA).
Procedures:
Weigh the rats to the nearest 0.5g and place them into clean cages with new bedding. Rodents are copraphagic, so new cages will assure true fasting conditions over the next 18h.
Dextrose (D-glucose) solution: A 50% dextrose solution is made by weighing out the needed amount of dextrose and heating and stirring with water (be sure not to overheat solution or caramelization will take place). For example, if you need 50mL of workable solution, you would weigh out 25g of dextrose and add that to approximately 28mL of water then stir and heat until dextrose is in solution. Once in solution, pour into a graduated cylinder and dilute up to 50mL and allow cooling at room temperature prior to using.
Dose: We administer a 6g/kg body weight of a 50% dextrose solution for our studies to assure a significant challenge to glucose metabolism, but 2-4g/kg body weight is frequently reported by others.
Oral gavaging: Discharge rate should be slow so as not to cause a pressure induced “dumping syndrome”. This will be apparent about 30-60min after gavaging with the presence of diarrhea.
Blood Collection: This is done by tail bleed. We recommend that blood be collected at least five times: 0, 30, 60, 120 and 180 min. However, we collect additional time points of 240 and 360 min in our SHROB rats, as this represents the delayed insulin peak response and allows an accurate estimate of the area under the curve for glucose, as glucose returns to fasting levels only very slowly. We also dip the cut tail tip into the local anesthetic, bupivacaine (Marcaine, 0.5%), after the first tail bleed and after each sample thereafter to minimize pain associated with the procedure.
Glucose measurement: A clinical glucose meter (One Touch Ultra, Lifescan) is used with 5 µL of whole blood.
Insulin and glucagon ELISA: Rodent-specific kits are available from several suppliers, including ALPCO (Salem, NH). The coefficient of variation is less than 10% in repeat measures and the sensitivity is 0.1 ng/mL. Plasma samples from our insulin resistant rats must be diluted 1:10 in assay buffer before addition to the assay plate.
Statistical analysis: Glucose and insulin data are processed through an analysis of variance with repeated measures to determine treatment effects, time effects, and treatment by time interaction terms by using the Prism 5.0 statistical and graphing program (GraphPad Software, Sand Diego, CA). Newman-Keuls post-hoc tests are used to determine significance of individual comparisons. Area under the curve measurement are also determined for each animal, expressed as mg*min/dL for glucose and ng*min/mL for insulin, and analyzed as a single datum.
We review data from several contrasting interventions in SHROB rats, which includes diets and drug treatments with both beneficial and harmful effects on glucose tolerance. We contrast the use of OGTT with other measures such as fasting glucose and glucose to insulin ratios.
A relatively normal OGTT profile is illustrated by the data from lean SHR. Glucose starts at a low fasting level and rises only to a maximum of about 100 mg/dL at 60 min. Insulin levels are low in the fasted state and show a maximum 4-fold rise around 60 min and then return to baseline by 240 min. Not shown is the profile for normotensive Wistar or Sprague-Dawley control rats, which would show a similar profile but with even lower levels of insulin owing to a small amount of insulin resistance associated with hypertension (23).
SHROB on a control diet show a normal fasting level of glucose, but glucose ascends to a much higher peak around 60 min and takes much longer to return to baseline. Fasting insulin levels in the SHROB are 40-fold elevated compared to lean SHR littermates, and the further rise in insulin in response to a glucose load is delayed and prolonged. Dietary obese genetically lean SHR rats are only about 25% overweight compared to lean SHR on normal chow, in contrast to genetically obese SHROB which are about 100% overweight compared to lean SHR on normal chow (24). Despite the lesser degree of obesity, the dietary obese genetically lean SHR showed about the same degree of glucose intolerance as SHROB. Insulin levels at fasting and after the glucose load were unchanged relative to the SHR fed control diet. SHROB fed a high sucrose diet showed unchanged glucose tolerance. In contrast, the insulin response to a glucose load was greatly increased and prolonged beyond that observed for SHROB on a control diet. To our knowledge, the insulin levels in sucrose-fed SHROB during the OGTT, which exceed 100 ng/mL, are the highest ever recorded in a rodent. The data in Figure 1 illustrate the value of the OGTT. High sucrose input affected glucose levels in genetically lean animals without affecting insulin. In contrast, in genetically obese SHROB rats, high sucrose affected insulin without affecting glucose levels. None of this could be learned by obtaining fasting levels alone.
Glucose tolerance test: SHR versus SHROB on normal versus high sucrose diets. A: Glucose. B: Insulin. SHR were fed a supplementary sweet drink to induce dietary obesity in these genetically lean rats. SHROB were fed a high sucrose diet (70% sucrose by weight).
Figure 2 includes only the genetically obese SHROB fed a control diet, which were given vehicle or drug in their drinking water. Two oral antihyperglycemic agents, the insulin secretagogue glyburide (mg/kg) and the DPP4 inhibitor sitagliptin (mg/kg), were contrasted with the widely used antihypertensive hydrochlorothiazide (50 mg/kg). None of the agents had any effect on fasting glucose. The two antihyperglycemic agents, as expected, lowered the excursion of glucose in response to an oral load. The antihypertensive agent dramatically increased glucose levels following the oral load, with glucose rising to levels associated with frank diabetes (>400 mg/dL).
Glucose tolerance test: untreated SHROB versus SHROB treated with antihyperglycemic agents and one antihypertensive agent. A: Glucose. B: Insulin
Fasting insulin levels in vehicle controls (Figure 2) were very high, similar to those observed before in Figure 1. The oral antihyperglycemic drugs both reduced fasting insulin levels, although not to levels seen in lean SHR. Remarkably, hydrochlorothiazide further elevated fasting insulin. The post-load insulin curve in glyburide treated SHROB closely paralleled vehicle treated controls, but at a lower level. The insulin curve for the sitagliptin treated group showed a higher net response to the glucose load, especially at 30 min. This is consistent with the hypothesized role of incretin hormones in facilitating the insulin response to glucose. Hydrochlorothiazide greatly increased insulin levels, reminiscent of the effect of dietary sucrose in Figure 1.
