Endocrine response after single-bout of physical exercise.
\r\n\tThis book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e76c899d1a31c83f23cc27517381507",bookSignature:"Dr. Aamir Shahzad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9216.jpg",keywords:"Microcontroller, Microprocessor, Satellite Applications, Graphics Processing, Complex Embedded Architectures, Digital Circuits, Digital Signal Processor, Microcontroller Application, Leveraging Software Tools, Optimal Performance, Microelectronics, Industrial Automation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",middleName:null,surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/288354/images/system/288354.png",biography:"Dr. Aamir Shahzad has been working as an Associate Professor (Tenured) in the department of Physics, GC University Faisalabad (GCUF) since July 2019. He completed his Post Doctorate and PhD from Xi’an Jiaotong University (XJTU), P. R. China. Dr. Shahzad still works with Prof. Maogang HE (Collaborator), XJTU, P. R. China and his research is focused on plasma science and technology. Dr. Shahzad has been involved in research on the transport properties of complex systems (cold/dusty plasmas and biological) using novel Molecular Dynamics (MD) Simulation techniques since 2009. He completed the International research grant (nearly more than 1.0 million) from the Postdoctoral Science Foundation, P.R. China, and has completed two applied research grants during his PhD studies in collaboration with China. Dr. Shahzad has proposed novel methods to explore results of Dusty Plasmas (Industrial Plasmas) which show his aptitude to comprehend and grip computational physics, modeling and molecular simulations, and fluid materials together with experimental materials understanding. In addition, Dr. Shahzad has presented papers in several international academic conferences, including Greece (Thessaloniki), USA (Boulder, Colorado) P.R. China (Xi’an), Korea (Jeju), and Turkey.",institutionString:"Government College University Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304289/images/13255_n.png",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6753",title:"Impact of Thermal Conductivity on Energy Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b23da475c41a4f4e691305e173092052",slug:"impact-of-thermal-conductivity-on-energy-technologies",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6753.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8437",title:"Fusion Energy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae4950c5b74da69a166ed0405f3f5ade",slug:"fusion-energy",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8437.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8887",title:"Thermophysical Properties of Complex Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8101f57488f86e3fbfa4e3a4279a4c7",slug:"thermophysical-properties-of-complex-materials",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8887.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7373",title:"Nuclear Medicine Physics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4aaee2e9fd29a290d04e9041b003462b",slug:"nuclear-medicine-physics",bookSignature:"Aamir Shahzad and Sajid Bashir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51291",title:"The Anthropic Pressure on the Landscapes of the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa River (Romania)",doi:"10.5772/63722",slug:"the-anthropic-pressure-on-the-landscapes-of-the-subcarpathian-and-piedmont-basin-of-d-mbovi-a-river-",body:'\nThe area under analysis corresponds to the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa.
\nIn point of its geographic limits, the delimitation between the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa and the neighboring geographic units goes through the following altimetric levels:
\nIn the north, the last alpine peaks of Leaota dominate Subcarpathian hills; the delimitation between the two sectors occurs along the alignment of communes Cetăţeni and Pucheni, the limit going through the following summits: Groapa Oii (950 m), Vârful lui Tică (950 m) and Plaiul Găvanei (1250 m). It neighbors Basin of Argeş in western part, the limit being realized by the hills: La Poşta Veche (716 m), Vârtop (790 m), Malu Corbului (795 m), Perilor (744 m), Istrate (660 m) and Tâmpa (522 m).
\nGeographic limits of the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa.
In the east, the watershed separating basin of Dâmboviţa from basin of Ialomiţa goes through the following peaks: Gâlma Brebu (867 m), Puţul lui Bondoc (780 m), Vârful Giurcului (840 m), Culmea Stălpu (652 m), Culmea Mălaiştea (608 m), Vârful Stânii (692 m), Culmea Moga Înaltă (584 m) and La Cruce (511 m). In the south, from Dragomireşti, where Dâmboviţa enters the plain, the hill margin goes around the top of a terrace (t3), which vanishes away near the locality of Priseaca. The limit is given by the peak Coada Butoiului (419 m) and the forest Floreasca (355 m)—Figure 1.
\nAs topography and morphohydrography, the basin evolves into an elongated form from north to south, being larger in the north, where it receives two important tributaries, namely Râu Alb and Valea Largă, while southwards it is narrower, being part of the plain sector (at Dragomireşti). The hilly area of Dâmboviţa is a region where fruit trees are grown. The Fruit Tree Station of Voineşti, created in 1950, polarized the whole valley beginning from Cetăţeni up to Dragomireşti, the area being crossed by just one national road, DN 72 A, connecting Târgovişte Town to Câmpulung.
\nThe relief represents one of the factors of the geographic environment influencing the features of human habitat [1]. By its morphographic, morphometric, morphogenetic and morphodynamic features, highlighting both favorable and restrictive aspects, the relief conditions the geographic area occupied by human settlements and their features. The hilly basin of Dâmboviţa covers an area of 412 km2 and is represented both by Subcarpathian Hills and Piedmont Hills. This situation is due to the fact that while on the left side Dâmboviţa passes from the alpine zone to the plain area by means of Subcarpathians, on the right side, in-between Subcarpathians and the plain, lies the Getic Piedmont.
\nIn the present analysis, we have taken into account the value of human pressure by the way lands are used in agriculture, which represents a synthetic indicator allowing to appreciate the intensity of the impact of anthropic activity on the environment, bringing to light the degree of artificialization of vegetal cover in the area under analysis. Although it is an indicator that is frequently used, its value being quite relative, because pressure is differentiated also depending on the inhabitants’ occupations and on the type of agriculture practiced (intensive or subsistence). The formula applied by FAO for the calculation of this indicator is:
where: P = human pressure; S = area under analysis; N = number of inhabitants in the area under analysis.
\nUsing this formula, we have calculated the human pressure on the environment using various agricultural land uses, namely: arable, pastures, hayfields, vineyards, orchards, for the year 2014, based on data provided by the Romanian National Statistics Institute. Statistical data used in this analysis are on the level of each commune and it is hard to differentiate them for the communes which have only a part of their territory in the area analyzed.
\nIn time, relation between man and the environment has changed deeply both in the area of Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa and nationally [2].
\nThe influence of human activity on the environment is particularly complex and has various effects. From simple anthropic activities: plant cultivation, animal breeding, wood exploitation, up to the complex ones: oil exploitation, mining, extraction of building materials, along with tourism, arrangement of the infrastructure and increase of constructible fund, all these bring changes concerning natural landscapes [3].
\nMan, by the totality of his activities, has intervened on the environment even since the oldest times, until now, triggering major changes in the landscape [4].
\nDemographic growth has led to a significantly increased consumption of natural resources, while economic, social and technical development has led to the appearance of more and more efficient means and techniques of exploration, exploitation and transformation of the raw matters. The last decennia, on the background of a growing consumption, have been characterized by a high level of energy and raw matters use, and storage of wastes coming from a production meant to face a continually larger and diversified demand.
\nIn the anthropized ecosystems, man has deteriorated the biological processes, ignoring the law of self-regulations in the biosphere. Such situations have affected relation between man and nature, and the aggressiveness that man has expressed by his relation to the environment has gradually turned against himself [5].
\nThe use of geographic area depends on how favorable natural factors are, on the productive potential of land and on improvement works. Agricultural zone represents the terrestrial area exploited by the cultivation of plants, this being an important component of rural area and having certain limits imposed by relief and pedoclimatic conditions.
\nAt the present, agricultural area of the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa is of 20,961 ha and represents 48.70% of total area of the basin of 43,045 ha (Figure 2). On the level of administrative units, the situation is as follows:
\nBy diverse anthropic activities undertaken in the agricultural area, man has brought structural changes in the natural vegetation. From deforestations undertaken to increase the agricultural area up to changes in the makeup of the vegetal cover, through the use of lands for different agricultural cultures, natural landscapes have been submitted to a continual anthropic pressure. The value of anthropic pressure, following the use of lands for agricultural activities, represents an indicator allowing a concise appreciation of the impact of human activity on the environment, highlighting in this way the artificialization degree of vegetal cover in the analyzed area [6].
\n(a, b) Agricultural area and human pressure through the agricultural area on the level of administrative units.
The value of this indicator is quite relative, because pressure is differentiated depending on the type of agriculture practiced (intensive or subsistence) [7]. Using the formula applied by FAO for the calculation of this indicator, we have calculated human pressure on the environment through agricultural use of the lands, for the year 2013 based on data provided by National Statistics Institute.
\nThe human pressure on the environment was calculated taking into account agricultural area of the zone under analysis divided into administrative-territorial units of the third degree—communes. On the whole, on agricultural landscape in the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa, a pressure of 0.68 is exerted. On the administrative level, the highest values of human pressure index correspond to the localities: Râu Alb (1.13 ha/inh.), Pucheni (0.97 ha/inh.) and Cândeşti (0.81 ha/inh.). At the opposite pole, with lowest values of the anthropic pressure, we find the localities: Măneşti (0.24 ha/inh.), Tătărani (0.41 ha/inh.)—Figure 2.
\nStructure of the agricultural fund—percentage.
In the agricultural area of Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa, largest sectors are those corresponding to pastures, hayfields and orchards, and to a lower extent, arable zones (Figure 3).
\n\nArea corresponding to the zone of pastures and hayfields is 12,825 ha and represents 61.18% of arable area in the zone under analysis, namely 29.79% of the total area. Administratively, largest areas meant for pastures and hayfields are in the localities Cândeşti (1667 ha), Pucheni (1522 ha), and smallest areas belong to the localities Măneşti (351 ha) and Malu cu Flori (678 ha).
\nThe highest values of the index of human pressure on the environment by means of pastures and hayfields correspond to the localities: Râu Alb (0.88 ha/inh.), Pucheni (0.81 ha/inh.), and the lowest values to Măneşti (0.06 ha/inh.), Tătărani (0.22 ha/inh.) while the average pressure on the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa is of 0.36 (Figure 4).
\nArea of pastures and hayfields (a) and human pressure exerted through them on the level of administrative units (b).
Concretely, areas meant for pastures have undergone pressures of an excessive grazing that triggered the continual degradation of the quality of vegetal cover. A part of the areas corresponding to pastures overlap riverside valley of Dâmboviţa River. Here, following the excessive grazing, a large part of the lawns of Fetusca valesianca have turned into lawns of Poa bulbosa and Cynodon dactylon (Photo 1).
\nFor hayfield area, the main type of anthropic pressure is using of chemical fertilizers to increase the quality of the herbaceous cover; consequently, a part of natural vegetal formations and a part of flora were strongly affected.
\nGrazing in the river meadow of Dâmboviţa (Măneşti), excessive grazing (Gheboieni)
Excessive grazing (Râu Alb)
The degradation of vegetal cover appears in the moment when area of the respective land is overused through daily grazing; such areas can be met in the communes Râu Alb, Pucheni, Cetăţeni and also in some parts of the riverside of Dâmboviţa and of its tributaries (Photo 2).
\nPresence of the Fruit Tree Station Voineşti has supported whole zone by means of a strong development of fruit-tree growing sector. So, after the areas occupied by pastures and hayfields, those occupied by fruit trees hold a considerable percentage, more exactly 25.88% of the agricultural area, i.e. 5340 ha. Largest fruit tree areas belong to the localities: Voineşti (1300 ha), Văleni Dâmboviţa (840 ha), Malu cu Flori (769 ha), and smallest areas can be found in the localities Tătărani (162 ha) and Cetăţeni (173 ha)—Figure 5.
\nThe human pressure exerted by areas occupied by orchards on whole area of the basin is of 0.15 ha/inh. On the administrative level, localities with a high index of the anthropic pressure are: Malu cu Flori (0.33 ha/inh.), Văleni Dâmboviţa (0.31 ha/inh.), the lowest index is that of the localities Tătărani (0.03 ha/inh.), Cetăţeni (0.05 ha/inh.) and Măneşti (0.07 ha/inh.)—Figure 5.
\nDuring last few years, by accessing European funds, a part of the traditional and of intensive fruit-tree areas have been replaced by superintensive ones (Photo 3).
\nSuperintensive orchards with drop by drop irrigation systems (Voineşti)
Having a superior production level, their maintenance is also different, superintensive fruit-tree areas exerting a much higher pressure on the environment, compared to traditional ones. The main form of pressure on the natural environment is represented by use of large quantities of chemicals, especially in areas occupied by apple trees. Approximately 70% of all orchards correspond to areas occupied by apple trees and pear trees, about 4000 ha. For just 1 ha of apple trees are used, on average: 20 g insecticide, 40 g fungicide and 1000 l water for just one hygienization treatment. Consequently, if, on average, depending on the meteorological conditions, 15 treatments/year are needed, referring to the area of 1 ha, we can notice a consumption of water of 15,000 l. For just one agricultural year, fruit tree area (apple and pear trees) of the Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa requires 60,000,000 l water (60,000 tons of water).
\nBecause of the lack of collaboration between orchard owners, there has occurred a situation in which hygienization treatments came to be repeated even every 4 days, whereas the period recommended is 7 days. Quite often, orchards had to suffer following intoxications with chemicals.