Other hormones and metabolites can be measured during OGTT, not just glucose and insulin. Figure 3 illustrates changes in plasma glucagon during the first hour after an oral glucose load. Homeostasis predicts that glucagon would be high in the fasting state and decline when the fed state is restored. Glucagon levels are unchanged in SHR animals, possibly because the fall in glucagon is mainly mediated by gut hormones such as GLP-1 and GIP which are secreted later after the load has reached the distal small intestine where the L-cells that secrete these hormones reside. Remarkably, SHROB rats show a dramatic increase in glucagon from already high fasting levels. This paradoxical increase in glucagon in response to a glucose meal has been reported in humans with Type 2 diabetes (12).
Changes in plasma glucagon level during an OGTT in SHROB and lean SHR littermates.
Besides glucose, another plasma substrate that can be assayed is the level of free fatty acids. We found that free fatty acids fall after glucose load in lean SHR, indicating reduced lipolysis when an abundant supply of glucose is present (10). Remarkably, the level of free fatty acids in SHROB rats stayed at the elevated level found in fasting (data not shown). This finding illustrates the multiple abnormalities in the whole body handling of metabolic fuels that can be uncovered in an OGTT.
These data show that OGTT is much more sensitive than are other measures in identifying the loci of insulin resistance and its modulation by different interventions. Moreover, the results of OGTT testing in the SHROB model tracks closely with efficacy against metabolic syndrome and Type 2 diabetes in clinical trials. Thus, the OGTT yields laboratory data with greater relevance to the prevention and treatment of human disease.
The glucose tolerance test determines the rate at which glucose is cleared from blood. Glucose is administered either orally or intravenously and serial samples of glucose, insulin and glucagon are measured over time. Hypoglycemic medications used to treat diabetes have been developed that modify the actions of glucagon and insulin directly. Medications that are used to treat high blood pressure and lipid disturbances can also modify the responses to these hormones, sometimes improving the clearance of glucose and sometimes making it worse. Comparisons of the responses of glucose, insulin and glucagon levels during glucose tolerance testing with and without medications used to treat metabolic syndrome will lead to a better understanding of what combinations of these medications are the most beneficial and least toxic.
The current literature has many examples of inadequate assessments of glucose metabolism. Many authors report only on “random glucose” values, taken without regard to whether the animal had just eaten or had voluntarily fasted for several hours. If food is available ad libitum, then some animals may be postprandial and others will be fasted as a result of their sleep cycle. The glucose and insulin values obtained under these circumstances are highly variable and often irreproducible. A somewhat better approach is to determine fasting glucose and insulin levels. Various ratios between glucose and insulin can be calculated, with the most popular being the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA). The mathematical derivation of the HOMA equation is sophisticated, but it is still based on only two numbers: fasting glucose and fasting insulin. The OGTT, by contrast, reflects the in vivo physiological response to a glucose meal and integrates the homeostatic response to a meal over time. Thus, the OGTT more accurately mirrors daily life.
The OGTT is useful as a research tool. It does allow for a more physiologic assessment of metabolism as it assesses a global response to the disposition of a meal. Neurologic and hormonal responses that influence the function of the gastric tract, absorption, transportation and processing of food in the liver and transport to and from storage tissue can be assessed. These include newly recognized hormones secreted from the GI tract in the presence of food known as incretins and previously recognized hormones such as insulin and glucagon. The OGTT is particularly useful in characterizing the actions of drugs which can be either beneficial or detrimental to glucose homeostasis.
Groundwater’s chemical composition is obtained from a variety of sources of solutes, including gases and atmospheric aerosols, below-surface replacement and precipitation reactions, weathering and erosional activities of soils and rocks, and other anthropogenic effects. The study of water chemistry can reveal a lot about the geological history of rocks as well as the velocity and direction of water flow [1]. Groundwater’s chemical, physical, and bacteriological properties determine its suitability for municipal, commercial, industrial, agricultural, and domestic use [2].
To understand an aquifer’s hydrogeochemistry, a detailed understanding of the rock-water interactions that influence groundwater chemical composition is required. The mineral composition of the rock is the primary component that governs a location’s water chemistry [3]. The local regime differs from other sites due to the continual interfacial reactivity of water with rocks.
Fluoride, currently considered a pollutant in several regions of the world, is frequently related with the dissolution of fluorine-containing minerals in rocks, as well as growing anthropogenic influences [4]. Groundwater chemistry is influenced by mineral water interfacial interactions such as carbonate weathering and dissolution, silicate weathering, and ion exchange activities. Groundwater composition in shallow alluvial aquifers is controlled by hydrogeochemical processes such as dissolution, cation exchange processes, calcite equilibrium, and residence period, as well as the flow channel. The hydrogeochemical fluctuations of groundwater from a semiarid sedimentary basin are caused by salt leaching from the surface, ion exchange processes, and residence time [5].
Fluoride ion concentrations in groundwater can alter owing to chemical processes including hydration and hydrolysis, weathering and deposition, ion exchange processes, oxidation and reduction that occur during mineral-water contact [6]. These interactions influenced the mobility of dissolved constituents and altered the pH of groundwater in diverse sites. Fluoride levels were found to be excessive (10 mg/l) in several areas of Yemen [7]. The very alkaline groundwater conditions were thought to be the primary cause of fluorite disintegration.
The primary aim of this chapter is to understand the influence of geochemical processes on fluoride enrichment in groundwater in Yemen regime, as well as its relationship with other major element concentrations and health implications. The primary goal of this chapter is to review and improve understanding of the factors that influence high fluoride levels in groundwater samples.
Interactions between ground water and the minerals that make up the aquifer system control major-ion chemistry trends in the aquifer system to a large extent. Mineral dissolution and precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and ion exchange are all important geochemical reactions that can affect solute concentrations in groundwater systems. Evaporation and mixing of water from various sources are examples of additional processes that can affect solute concentrations. [8].