\nDifferences between the superintensive and traditional and even intensive plantations, regarding to the degradation of vegetal cover, are significant. In superintensive plantations, with drop by drop irrigation systems, vegetal cover is almost totally missing, because of plowing works, combined with the use of herbicides (Photo 3).
\nAt the actual rhythm, a part of fruit tree area of the localities situated in the riverside of Dâmboviţa (Voineşti, Cândeşti, Malu cu Flori) shall be occupied by superintensive orchards, changing well-known landscape offered by traditional and intensive orchards. The localities with more significant fruit tree areas, yet having no flat land, but situated on slopes, will preserve their aspect, at least in short and medium term, due to difficult installation of a drop by drop irrigation system (Photo 4).
\nTraditional apple orchard: 1. Pietrari, 2. Plum orchard (Bărbuleţu)
Area occupied by orchards (a) and human pressure (b) exerted by means of orchards on the level of administrative units.
Out of all land ecosystems, forests represent a special category, given the raw matters they provide, natural possibilities of regeneration and multiple services having a protective character. Forest represents a favorable environment of life for different species of plants and animals, having a significant hygienic-sanitary role, exerting important beneficial influences on climate and soil, and it is an important tourist element.
\nIn fact, it influences the climatic regime through the improvement of most climate factors, such as temperature, radiations, precipitations, evaporation, air humidity, evapotranspiration, wind, turning the forest into a unique environment. Forest has an important role in cleaning, purification of the atmosphere, by means of photosynthesis process, by massiveness of its rich foliage, having the characteristic feature of freeing a large quantity of oxygen, absorbing carbon dioxide, and retaining vapors and toxic gases, dusts and sound waves [8].
\nAll these functions are part of the category of protective functions of the environment (soil, waters, climate, and ambient atmosphere), having rather indirect influences on the human society. Forest also has numerous direct influences, by its social protection functions: recreational, esthetic and landscape function or as an object of study due to the large quantity of scientific information it can provide. It should be noted that forest is the ecosystem assuring most complex and stable protective balance for natural environment. It realizes ideal connections between flora, soil and climate, developing tall and long-lasting trees with an important ecological function which determines a network of compensations and self-regulations in the biosphere.
\nYet, of all terrestrial ecosystems, most deteriorated have been forest ecosystems, following destructive actions undertaken by man, both by turning to good use the raw matters and by replacing them with other, less enduring, ecosystems. A part of the forest area has been deforested to enlarge agricultural and constructible areas, and on the other hand, another part has been degraded through abusive exploitations, fires, permanent grazing, pollution [5].
\nAt the present, forest area of the Subcarpathian and Piedmont zone of Dâmboviţa covers 19,436 ha and represents 45.15% of the area of this basin. It is made up of numerous deciduous species: Fagus silvatica, Carpinus betulus, Fraxinus excelsior, Sorbus terminalis, Quercus patraea, Acer platanoides, Acer capestris, Ulmus procera, Tilia platyphylos, Quercus robur, Quercus cerris which cover Subcarpathian Hills and the Piedmont, along with Alunus glutinosa, Populus alba, Populus nigra, Salix fragilis developed in the river plains of Dâmboviţa and its tributaries.
\nFrom an administrative perspective, largest forest areas are in the communes: Voineşti (4362 ha), Tătărani (3926 ha), Cândeşti (2735 ha), and the smallest in the communes Malu cu Flori (415 ha), Văleni Dâmboviţa (683 ha) and Râu Alb (723 ha)—Figure 6.
\nForest area.
Based on these data, one can appreciate that in the area under analysis, namely the zone of Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa, forests develop on a significant area, about half of the total area (45.15%); therefore ecological balance is maintained. Yet, anthropic intervention on the forest zones, even though on relatively small areas, is continuous. Main types of pressure, of deterioration and modification of forested areas are: deforestations, both for wood exploitation and for extension of agricultural zones, mainly by orchards; storage of domestic and agricultural waste, especially at the margin of the forests; fires, excessive grazing leading to destruction of young trees and of vegetal cover.
\nOut of the need to turn to good value of the wood and to enlarge agricultural and constructed areas, in time, important forest zones have been deforested.
\nAt the present, in the region under analysis, main areas affected by deforestations are those situated at the contact with agricultural zones, especially at the contact with orchards. Here, every year, small areas in the margin of forests are deforested by cutting, by fire or by use of herbicides to increase areas meant for fruit trees. Such practices are encountered in almost entire Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa, especially in areas of the communes Malu cu Flori, Pietrari, Cândeşti, Bărbuleţu and Voineşti (Photo 5).
\nDeforestations used to extend the areas meant for hayfields and orchards
Another category of deforestations is that in which wood is exploited to be turned to good value; unlike the deforestations intended for increasing of agricultural area, they take place on larger areas and in the forest zones.
\nOut of desire to increase fruit tree areas, especially those of apple trees, there have been regions deforested on slopes; this, together with excessive humidity and pedological conditions, has triggered landslides [3]. Such sectors, where geomorphological processes and landslides are more marked, affecting environment and anthropic activities, are present in the localities Bărbuleţu, Pietrari, Râu Alb, and Pucheni (Photo 6).
\nLandslides triggered by the replacement of the forest areas by orchards (Pietrari)
Area of Pietrari Commune situated at the border with Bărbuleţu Commune presents precisely consequences of uncontrolled deforestations and of attempt to replace forest vegetation by fruit trees. Pedological conditions, abundant rains, and incapacity of the fruit trees to retain humidity and to stabilize the soil—compared to forests—have triggered landslides. Such situations can be met as well in the communes Râu Alb, Bărbuleţu, Văleni Dâmboviţa, and Pucheni (Photo 7).
\nLandslides triggered by uncontrolled deforestations
\nHuman pressure by waste storage in forest areas. This phenomenon, namely depositing domestic and agricultural wastes in the forest areas does not affect large zones, due to domestic waste collection program [9]. Areas affected by waste storage can be met at the margin of forests and at the contact of latter with a river. Due to the fact that a significant part of domestic wastes are hardly biodegradable, without an intervention meant for cleaning the respective zones, they will continue to affect environment and natural landscape (Photo 8).
\nWaste deposited at the margin of the forests
Another pressure phenomenon on the forest areas is grazing. Increasingly larger areas of the forest zone are affected by this phenomenon, destroying cover of small vegetation, both by breaking young trees and shrubs and by treading on vegetal cover (Photo 9).
\nGrazing in forest areas
Regarding human pressure on the hydrographic arteries in Subcarpathian and Piedmont Basin of Dâmboviţa, we have identified two major problems: pollution and increased water consumption following agricultural activities.