Natural causes such as rock-water interactions while flowing are of specific groundwater quality concerns. Fluoride is one of the most common geogenic pollutants found in groundwater [9]. More than 260 million people are thought to be impacted by elevated fluoride levels in drinking water across the world. People in more than 230 districts across 20 states in India are experiencing health problems as a result of elevated fluoride levels in groundwater [10]. Many studies have found that high fluoride concentrations in groundwater are frequently linked to longer residence times in crystalline rocks in arid-semiarid climates with abundant Na-HCO3 and low Ca, as well as alkaline pH [11].
Geographic Information System (GIS) has been used to map and evaluate groundwater quality all around the world [12, 13, 14]. Gibbs [15] used total dissolved solids (TDS) vs. Na/(Na + Ca) and TDS vs. Cl/(CI + HCO3) to identify rock-water interaction. Minerals of various rock types, such as igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary, entirely or partially dissolve in water depending on chemical weathering resistance. Chemical weathering resistance is high to extremely high in quartz-cemented sandstone, silt, slate, shale, schist, gneiss, and quartzite. Calcite cemented sandstone, limestone, rock salt, gypsum, marble, and basalt, on the other hand, have low to moderate chemical weathering resistance. Different minerals, such as halite, pyrite, gypsum, dolomite, and calcite, demonstrate good water dissolution as a result of these interactions. Because of their low resistance, olivine, pyroxene, hornblende, and biotite dissolve in water via oxidation-reduction and hydrolysis reactions. Feldspar, quartz, and clay dissolve slowly in groundwater due to their considerable resistance to weathering. Fluorite and fluorapatite, among other minerals, are regarded possible sources of fluoride as a groundwater contaminant [16].
Fluoride in groundwater comes primarily from natural sources, with earth’s crust containing 0.32% fluoride. Weathering and dissolving of fluoride minerals are the primary controls on its concentration in groundwater, since lithology plays a vital impact in its occurrence [17]. The availability and solubility of fluoride minerals, pH, temperature, anion exchange capacity of aquifer materials, type of geological materials, residence time, porosity, structure, depth, groundwater age, and concentration of carbonates and bicarbonates in water all influence the fluoride contamination of groundwater [18].
The chemical study of groundwater provides insight into the geochemical processes that occur in that area. As previously stated, geological formations regulate water quality when they come into contact with flowing water. Several investigations have found that Na-rich, Ca-poor groundwater with an alkaline pH and high HCO−3 can mobilize fluoride from fluoride-rich rock formations, resulting in higher F concentrations in groundwater. Ionic exchange between F and hydroxyl ions in fluorite minerals such as mica, amphiboles, illite, and others may occur at higher pH levels. As a result, the alkaline composition of groundwater promotes fluoride ion desorption and hence increases solubility [19].
Fluorosis is a major public health problem spot-wise all over the world, including Yemen. Endemic fluorosis has been nearly recognized as a major public health problem in six governorates in Yemen. Since the groundwater forms a major source of drinking water in rural areas, rural populations are facing a major health problem in these governorates. Fluorosis-affected areas in various parts of the country are being discovered on a regular basis. As a result, fluorosis remains an endemic problem in Yemen. Unfortunately, proper fluoride mapping has not been carried in Yemen so as to locate areas with normal, low, or high levels of fluoride. Where, the available report prepared by the General Authority of Rural Water Projects (GARWP) about the increasing fluoride content in groundwater (Between 2000 and 2006) in districts of some governorates (Sana’a, Ibb, Dhamar, Taiz, Al-Dhala, and Raimah) considered to be the first alarming report highlighted the problem of fluoride in Yemen [7].
A systematic study and delineation of fluoride contamination from Taiz and Al-Dahla governorates have been conducted by Alamry [7].
The iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration was created using the chemical analyses taken from wells and springs in the selected areas. As demonstrated in Figure 1, locations with a high fluoride concentration of more than 1.5 mg/l are labeled as fluoride-contaminated (bold green color).
Iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration from Al-Dhala districts.
The fluoride concentrations map clearly shows that there are two significant areas with high fluoride concentrations. These two places are located in the upper portion of Wadi Tuban in the low land area, separated by the Jehaf district’s highlands plateau. The first is in the Al-Dhala Qat; abah Basin, stretching from Qarad to Qa’tabah and encompassing sections of the Al-Dhala, Qa’tabah, and Al-Husha districts. The second is located south of Al-Dhala city and stretches southwest along the Wadi Tabagyan catchment region in Al-Azerq district, which is a tributary of Wadi Tuban.
The Al-Dhala Qatabah Basin’s morphology ranges from flat plains to steep slopes and hills made up primarily of restricted volcanic rocks; sands and outwash sediments blanketed the wadi basin. The Al-Dhala Qatabah Basin is located between 1100 and 1800 meters above sea level and receives about 269 mm of rainfall per year, as well as significant recharge from nearby mountain drainage.
The delineation of fluoride contamination areas from Taiz governorate has been conducted, and the iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration from At Aaiziyah district and its surrounding villages is given in Figure 2.
Iso-line contour map of fluoride ion concentration from Taiz districts.
It’s clearly observed that the villages of Jabal Sabir, Hawban, Hethran, and Al- Bryehey as well as Taiz City are the most affected areas by fluoride contamination in groundwater.
Some of Sana’a governorate districts, particularly Sanhan, had the highest fluoride concentrations in their drinking water (UNICEF, 2008). The majority of Yemenis living in rural areas rely on deep well water for drinking and cooking, and many of these wells are contaminated with fluoride in concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 32 mg/l. Fluorosis, particularly skeletal fluorosis, has never been seen in Yemen before, only about 8–10 years ago since it was first reported. Clinically, it develops as a result of the high fluoride concentration in bones. Dental fluorosis, on the other hand, is not a new phenomenon in Yemen, particularly in the Taiz governorate [7].