\nDomestic waste stored near the rivers
Storing the packaging of chemicals waste in the riverside
Water pollution represents the alteration of its physic-chemical and biological properties, following direct or indirect human activities, so that water becomes unusable for consumption. Main pollution sources for the hydrographic arteries are depositing on the riverside of domestic and agricultural wastes (Photo 10). To these, one can add packaging of chemicals (insecticides, pesticides, fungicides, herbicides) used in the hygienization treatments of plantations; consequently, flora but also fauna are strongly affected (Photo 11).
\n\nAlong the whole riverside of Dâmboviţa and its tributaries situated near orchards and village precincts are stored packages with toxic substances and domestic wastes, affecting the environment and numerous organisms of water environment. The wrong storage also triggers possibility of blocking watercourse, when hydrological regime is increased; consequently, there is a risk of flooding some agricultural areas, houses and roads.
\nBlockage of the course of Râu Alb rivulet following the storage of domestic wastes on its riverside
Such a situation was recorded in the year 2012, when following abundant rains, the rivulet Râu Alb increased its flow, and at the passage through Valea Village (Pietrari Commune), because of domestic and agricultural wastes deposited on the wrong way, normal course of water was blocked, flooding agricultural areas, the communal road of Valea Village (Pietrari) and households on the opposite side of protective dam (Photo 12). The increasing water quantity needed for agricultural activities, especially for fruit-tree growing, together with high temperatures of the interval June–August, have led to appearance of drying phenomenon on numerous permanent hydrographic arteries, in certain sectors. Entire area meant for fruit trees—apple trees and pear trees—uses on average about 60,000 tons water/year only for hygienization and maintenance, to which one can add water used in drop by drop irrigation systems, from increasingly numerous superintensive plantations. Excessive grazing in the riverside of Dâmboviţa and of its tributaries constitutes another form of pressure on vegetal cover and young or small trees. This, along with treading of water course margins by animals and agricultural equipments, determines a decreased resistance to water erosion. Riverside of Râu Alb, in between villages Valea Câmpului (Pietrari) and Manga (Voineşti), represents an area in which pressure of excessive grazing, combined with abusive creation of a road used by heavy agricultural equipments, have led to the deterioration and even complete elimination of small trees and of vegetal cover that used to support the right riverside.
\nBy using lands according to his needs and interests, man has triggered the dwindling of areas occupied by natural vegetal formations and their replacement by agricultural cultures, secondary vegetal formations or lands that have become unproductive through degradation. On the other hand, anthropic activity has triggered the modification of structure of vegetal cover where natural vegetal formations were maintained. All these have influenced hydrological regime, present relief modeling processes, quality of soil, leading to general modifications in the structure of geographic landscape.
\nNatural ecosystems are the ones that have been changed little constitute richest resource in point of organisms, biocenoses, environmental conditions, and also numerous relations between organisms and environmental factors, food chain and networks. In the case of natural ecosystems, between the populations of a biocenosis there appear some self-regulation mechanisms, and so organisms that no longer find their ecological niche are obliged to emigrate or disappear.
\nSuper-intensive fruit tree areas exert a much higher pressure on environment, compared to traditional fruit tree areas, through use of large quantities of chemicals, especially in apple tree areas. For just 1 ha of apple trees are used, on average, 20 g insecticide, 40 g fungicide and 1000 l water for a single hygienization treatment.
\nUsing of chemicals affects both flora and fauna of the respective area. A more serious collaboration between fruit growers, and respect for warnings of the specialists based on meteorological conditions could favor diminution of the quantity of chemicals used and decrease of annual water consumption needed to hygienize plantations.
\nMain types of pressure, impact on and modification of forested areas come from: deforestations, both for using wood and for extending agricultural areas, mainly orchards; domestic and agricultural wastes storage, especially at the margin of forests; fires, excessive grazing, leading to destruction of young trees and of vegetal cover.
\nIn the area under analysis, zones affected by deforestations are those situated at the contact with agricultural areas, especially at the one with orchards (through cutting, fires or use of herbicides to enlarge areas meant for fruit trees).
\nThis material is only the contribution of its authors and it was not published anywhere else.
\nOutdoor recreation physical activity includes a wide range of physical exercises that vary in structure, volume, and intensity. The structure is determined by whether the muscles perform static or dynamic work, the volume depends on the work (measured in kgm or J), and the intensity relates to the power (work done per unit time—W).
\nThe changes that occur in the body (in muscles, cardiovascular, respiratory, and endocrine systems, blood, etc.) as a result of recreational physical exercises can be momentary or permanent. The momentary ones provide the immediate needs of the body during the performance of the exercise itself, and the permanent ones occur mostly as a result of systematic practice of recreational physical activity and are defined as adaptive.
\nThe latter vary significantly depending on the type of recreational activity, as a result of which they occur and affect almost all functional systems of the body, such as cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, nervous, and blood systems, with significant changes occurring in both the muscles and the ability to adjust the thermoregulatory mechanisms, those which maintain the water and electrolyte balance, and acid–base balance of the body. Even the mechanisms involved in the individual’s immune response are affected.
\nFrom a physiological point of view, it is important to answer questions, such as how the body responds to incidental recreational physical exercise, how it adapts to systematic outdoor recreation accompanied by physical activity, what are the mechanisms of the process of maladaptation, etc. On the other hand, it is important to differentiate the changes that occur with the different types of recreational exercise, with those of predominant aerobic energy supply (walking, running, cycling, swimming, and cross-country skiing), or of predominant anaerobic exercise (canoeing, rock climbing, rafting, etc.). Depending on the intensity, duration, nature, and structure of movements, physical exercises trigger different energy mechanisms. It is accepted that physical exercises are divided into cyclic and acyclic, according to the structure of movements. The cyclic ones involve uniform movements that are repeated (walking, running, and swimming). The acyclic exercises include sets of movements of varying complexity (in the exercise of surfing and rock climbing), and there may be combinations of cyclic and acyclic ones, as for example, in sports games.
\nAccording to the type of muscular activity, recreational physical exercises are divided into dynamic and static ones. The dynamic ones include successive phases of muscle contraction and relaxation, while with static exercises, muscles remain contracted for some time (concentric or isometric) [1].
\nThe main task of the cardiovascular (performed in conjunction with the respiratory) system is to provide tissues with oxygen and nutrients, to eliminate carbon dioxide and end products of metabolism, to maintain body temperature, and to carry hormones from the endocrine glands to the target organs. To effectively perform these functions, the cardiovascular system must respond adequately to the enhanced (to a greater or lesser extent) muscular activity when carrying out outdoor recreation physical activity.
\nAlmost without exception, the response is directly proportional to the oxygen needs of the muscles for each level of such exercise, as the consumption of oxygen in them increases linearly with the increase of its intensity [2].
\nCardiac output is a function of stroke volume and heart rate. And maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), in its turn, is a function of the cardiac output multiplied by the difference in the oxygen content of arterial and mixed venous blood. The cardiac output plays a key role in meeting the oxygen needs during outdoor recreational physical activity. As intensity increases, the cardiac output also goes almost linearly up to the point where the maximum capacity of the heart to pump blood is reached (Q\nmax). Under normal conditions, with the gradual increase of workload, the cardiac output and heart rate also increase progressively while the stroke volume increases only up to the so-called individual “critical frequency” of heart activity, which varies depending on the age and training of the individual. Studies conducted with people regularly practicing outdoor recreational sports show that their stroke volume continues to rise almost until the maximum load is reached [1].
\nThe picture of the distribution of blood flow changes substantially at the very beginning of the recreational exercise. At rest, the skin and skeletal muscles receive about 20% of cardiac output. During physical work, the blood is forwarded to the active muscles, and when the body temperature rises, more blood flows to the skin. This process is mediated by the increased cardiac output and redistribution of the blood which “withdraws” from the deficient (mainly splanchnic) areas to satisfy those areas with increased needs (muscle and skin) of oxygen and nutrients. The mechanism allows, at high intensity of work, about 80% of the cardiac output to be forwarded exactly to the muscles and skin. In case of prolonged exercises performed at high temperature and humidity, most of the blood is flown to the skin to carry out effective thermoregulation, what restricts the flow to the muscles, and hence—endurance.
\nThe average blood pressure increases in response to dynamic physical exercise, mainly at the expense of the systolic one, as the diastolic pressure remains in most cases close to that at rest. As the intensity of exercise increases, the values of the systolic blood pressure increase linearly, and they can reach up to 200–240 mmHg in normotensive people. The average blood pressure does not change dramatically, as the increase of cardiac output (affecting mainly the systolic pressure) is accompanied by a decrease of peripheral vascular resistance (which determines to a greater extent the diastolic pressure). The increase of this pressure is a positive result and is associated with “resetting” the baroreceptor reflexes and triggering them at higher average pressure. Without such a reset phenomenon, severe arterial hypotension would occur during physical exercise. Hypertensive patients show significantly higher values of systolic pressure at a given intensity of performed exercise than normotensive ones, and they have increase of diastolic pressure as well. This leads to significantly higher values of the average blood pressure, and it is associated with a smaller degree of decrease of the peripheral vascular resistance in this group. In the first 2–3 hours following exercise, the blood pressure has values lower than before, a phenomenon described as postexercise hypotension. Its mechanisms are not clear.
\nThe arteriovenous oxygen difference (A-vO2) increases with the increased intensity of the performed exercise and is explained by the increased transfer of oxygen from the arterial blood to the muscles. At rest, A-vO2 is 4–5 ml O2 on the average for each 100 ml blood (ml/100 ml). When the performed exercise acquires maximum intensity, the arteriovenous oxygen difference reaches values of 15–16 ml/100 ml blood.
\nThe heart is supplied with oxygen and nutrients through the coronary arteries. The left and right coronary arteries are located on its surface. They branch out and penetrate deeply into the muscle fibers, forming a dense capillary network that is intended to supply every single muscle fiber, on the principle of one capillary for one muscle fiber. Both at rest and during physical exercise, the coronary blood flow is closely related to the myocardial oxygen demand. This coupling is necessary because the work of the heart depends almost entirely on the aerobic metabolism and therefore requires a constant supply of oxygen. Even at rest, the myocardial oxygen utilization corresponding to the blood flow is extremely high. About 70–80% of the oxygen stored in each unit volume of blood which passed through the myocardial capillary bed is transmitted to the myocardium. For comparison, at rest, this percentage in skeletal muscles is only 25. With a healthy heart, there is a linear correlation between the value of the myocardial oxygen demand, the coronary blood flow, and the oxygen consumption, as synchronization is carried out at each cardiac contraction. The three main determinants of the myocardial oxygen consumption include heart rate, myocardial contractility, and blood pressure on the ventricular wall. A sudden rise in arterial blood pressure increases the pressure on the ventricular wall, which in turn increases the level of myocardial metabolism, and hence—the coronary blood flow. The increase in coronary circulation results from the increased perfusion pressure in the coronary arteries and from the coronary vasodilatation following the sympathicotonia and the increased concentration of catecholamines.
\nBlood flow through the muscles increases substantially during physical activity. This is explained by the task of the cardiovascular system to provide them with an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients. Muscle blood flow of the calf, for example, at a 6-minute moderate rhythmic contraction, increases more than 10 times during muscle relaxation but decreases rhythmically during each contraction, as a result of the compression of blood vessels by the contraction. Therefore, strong, prolonged, tonic contractions of muscles cause fast occurrence of fatigue coming from oxygen deficiency and depletion of nutrients therein.
\nDuring intense exercise, blood flow can increase about 25 times: from 3.6 up to 90 ml/100 g muscle tissue/minute. The main reason for this is the increased muscle metabolism. Increased arterial blood pressure during physical activity causes stretching of the walls of the arterioles and a decrease in the peripheral vascular resistance, which also increases muscle blood flow.
\nOxygen consumption at rest is 250 ml/minute on the average. In recreation physical activity, it can increase substantially: up to 3500 ml/minute with an untrained individual and up to above 5000 ml/minute, for example, with a well-trained long-distance runner.
\nThe relationship between pulmonary ventilation and oxygen consumption in intensity ascending physical activity is linear, as with a trained individual, at the end of the exercise (where maximum intensity is reached), an increase of nearly 20 times of ventilation is available as compared to the values at rest.
\nAt maximum intensity of physical activity, pulmonary ventilation can reach up to 100–110 l/minute, which is about 50% lower than the maximum respiratory capacity. This provides an additional reserve to the body, which can be added in the case of physical exercise at high altitudes or at high temperature.
\nThe increased tissue production of СО2, the increased temperature as a result of muscle contractions, and the reduced рН in the muscles, shift the location of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to the right in the coordinate system. This is also facilitated by the increase of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate in erythrocytes as they pass through the capillaries in tissues with low рО2 and in muscles with intense anaerobic glycolysis. Thus, the release of О2 from the blood into tissues with increased metabolism, including in the muscles, is facilitated. As a result of the above, the arteriovenous difference in blood oxygen content can increase from 5 to 15 ml/100 ml.
\nIt could be expected that during prolonged exercise of moderate intensity where the oxygen utilization and carbon dioxide production in the muscles are significant, the oxygen pressure in arterial blood decreases, and that of carbon dioxide in venous blood increases. This does not occur due to the large ventilation capacity of the respiratory system, which provides adequate aeration of the blood even during strenuous physical exercise. When carrying out physical activity, it is not so much the changes in blood-gas tension as the neural factors that are the incentive for increasing the pulmonary ventilation. Such is the impact of the motor cortex and the sensory signals, which reach the respiratory center. These regulatory effects are sufficient to maintain normal blood-gas tension even during strenuous physical exercise.