A regional hydrogeochemical study from different Yemeni terrains indicated that water-rock interaction was most likely the primary cause of high ion concentrations in groundwater. According to geochemical modeling, the main minerals controlling the aqueous geochemistry of elevated fluoride ion contamination are calcite and fluorite. The concentration of F− in groundwater was positively correlated with the concentrations of HCO3− and Na+, indicating that groundwater with high concentrations of HCO3− and Na+ leads to the dissolution of some fluoride-rich minerals. This situation of fluoride solubility control at higher fluoride concentrations can be explained by the fact that fluoride ions in groundwater can be increased as a result of CaCO3 precipitation at high pH, which removes Ca2+ from solution and allows more fluorite to dissolve [20].
The groundwater data from different Yemeni areas reveals the chemical reactions that take place in the aquifer system. The results of the linear regression study on the relationship between F and HCO3 (total alkalinity) from published papers show a positive connection, which could be owing to the simultaneous release of hydroxyl and bicarbonate ions during the leaching and dissolution of fluoride containing minerals into groundwater. With higher levels of alkalinity, the rate of weathering and mineral leaching rises, resulting in higher fluoride ion concentrations. High amounts of fluoride are also linked to greater Na+ ion concentrations. This also favors that groundwater with high HCO3− and Na+ content is usually alkaline and has relatively high OH− content, so the OH- can replace the exchangeable F− of fluoride-bearing minerals, increasing the F- content in groundwater [20].
Fluoride is one of the few chemicals that have been proven to have harmful effects on people when consumed through drinking water. Fluoride in drinking water has beneficial effects on teeth at low concentrations, but excessive exposure to fluoride in drinking water, alone or in combination with fluoride from other sources, can cause a variety of problems. As the level and duration of exposure increase, these range from mild dental fluorosis to crippling skeletal fluorosis.
The chemical characteristics of the drinking water from the study reflect high fluoride contamination above the permissible limits of Yemeni, and WHO standers and most of them are poor whoever, their nutritional status is expected to be very poor. These factors including the high concentration of Na- and HCO3− and low concentration of Ca2+ions will increase the severity of fluorosis.
The visual observations in some selected Yemeni villages identify that there are two types of fluorosis recognized, they are:
Mottling of teeth is one of the most easily recognized symptoms from different Yemeni governorates especially Taiz and Al Dhalla. The teeth of the children in the affected areas lose their normal creamy white translucent color and become rough, opaque, and chalky white. Some of the local inhabitants indicated that their teeth have be extracted and replaced with dentures. The dental fluorosis ranges from mild to severe fluorosis. The photographs represent some of dental fluorosis from the different areas in Yemen. High percentage dental fluorosis among the children has been observed in Taiz and Al-Dhala basins (Figure 3A and B).
Figures present severe dental fluorosis (A) and moderate dental fluorosis (B) in Yemeni children in the affected area, after Alamry (2009) [
Dental fluorosis is the most common fluoride ailment identified in the afflicted areas, according to visual observations from selected villages. Fluorosis in the teeth can range from mild to severe.
In general, there is a link between fluoride in the water and the occurrence of dental fluorosis in the Taiz and Al-Dhala regions. A published research paper concluded that there is a positive relationship between fluoride in water and the occurrence of dental fluorosis in Sanhan, Taiz, and Al-Dhala regions [7].
Fluorapatite is 1000 times less soluble than hydroxyapatite, the most common mineral found in bone. The F− ion aggressively substitutes for the OH− ion, resulting in an accumulation of F− in bone tissue and skeletal fluorosis [20].
The patient often complains of a vague discomfort in the limbs and trunk early on in the development of fluorotic changes in the skeleton. Back pain and stiffness, particularly in the lumbar region, follow. Fluorosis in the teeth is frequently visible with the naked eye and is easy to detect even by laypeople. On the other hand, even with the assistance of appropriate equipment, skeletal fluorosis and nonskeletal fluorosis are difficult to diagnose. Radiography is frequently used to detect symptoms such as joint enlargements or minor bone deformations.
There are no any publications presenting the problem of the skeletal fluorosis among children in the affected Yemeni places, while I have seen children in Al-Dhalla villages showing skeletal deformation, and these cases among children could be considered as cases of skeletal fluorosis unless proved otherwise, as it is shown in Figure 4.
A group of children showing skeletal deformation from Al-Dhalla region Yemen.
The hydrogeochemical characteristics of the groundwater in the study area indicated that the volcanic and plutonic rocks are the primary sources of fluoride whoever, the food could be the secondary sources.
Fluoride intake during infancy and early childhood is mirrored in dental fluorosis patterns. In most cases, the fluoride content of drinking water is considered sufficient for determining the level of fluoride exposure in a given area. There has been evidence that fluoride uptake from other sources such as food, dust, and beverages is many times higher than that from water [21].
The percentage of children with fluorosis was found to be extremely high. Although high fluoride levels in drinking water may be to blame, various food habits (such as drinking black tea and chewing Gatof Catha edulis Forsk leaves (Khat)) indicated a high fluoride contribution to the diet. Some of the children used to chew Khat also, and the Khat is cultivated in the volcanic soil and irrigated by the high fluoride concentration water [22].
Cooking with fluoridated water raises fluoride levels significantly, particularly in dry foods such as maize flour, which absorbs a lot of water during cooking. It has been reported that the simultaneous intake of food and fluoride-containing compounds can affect fluoride availability in a positive or negative way, depending on the food type, mode of administration, and type of fluoride compound [21].
The diet consumed by the children was not balanced and lacked quality. It is composed of maize flour with milk and a few rare vegetables. Intake of milk and milk products is said to diminish the fluoride availability by 20–50% in humans. Although the area under study had children taking whole milk (boiled or fermented).