\nIt should be noted that the functional capacity of the respiratory system is not limited to the oxygen supply to the muscles. In the state of intensive aerobic metabolism, as is common in most cases of outdoor recreation physical activity, the ability of the heart to pump blood to the muscles is limited, which is adequate to their needs in the regime of aerobic exercise [3, 4].
\nThe systematic practice of outdoor recreation physical activity of aerobic type increases the diffusion capacity of oxygen through the respiratory barrier, i.e. the amount of oxygen that diffuses through it in 1 minute, with a difference between the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli and its tension in the alveolar capillaries of 1 mmHg. While people without physical activity have a diffusion oxygen capacity at rest of about 24 mlO2/minute, in individuals who practice outdoor sports, this figure can reach values up to 80 mlO2/minute during exercise. The reason is that the pulmonary circulation increases (all pulmonary capillaries are perfused to the maximum extent), which also provides a maximum diffusion surface through which oxygen passes into the capillary blood.
\nMuscles are significantly affected by the way they are used in everyday life. If the motoneurons that innervate the muscle fibers are disrupted, or destroyed for some reason, the so-called denervation atrophy occurs. It is distinguished by a reduction in the size of the denervated muscle fibers and of the amount of contractile proteins therein. The muscle can atrophy even with normal innervation, however, when not used for a long time, i.e. in case of prolonged immobilization (for example, as in a limb fracture). With enhanced physical activity, accompanied by increased contraction of certain muscles, the opposite state is reached—muscle hypertrophy. The size of the fibers gets larger and their chemical composition changes. It is assumed that the number of muscle fibers remains constant in elderly people, and the changes that occur with atrophy and hypertrophy affect only a change in their size and metabolic capacity [5, 6]. However, a number of studies recently conducted on humans and animals evidence that physical exercise can stimulate satellite cells (monopotent myogenic stem cells) in skeletal muscles to myoblast proliferation and the emergence of new muscle fibers in the process of adaptation to enhanced activity [7].
\nHuman skeletal muscles are made of three main types of fibers. Depending on their rate of contraction, metabolic characteristics, and fatiguability, they are divided into type І (SO—slow oxidative)—slow-twitch, with high oxidative capacity, resistant to fatigue; type ІІа (FOG—fast oxidative-glycolytic)—fast-twitch, oxidative-glycolytic, relatively resistant to fatigue, and type ІІb (FG—fast glycolytic)—fast-twitch, with high glycolytic capacity, fatigable [8]. Their ratio and cross-section in the various muscles largely determine the differences in their contractile and metabolic characteristics.
\nThe aerobic physical exercise, which is characterized by low intensity and longer duration (such as long-distance running and swimming) causes an increase in the number of mitochondria in type I and type IIa muscle fibers, which are most actively involved in this kind of physical work. The activity of oxidative enzymes in them increases. The amount of capillaries around these fibers increases. All this strengthens their endurance. Interestingly, the diameter of the muscle fibers decreases slightly what also leads to a lesser strength of the muscle fibers at the background of their enhanced endurance. In addition to muscles, exercises of this kind cause changes in all systems involved in the supply of oxygen thereto (respiratory, blood, and cardiovascular system) what provides a more efficient supply of oxygen to muscles for the oxidative energy production. This, combined with the enhanced capillarization of myofibers, shortens the diffusion distance of oxygen, metabolites, and heat and may increase the endurance [9, 10].
\nOn the other hand, anaerobic physical exercises that are characterized by high intensity and short duration (weightlifting) mainly affect the fast-twitch, glycolytic muscle fibers (type IIb). These fibers increase in diameter due to the increased synthesis of contractile proteins. The synthesis and activity of glycolytic enzymes in them increase. Eventually, muscle strength increases, but endurance capacity is negligible and such muscles get tired easily.
\nInsofar as the different types of physical activity of the muscles cause different changes in their strength and endurance, each person can individually choose his/her way of training for the development of one or other quality. For example, weightlifting training causes muscle hypertrophy, and systematic long-distance running or cycling increases endurance. Practicing some physical exercises affects both qualities of the muscles.
\nIt takes 6–8 weeks and sometimes months of recurring training sessions for the above changes to occur. After their cessation, however, there is a slow return to the initial condition [11].
\nAging process is associated with changes in muscle mass and muscle strength with decline of maximal muscle strength after the 30th life year [12]. The reason is related to the decrease of the diameter of the muscle fibers, which in turn comes from the reduced physical activity. Systematic muscle training in adult life can prevent this process. It should be taken into account that with age, the adaptive capacity of the muscles decreases, e.g. the same intensity and duration of training sessions in older individuals do not cause such apparent changes as observed in younger ones. This can be explained by the disruption of the mechanisms that drive the transcription and translation of information from genes into muscle proteins. Regardless of aging, both systematic endurance exercises due to their beneficial effect on muscles and cardiovascular system and moderate exercises for strength to prevent atrophic changes in the striated muscles are recommended as recreational.
\nIntense strain of the muscles of an individual who has not adapted thereto causes reduced working capacity the next day. It is due to microlesions in the muscle tissue, which are the cause of moderate aseptic inflammation in it (DOMS = Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness). A more significant inflammatory reaction can be observed after muscle contractions while lifting a serious weight, in which case they get elongated, and this leads to more expressed damage to muscle cells as compared to those observed in isotonic and isometric contractions.
\nAs an adaptive phenomenon, muscle strength can only increase when the contraction occurs against a certain resistance, i.e. muscles to be “forced” to develop more than 50% of their maximum strength. If an untrained individual is subject to such exercises, he/she can increase the maximum power of contraction of a muscle or a group of muscles by nearly 20% for about 4 weeks. However, the maximum effect is achieved for a period of 6–8 weeks, at the end of which the power of contraction may further increase by another 10% of the initial values.
\nEach skeletal muscle has a different distribution of fast- and slow-twitch fibers. M. gastrocnemius, for example, has predominantly fast-twitch fibers what determines its purpose—to allow for fast and powerful contractions when jumping.
\nOn the other hand, m. soleus consists almost entirely of slow-twitch fibers what makes it particularly effective in prolonged contractions of the muscles of the lower limbs. The fast-twitch fibers allow the muscles to perform powerful contractions of short duration—from a few seconds to a minute. The slow-twitch fibers provide for endurance in prolonged contractions of less power. The distribution of fiber types is genetically determined and varies considerably for one and the same muscle in different people what makes some people more suitable to practice sprinting, others long-distance running, and still others climbing.