A high fluoride concentration has been reported in groundwater in tertiary volcanics, from Yemeni terrain. The major ion chemistry data from groundwater of this rock revealed that Na+ is the most predominant cationic constituent followed by Ca2+ and Mg2+, the HCO3− and SO4− are found to be the most predominant anions followed by Cl− and NO3. High fluoride ion concentration in the Yemeni groundwater appears to be caused by high alkalinity due to HCO3− ions. Na+ has a positive correlation with F−, whereas Ca2+ has a negative correlation, resulting in an equilibrium condition in groundwater. CaCO3 precipitation at high pH can increase fluoride ions in groundwater by removing Ca2+ from solution and allowing more fluorite to dissolve.
Dental fluorosis is the widely fluoride disease observed in the affected areas, whereas skeletal fluorosis is observed in some villages from Al-Dhalla region. The principal causes of fluorosis among the Yemeni population appear to be related to high fluoride concentration in drinking water and Khat chewing habits, which are cultivated in the volcanic soil and irrigated by the high fluoride concentration water.
Despite the high dental fluorosis prevalence in the affected areas, no restorative treatment is being carried out. Therefore, it is highly recommended to provide safe drinking water to fluoride-affected areas.
I would like to thank the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA) Yemen and UNDP for funding this research. Also I would like to thank the publisher and anonymous reviewers for valuable suggestions and comments that have enhanced the chapter quality.
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Kulshreshtha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8983.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37057",title:"Dr.",name:"Surendra N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kulshreshtha",slug:"surendra-n.-kulshreshtha",fullName:"Surendra N. Kulshreshtha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:19,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"44241",doi:"10.5772/55124",title:"Coping Mechanisms of Plants to Metal Contaminated Soil",slug:"coping-mechanisms-of-plants-to-metal-contaminated-soil",totalDownloads:4167,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"Melanie Mehes-Smith, Kabwe Nkongolo and Ewa Cholewa",authors:[{id:"78238",title:"Prof.",name:"Kabwe",middleName:null,surname:"Nkongolo",slug:"kabwe-nkongolo",fullName:"Kabwe Nkongolo"}]},{id:"64381",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82025",title:"Sustainability and Vernacular Architecture: Rethinking What Identity Is",slug:"sustainability-and-vernacular-architecture-rethinking-what-identity-is",totalDownloads:4444,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Sustainability has often been a fundamental part of the composition of both tangible and intangible cultural resources; sustainability and preservation of cultural identity are complementary. Elements of sustainable design are integral to vernacular architecture that have evolved over time using local materials and technology emerging from ambient natural and cultural environment creating optimum relationships between people and their place. This chapter aims to redefine what identity is as a concept and the impact of globalization on contemporary architecture especially on regions with rich heritage and unique culture as the Arab World. To accomplish this, the chapter examines the emergence of “local identity” as a reaction to the globalization of cultural values, uniform architectural styles, and stereotype patterns through discussing sustainability as a motivation for identity in culture and architecture. The research methodology is based on conducting a qualitative analysis of literature review to the main concepts discussed in this chapter such as: identity, culture, vernacular architecture, and sustainability. Through comparative analysis, the chapter investigates sustainability potential of vernacular architecture in the region to derive core concepts as guidelines of reproducing the characteristics of society and reveal identity of contemporary architecture in the Arab World.",book:{id:"8260",slug:"urban-and-architectural-heritage-conservation-within-sustainability",title:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability",fullTitle:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability"},signatures:"Maha Salman",authors:[{id:"258226",title:"Dr.",name:"Maha",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"maha-salman",fullName:"Maha Salman"}]},{id:"51000",doi:"10.5772/63726",title:"Towards Sustainable Sanitation in an Urbanising World",slug:"towards-sustainable-sanitation-in-an-urbanising-world",totalDownloads:3204,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Urban sanitation in low‐ and middle‐income countries is at an inflection point. It is increasingly acknowledged that conventional sewer‐based sanitation cannot be the only solution for expanding urban areas. There are other objective reasons apart from the lack of capital. The lack of stable energy supplies, of spare parts and of human resources for reliable operation, and the increasing water scarcity are factors that seriously limit the expansion of centralised systems. This chapter argues that a new paradigm for urban sanitation is possible, if the heterogeneity within developing cities is reflected in the implementation of different sanitation systems, adapted to each urban context and integrated under one institutional roof. This new paradigm entails: (1) innovative management arrangements; (2) increased participation and the integration of individual, community and private sector initiatives; (3) thinking at scale to open new opportunities; (4) improved analysis of the situation and awareness raising. Moving beyond conventional approaches towards sustainable urbanisation needs to follow both a top‐down and a bottom‐up approach, with proper incentives and a variety of sanitation systems which, in a future perspective, will become part of the ‘urban ecosystem’.",book:{id:"5235",slug:"sustainable-urbanization",title:"Sustainable Urbanization",fullTitle:"Sustainable Urbanization"},signatures:"Philippe Reymond, Samuel Renggli and Christoph Lüthi",authors:[{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi"},{id:"182136",title:"Mr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Reymond",slug:"philippe-reymond",fullName:"Philippe Reymond"},{id:"182137",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:null,surname:"Renggli",slug:"samuel-renggli",fullName:"Samuel Renggli"}]},{id:"44263",doi:"10.5772/54339",title:"Conservation and Sustainability of Mexican Caribbean Coral Reefs and the Threats of a Human-Induced Phase-Shift",slug:"conservation-and-sustainability-of-mexican-caribbean-coral-reefs-and-the-threats-of-a-human-induced-",totalDownloads:2354,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"José D. Carriquiry, Linda M. Barranco-Servin, Julio A. Villaescusa,\nVictor F. Camacho-Ibar, Hector Reyes-Bonilla and Amílcar L. Cupul-\nMagaña",authors:[{id:"158136",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose D.",middleName:"D.",surname:"Carriquiry",slug:"jose-d.-carriquiry",fullName:"Jose D. Carriquiry"},{id:"160078",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio A.",middleName:null,surname:"Villaescusa",slug:"julio-a.