\nSkeletal muscles have the property of plasticity, and partial transformation of muscle fibers from one type into another can be observed in them, as a result of systematic training or following modulation of motoneuron activity [9, 13]. This transformation is interceded by calcium-mediated pathways that are associated with the involvement of calcineurin, calmodulin-dependent kinase, and the transcription cofactor PGC-1α. The transcription factors directly responsible for the reprogramming of the genes that regulate the specificity of metabolism and contractility of muscle fibers are the subject of intensive research. Calcineurin, for example, is a cyclosporine-sensitive and calcium-dependent protein phosphatase. It is necessary for the differentiation of myocytes and the formation of the slow-twitch muscle fibers. Its activation leads to up-regulation of the gene promoters responsible for the synthesis of the isoforms of the heavy chains of the myosin molecule, specific thereof.
\nThere is ample evidence to suggest that the key to muscle plasticity is held by the family of genes responsible for the myosin molecule. Seven different gene variants exist, which allows a great variety of muscle composition. In theory, the contractile ability of muscle fibers is modified depending on the expression of various genes responsible for the heavy myosin chains. Most genes can be switched on and off by the indirect action of signaling molecules, such as hormones or growth factors. The adaptive changes in muscles as a response to training depend on the type of muscles applied during physical activity. It is considered that muscle genes are regulated primarily by mechanical and/or metabolic stimuli [8].
\nStretching muscle fibers during outdoor recreation physical activity is one of the possible stimuli for adaptation. Passive stretching increases hypertrophy even in the absence of innervation, hormone action, and adequate nutrition [1]. The transmission of mechanical forces to nuclei and ribosomes can occur directly (via the cytoskeleton) or indirectly (via stretch-activated ion channels or stretch-activated adenylate cyclase).
\nThe destruction of muscle cells as a result of strenuous physical exercise may also play a role in stimulating muscle hypertrophy. This occurs under the impact of released muscle-specific growth factors.
\nIt is also suggested that the increased concentration of cAMP and the increased entry of metabolites into muscle cells stimulate the development of mitochondria as a result of training for endurance [14].
\nTogether with the nervous system, the endocrine system integrates the physiological response in incidental physical exercise and plays an essential role in maintaining homeostasis. During physical activity, the plasma level of some hormones changes. This occurs as a result of the secretion of endocrine glands, the accelerated blood flow, the increased loss of water, and the subsequent hemoconcentration and also as a result of the reduced metabolism of the hormones in liver and the clearance of the end metabolites by the kidneys. The established changes are summarized in \nTable 1\n.
\nHormone | \nResponse | \nFeatures | \nImportance | \n
---|---|---|---|
Catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline) | \nTheir plasma concentrations increase | \nNoradrenaline increases more than adrenaline | \nBlood glucose is increased; glycogenolysis in skeletal muscles and liver is increased; lipolysis is increased | \n
Growth hormone (hGH) | \nIncreased production | \nIncreases substantially in untrained; drops more rapidly in trained individuals | \nIt raises the level of anabolic processes in cells, including in muscles | \n
Adrenocortico-tropic hormone (ACTH) cortisol | \nIncreased production | \nMore significant increase in intense exercise; in submaximal exercise, they increase to a smaller extent | \nGluconeogenesis in liver increases; mobilization of fatty acids increases | \n
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) thyroxine | \nIncreased production | \nIntensity of thyroxine transformation increases, with no toxic effect | \nEnhanced intensity of lipolysis | \n
Insulin | \nDecreases the hormone production, due to increased glucose utilization | \nDrops the level of hormone after physical exercise (training) | \nBlood sugar level is regulated | \n
Glucagon | \nIncreases | \nPlasma level increases immediately after training | \nIncreases blood glucose through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis | \n
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (system) | \nIncreases | \nWith enhanced capacity after training | \nRetention of Na to keep the plasma volume | \n
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) | \nIncreases | \n\n | Retention of water to keep the plasma volume | \n
Testosterone | \nIncreases | \n\n | Raises the levels of cellular protein anabolism and stimulates erythropoiesis | \n
Endocrine response after single-bout of physical exercise.
Growth hormone (hGH) increases its levels in the blood as a result of physical exercise and can reach levels 20–40 times higher than those at rest. The increase is more significant in untrained than in trained people [1]. In athletes, the increased concentration returns to initial values significantly faster than in untrained individuals. The importance of increased levels of the growth hormone in physical activity is explained by the subsequent facilitated entry of amino acids into cells and their use in the process of protein anabolism (especially in muscles), as well as by hyperglycemia, which improves the conditions of energy supply.
\nAdrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) increases its levels as a result of physical work. This increases the activity of the adrenal cortex and results in glucose storage (glucocorticoids stimulate gluconeogenesis, the formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids, lactate, and pyruvate), which is especially important during prolonged exercises. During physical work with a very long duration, both morphological and functional depletion of the adrenal cortex occur.
\nThe increased tone of the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system during physical exercises causes an increase of the level of catecholamines in the blood. This is a result of both their increased secretion from the sympathetic endings and the stimulated adrenal medulla. The changes are of great functional importance associated with the body’s adaptation to physical stress—cardiac output increases, as well as blood pressure, blood sugar levels, activity of lipolytic enzymes, and as a result, fats are mobilized from depots. The induced bronchodilation helps to increase pulmonary ventilation.
\nAndrogens (testosterone) have an expressed anabolic effect on skeletal muscles. They increase bone density and stimulate erythropoiesis. Serum testosterone and the amount and binding capacity of androgen receptors in skeletal muscles transiently increase with physical exercises, and therefore they have a beneficial effect on the body’s adaptation to physical exercise [15].
\nAlmost all the energy released during catabolic processes in the body is converted into heat. During exercise, 75–80% of the energy released from intracellular chemical reactions is transformed into such, ensuring the production of ATP necessary for muscle contractions. Much of the remaining energy, eventually, is also converted into heat (muscle contraction, friction of blood in the vessel walls, friction on joint surfaces, etc.). During physical work, the amount of heat produced by the muscles can be up to 60 higher than that at rest. To not overheat the body, in these cases, it is necessary to provide adequate heat loss, which under conditions of the most heat production can reach 1 kJ per second. The efficiency of heat transfer during physical work depends on the weather conditions under which it is performed. Radiation is the main mechanism for heat loss when the ambient temperature is lower than the body one. In sports practiced outdoors (running, cycling, rowing), convection has a bigger share in heat loss than that at rest. The share of evaporation depends on both the ambient temperature and the humidity. Physical activity is also accompanied by increased perspiration. At high temperature in environment and moist air, the mechanism of heat loss is greatly impeded.