-villaescusa",fullName:"Julio A. Villaescusa"},{id:"160079",title:"MSc.",name:"Linda M.",middleName:null,surname:"Barranco-Servin",slug:"linda-m.-barranco-servin",fullName:"Linda M. Barranco-Servin"},{id:"160082",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor F.",middleName:null,surname:"Camacho-Ibar",slug:"victor-f.-camacho-ibar",fullName:"Victor F. Camacho-Ibar"},{id:"167394",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-Bonilla",slug:"hector-reyes-bonilla",fullName:"Hector Reyes-Bonilla"},{id:"167395",title:"Dr.",name:"Amilcar L.",middleName:null,surname:"Cupul-Magaña",slug:"amilcar-l.-cupul-magana",fullName:"Amilcar L. Cupul-Magaña"}]},{id:"42926",doi:"10.5772/55736",title:"Disaster Risk Management and Social Impact Assessment: Understanding Preparedness, Response and Recovery in Community Projects",slug:"disaster-risk-management-and-social-impact-assessment-understanding-preparedness-response-and-recove",totalDownloads:10048,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"Raheem A. Usman, F.B. Olorunfemi, G.P. Awotayo, A.M. Tunde and\nB.A. Usman",authors:[{id:"156875",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman A",middleName:null,surname:"Raheem",slug:"usman-a-raheem",fullName:"Usman A Raheem"},{id:"166449",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M",middleName:null,surname:"Tunde",slug:"a.m-tunde",fullName:"A.M Tunde"},{id:"167886",title:"Dr.",name:"F.B.",middleName:null,surname:"Olorunfemi",slug:"f.b.-olorunfemi",fullName:"F.B. Olorunfemi"},{id:"167887",title:"Dr.",name:"G.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Awotayo",slug:"g.p.-awotayo",fullName:"G.P. Awotayo"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64381",title:"Sustainability and Vernacular Architecture: Rethinking What Identity Is",slug:"sustainability-and-vernacular-architecture-rethinking-what-identity-is",totalDownloads:4441,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Sustainability has often been a fundamental part of the composition of both tangible and intangible cultural resources; sustainability and preservation of cultural identity are complementary. Elements of sustainable design are integral to vernacular architecture that have evolved over time using local materials and technology emerging from ambient natural and cultural environment creating optimum relationships between people and their place. This chapter aims to redefine what identity is as a concept and the impact of globalization on contemporary architecture especially on regions with rich heritage and unique culture as the Arab World. To accomplish this, the chapter examines the emergence of “local identity” as a reaction to the globalization of cultural values, uniform architectural styles, and stereotype patterns through discussing sustainability as a motivation for identity in culture and architecture. The research methodology is based on conducting a qualitative analysis of literature review to the main concepts discussed in this chapter such as: identity, culture, vernacular architecture, and sustainability. Through comparative analysis, the chapter investigates sustainability potential of vernacular architecture in the region to derive core concepts as guidelines of reproducing the characteristics of society and reveal identity of contemporary architecture in the Arab World.",book:{id:"8260",slug:"urban-and-architectural-heritage-conservation-within-sustainability",title:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability",fullTitle:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability"},signatures:"Maha Salman",authors:[{id:"258226",title:"Dr.",name:"Maha",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"maha-salman",fullName:"Maha Salman"}]},{id:"67342",title:"Introductory Chapter: Heritage Conservation - Rehabilitation of Architectural and Urban Heritage",slug:"introductory-chapter-heritage-conservation-rehabilitation-of-architectural-and-urban-heritage",totalDownloads:2616,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"8260",slug:"urban-and-architectural-heritage-conservation-within-sustainability",title:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability",fullTitle:"Urban and Architectural Heritage Conservation within Sustainability"},signatures:"Kabila Faris Hmood",authors:[{id:"214741",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Kabila",middleName:"Faris",surname:"Hmood",slug:"dr.-kabila-hmood",fullName:"Dr. Kabila Hmood"}]},{id:"76898",title:"The Relationship between Land Use and Climate Change: A Case Study of Nepal",slug:"the-relationship-between-land-use-and-climate-change-a-case-study-of-nepal",totalDownloads:700,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Land Use and Climate change are interrelated to each other. This change influences one another at various temporal and spatial scales; however, improper land uses are the primary causal factor on climate change. It studies relevant literature and Nepal’s case to assess the relationship between land use and climate change. Similarly focuses on how land-use impacts climate change and vice versa. In recent centuries land-use change significant effects on ecological variables and climate change. Likewise, understanding the research on both topics will help decision-makers and conservation planners manage land and climate.",book:{id:"10754",slug:"the-nature-causes-effects-and-mitigation-of-climate-change-on-the-environment",title:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment",fullTitle:"The Nature, Causes, Effects and Mitigation of Climate Change on the Environment"},signatures:"Pawan Thapa",authors:[{id:"349566",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pawan",middleName:null,surname:"Thapa",slug:"pawan-thapa",fullName:"Pawan Thapa"}]},{id:"50282",title:"Relation Between Land Use and Transportation Planning in the Scope of Smart Growth Strategies: Case Study of Denizli, Turkey",slug:"relation-between-land-use-and-transportation-planning-in-the-scope-of-smart-growth-strategies-case-s",totalDownloads:4667,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the decision-making process of planning residential areas in developing countries, importance of the commercial areas and need for a sustainable urban transportation infrastructure have generally been ignored based on several sociopolitical reasons. Meanwhile, decision-making periods of location choice and determining areal densities are conducted without quantitative spatial/technical analyses. Those urban matters bring along new planning paradigms like smart growth (SG) and new urbanism. SG is a land use planning paradigm which indicates that traffic problems should be minimized by transit alternatives, effective demand management and providing a balance between land use and transportation planning. This study aims to apply SG strategies to the land use planning process and evaluate the accuracy of land use planning decisions in the perspective of sustainable transportation. In order to reveal the effects of land use planning decisions on the available transportation infrastructure, two scenarios are investigated for 2030. In the first scenario “do nothing” option is considered, while the residential area densities and trip generation rates are regulated based on SG strategies in the second scenario. The results showed that the land use and traffic impact analyses should simultaneously be conducted before land use configuration process.",book:{id:"5235",slug:"sustainable-urbanization",title:"Sustainable Urbanization",fullTitle:"Sustainable Urbanization"},signatures:"Gorkem Gulhan and Huseyin Ceylan",authors:[{id:"182126",title:"Dr.",name:"Gorkem",middleName:null,surname:"Gulhan",slug:"gorkem-gulhan",fullName:"Gorkem Gulhan"},{id:"185555",title:"Dr.",name:"Huseyin",middleName:null,surname:"Ceylan",slug:"huseyin-ceylan",fullName:"Huseyin Ceylan"}]},{id:"42926",title:"Disaster Risk Management and Social Impact Assessment: Understanding Preparedness, Response and Recovery in Community Projects",slug:"disaster-risk-management-and-social-impact-assessment-understanding-preparedness-response-and-recove",totalDownloads:10045,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3364",slug:"environmental-change-and-sustainability",title:"Environmental Change and Sustainability",fullTitle:"Environmental Change and Sustainability"},signatures:"Raheem A. Usman, F.B. Olorunfemi, G.P. Awotayo, A.M. Tunde and\nB.A. Usman",authors:[{id:"156875",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman A",middleName:null,surname:"Raheem",slug:"usman-a-raheem",fullName:"Usman A Raheem"},{id:"166449",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M",middleName:null,surname:"Tunde",slug:"a.m-tunde",fullName:"A.M Tunde"},{id:"167886",title:"Dr.",name:"F.B.",middleName:null,surname:"Olorunfemi",slug:"f.b.-olorunfemi",fullName:"F.B. Olorunfemi"},{id:"167887",title:"Dr.",name:"G.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Awotayo",slug:"g.p.-awotayo",fullName:"G.P. Awotayo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"136",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82644",title:"Climate-Driven Temporary Displacement of Women and Children in Anambra State, Nigeria: The Causes and Consequences",slug:"climate-driven-temporary-displacement-of-women-and-children-in-anambra-state-nigeria-the-causes-and-",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104817",abstract:"With increasing periods of extreme wet seasons, low lying geographic position, with socioeconomic, and political factors; some communities in Anambra State, Nigeria experience heightened floods annually resulting in loss of shelter, displacement of people with breakdown of livelihoods, particularly in rural communities worsening their risks and vulnerabilities. In 2012, a major flood event in the state temporarily displaced about 2 million people. In this chapter, we used a community-based adaptation approach to investigate the causes and consequences of climate-related temporary displacement on community members in Ogbaru LGA, Anambra State following flood events. We used global positioning system to obtain the community’s ground control points and gathered our data via field observation, transects walks, focus group discussions, photography, and in-depth interviews. Our findings reveal a heightened magnitude of flood related disasters with decreased socio-economic activities, affecting their health and well-being. Also, the community members have a practice of returning to their land, after flood events, as a local mitigating risk management strategy. For multilevel humanitarian responses at the temporary shelter camps, it becomes imperative to meaningfully engage the community members on the challenging risks and vulnerabilities they experience following climate-driven temporary displacement to inform adaptation and resilience research, policy change and advocacy.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Akanwa Angela Oyilieze, Ngozi N. Joe-Ikechebelu, Ijeoma N. Okedo-Alex, Kenebechukwu J. Okafor, Fred A. Omoruyi, Jennifer Okeke, Sophia N. Amobi, Angela C. Enweruzor, Chinonye E. Obioma, Princess I. Izunobi, Theresa O. Nwakacha, Chinenye B. Oranu, Nora I. Anazodo, Chiamaka A. Okeke, Uwa-Abasi E. Ugwuoke, Uche M. Umeh, Emmanuel O. Ogbuefi and Sylvia T. Echendu"},{id:"79637",title:"Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of the Annual Extreme Precipitation Using Kriging and Co-Kriging Methods in Algeria Country",slug:"evaluation-of-the-spatial-distribution-of-the-annual-extreme-precipitation-using-kriging-and-co-krig",totalDownloads:54,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101563",abstract:"In this chapter, we have conducted a statistical study of the annual extreme precipitation (AMP) for 856 grid cells and during the period of 1979–2012 in Algeria. In the first step, we compared graphically the forecasts of the three parameters of the generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution (location, scale and shape) which are estimated by the Spherical model. We used the Cross validation method to compare the two methods kriging and Co-kriging, based on the based on some statistical indicators such as Mean Errors (ME), Root Mean Square Errors (RMSE) and Squared Deviation Ratio (MSDR). The Kriging forecast error map shows low errors expected near the stations, while co-Kriging gives the lowest errors on average at the national level, which means that the method of co-Kriging is the best. From the results of the return periods, we calculate that after 50 years the estimated of the annual extreme precipitation will exceed the maximum AMP is observed in the 33-year.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Hicham Salhi"},{id:"77854",title:"Flooding and Flood Modeling in a Typhoon Belt Environment: The Case of the Philippines",slug:"flooding-and-flood-modeling-in-a-typhoon-belt-environment-the-case-of-the-philippines",totalDownloads:164,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98738",abstract:"Flooding is a perennial world-wide problem and is a serious hazard in areas where the amount of precipitable water has potential to dump excessive amount of water. The warming of the Earth’s climate due to the increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) increases the availability of water vapor and hence, of extreme precipitation as observed and forecasted by researchers. With rainfall intensity too high, the torrential rains coupled with weather systems that enhances its effects, flooding not only submerges anything low-lying, it also washes away living and non-living things along the course of the river and the floodplain. The flooding is even worsened by the increase in velocity of flow caused by unsustainable urbanization and denudation of the watershed at the headwaters. Nature’s strength is an order of a magnitude that is way beyond that of the strength of men but human ingenuity enables us to transform our living environment into models that could help us better understand it. Flood modeling provides us decision support tools to deal better with nature. It also enables us to simulate the future especially nowadays that changes in our climate is imminent and even happening already in many parts of the world. Therefore, strategies on how to cope with our ever changing environment is very important particularly to countries that are at more risk to climate change such as the archipelagic Philippines.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Fibor J. Tan"},{id:"77797",title:"Adapting to Climatic Extremes through Climate Resilient Industrial Landscapes: Building Capacities in the Southern Indian States of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh",slug:"adapting-to-climatic-extremes-through-climate-resilient-industrial-landscapes-building-capacities-in",totalDownloads:99,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98732",abstract:"There is now greater confidence and understanding of the consequences of anthropogenic caused climate change. One of the many impacts of climate change, has been the occurrence of extreme climatic events, recent studies indicate that the magnitude, frequency, and intensity of hydro-meteorological events such as heat waves, cyclones, droughts, wildfires, and floods are expected to increase several fold in the coming decades. These climatic extremes are likely to have social, economic, and environmental costs to nations across the globe. There is an urgent need to prepare various stakeholders to these disasters through capacity building and training measures. Here, we present an analysis of the capacity needs assessment of various stakeholders to climate change adaptation in industrial parks in two southern states of India. Adaptation to climate change in industrial areas is an understudied yet highly urgent requirement to build resilience among stakeholders in the Indian subcontinent. The capacity needs assessment was conducted in two stages, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and focus group discussion (FGD) were conducted among various stakeholders to determine the current capacities for climate change adaptation (CCA) for both, stakeholders and functional groups. Our analysis indicates that in the states of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, all stakeholder groups require low to high levels of retraining in infrastructure and engineering, planning, and financial aspects related to CCA. Our study broadly supports the need for capacity building and retraining of functionaries at local and state levels in various climate change adaptation measures; likewise industry managers need support to alleviate the impacts of climate change. Specific knowledge, skills, and abilities, with regard to land zoning, storm water management, developing building codes, green financing for CCA, early warning systems for climatic extremes, to name a few are required to enhance and build resilience to climate change in the industrial landscapes of the two states.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Narendran Kodandapani"},{id:"77460",title:"Changing Climatic Hazards in the Coast: Risks and Impacts on Satkhira, One of the Most Vulnerable Districts in Bangladesh",slug:"changing-climatic-hazards-in-the-coast-risks-and-impacts-on-satkhira-one-of-the-most-vulnerable-dist",totalDownloads:211,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98623",abstract:"Changes in the climate due to anthropogenic and natural variation are indicated by parameters including temperature and rainfall. Climate change variability with changing trends of the two have been unpredictable and unprecedented globally leading to changing weather patterns, natural disasters, leading to sectoral impacts on food and water security, livelihood, human health among others. This research analyses the changing patterns of these parameters over the last 35/37 years of Satkhira district of Bangladesh to assess the state and trend across spatial and temporal dimensions. Such, the study validates to rationalize the observed seasonal changes that persist in Satkhira of Bangladesh. Both in terms of intensity and frequency of the occurrences of natural disasters, the series of natural events have been triangulated, with impacts and vulnerability being assessed from temperature variations, erratic rainfall, cyclone, flood and water logging etc. The study’s prime contribution remains in attribution of climate change in relation contextual circumstances in the region including sea level rise, salinity intrusion. Therefore, the risk and climatic hazards and its resulting impacts over time has been assessed to draw deeper connection between theoretical and practical values. The series of analyses also draw conclusion that assets are at risk from changing climatic condition.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Golam Rabbani, Md. Nasir Uddin and Sirazoom Munira"},{id:"76915",title:"The Impacts of Climate Change in Lwengo, Uganda",slug:"the-impacts-of-climate-change-in-lwengo-uganda",totalDownloads:102,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97279",abstract:"Climate Change has become a threat worldwide. Vulnerable communities are at foremost risk of repercussions of climate change. The present study aimed at highlighting a case study of climate change impacts on Lwengo District of Uganda. Out of the total geographical area of the district, 85% hectares are under cultivation and most of its population depends majorly on the rain- fed agriculture sector to meet the food requirement and as a major income source. With the changing climatic conditions, agriculture is the major sector which is being impacted. The region has experienced disasters from some time, usually the second seasons rains used to result in such disasters but since 2016 both seasons have occurred disasters, which majorly include hailstorm, strong wind, long dry spells, pests and diseases. The situation became more severe due to shortage of availability of skilled human resources, quality equipment for disaster management, limited financial resources and weak institutional capacity, which resulted in increasing vulnerability of small farm holders. Some of the adaptation strategies are being taken up by the government but there is a need to understand prospects of decision-making that are site specific and more sustainable for smallholder communities. Climatic changes possess many obstacles to farming communities which require sustainable adaptation to enhance the adaptive capacities of the communities through continued production systems, which are more resilient to the vagaries of weather. Farmers are practising such options which are location specific, governed by policy framework and dependent on dynamism of farmers. This study investigated how these drivers influence farmers’ decision- making in relation to climate change adaptations.",book:{id:"7724",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg"},signatures:"Shyamli Singh and Ovamani Olive Kagweza"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 16th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:21,paginationItems:[{id:"83000",title:"Purine and Pyrimidine Pathways as Antimalarial Targets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106468",signatures:"Yacoba V.T. Minnow and Vern L. Schramm",slug:"purine-and-pyrimidine-pathways-as-antimalarial-targets",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82804",title:"Psychiatric Problems in HIV Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106077",signatures:"Seggane Musisi and Noeline Nakasujja",slug:"psychiatric-problems-in-hiv-care",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Future Opportunities and Tools for Emerging Challenges for HIV/AIDS Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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