\nSweating is an essential thermoregulatory mechanism when performing physical work, the main one—at ambient temperature above 31°С, and the only one— at temperature above 34°С. The maximum amount of sweat released for 1 hour is 1.8 l. Such a discharge can be kept for 3–4 hours, after which it decreases in ongoing physical effort.
\nOverheating of the body occurs at high temperature and air humidity and low speed of wind. When working in an environment with the above characteristics, body temperature can rise up to 41–42°С, values to which brain cells are particularly sensitive. Weakening, headache, nausea, profuse sweating, confusion, and sometimes loss of consciousness occur. The combination of the above symptoms gives a picture of heat stroke. Even if physical work is stopped immediately, the temperature does not return to normal at once, because it itself accelerates the chemical processes in the cells and disrupts the precision of thermoregulation.
\nSystematic training provides better adaptation of thermoregulatory mechanisms and maintenance of stable isothermy, which is extremely important for high working capacity in the performance of muscle work, especially in conditions of overheating microclimate [16].
\nThe loss of body water during physical work can be significant. It is performed through sweating and perspiratio insensibilis (mainly because of the increased pulmonary ventilation). As mentioned, evaporation and sweating are thermoregulatory mechanisms that adapt the body to the increased heat production. However, with prolonged and intensive work, they can also have adverse effects on the body.
\nAt high temperatures and humidity, 2–5 kg of body weight can be lost per hour (primarily at the expense of the released sweat). When sweating is so abundant that decrease of body weight becomes greater than 3%, there is a deterioration in performance indicators. In the case of rapid weight loss of 5–10%, muscle cramps, nausea, and vomiting occur, which requires medical intervention aimed at restoring the discharged fluids by infusion of replacement solutions [17].
\nPerforming physical activity is accompanied by decreased urine production due to the decreased renal blood flow, the increased sympathetic tone, the increased secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and aldosterone. Meanwhile, the breakdown of muscle and liver glycogen produces metabolic water, the amount of which can reach up to 1–1.2 l in intense exercises where a complete depletion of glycogen stores occurs.
\nDue to the lower osmolarity of the discharged sweat in comparison with the plasma one, profuse sweating may cause hyperosmolar dehydration. Plasma amount decreases due to the total loss of water and the movement of water from the bloodstream to the interstitium, as a result of the increased concentration of osmotically active substances therein. This causes a significant hemoconcentration aggravated by the emptying of the blood depots. The hematocrit increases, and with it the internal resistance of the blood, which further impedes the work of the heart.
\nIncreased sweating during physical activity is associated with a significant loss of electrolytes, including also of sodium. The intake of sodium chloride solutions during exercise at high temperature and humidity has an adverse effect on the body. The addition of salts to the water increases the osmolarity of the stomach contents, which slows down the emptying of the stomach and further aggravates the dehydration. The intake of hypertonic solutions suppresses sweating, which disrupts thermoregulation and thus encumbers the process of acclimatization to heat. Therefore, it is customary to give hypotonic fluids with little or no sodium to people who perform a prolonged physical work with profuse sweating. However, taking too much hypotonic fluids also has an adverse effect due to the developing hyponatremia and water intoxication.
\nExposure to warm and humid climate while performing physical activity causes acclimatization of the sweat glands within 1–2 weeks due to the increased aldosterone secretion as a result of the increased activity of adrenal cortex. Aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption of sodium in the tubules of the sweat glands whereby its loss together with the sweat decreases. By contrast, the potassium excretion with urine and sweat increases.
\nThe changes in the acid-base balance that occur while performing physical activity depend on its intensity and duration. A reduction of рН is observed, which is due to an increase in the plasma concentration of lactate and fatty acids. The normal plasma concentration of lactate at rest is within 0.7–1.6 mmol/l. During exercises of high intensity and duration, it can reach values above 15 mmol/l. To the extent that the plasma lactate is of metabolic origin, this condition is defined as metabolic acidosis.
\nThe systematic practicing of outdoor recreation physical activity increases the adaptive capabilities of the mechanisms that maintain the electrolyte and acid-base balance in the body.
\nIt is well-known that physical activity affects the body immune system. It is believed that submaximal exercise stimulates both nonspecific immunity and specific immunity, which reduces the risk of inflammatory diseases [18]. However, there are studies that evidence immunodepression induced by intense training and accompanied by increased infectious morbidity, especially by acute respiratory infections [19, 20].
\nIt is predominantly thought that the single-bout exercise causes a decrease in immune reactivity, while the systematic, repeated submaximal exercise has a different effect on the indicators of immunity and of the systematic inflammatory response, respectively.
\nWe conducted a study on 143 youngsters actively practicing rowing (14.01 ± 0.06 years; 56.35 ± 0.49 kg; 3.44 ± 0.06 years of sports experience, training twice, 5 days a week) and 61 untrained controls (14.12 ± 0.09 years; 57.01 ± 0.23 kg). We found that the average level of serum IgA in training individuals is by 47.5% higher (Р < 0.001), that of IgM is by 22.0% lower (Р < 0.001), and of IgG—by 10.7% higher (Р < 0.05) than that of not training people [21].
\nIn healthy people, physical activity and training also cause changes in hemostatic indicators. A single-bout exercise usually results in transient activation of the coagulation system, which is demonstrated by a shortening of the activated partial thromboplastin time (АРТТ) [22, 23, 24] or by activation of the fibrinolytic mechanisms [25]. There are few studies intended to explore the effect of long-term practicing of different types of physical exercise on coagulation. From our study conducted on 37 actively practicing submaximal exercise people (age—15.49 ± 2.02 years; 4.83 ± 2.20 years of physical activity) and compared to 67 controls of the same age (15.81 ± 2.73 years), no difference was found in the basal values of the main hemocoagulation indicators: number of thrombocytes (PLT), fibrinogen (FGN), prothrombin time (рТ), activated partial thromboplastin time (АРТТ), and thromboplastin time (ТТ). By contrast, in people practicing anaerobic exercises for a longer time, these indicators evidence persisting, to a largely greater extent, activation of the hemocoagulation mechanisms, a thing which is typical of extreme exercise in untrained individuals [26].
\nWhile practicing systematic and intensive exercises, changes occur, which affect the variables associated with the red blood cells. Many researchers even describe the so-called” sports anemia” in both athletes and experimental animals [27, 28, 29].
\nWith our large-scale study conducted on 876 (559 boys and 317 girls) from sports schools, we aimed to analyze the variables of the red blood cells by sex and practiced sport discipline, as well as to compare them with the same indicators in 357 untrained youngsters (171 boys and 186 girls) [30]. The sporting students carried out training five times a week, 90 minute twice a day. The untrained students had a moderate physical activity performed in two training sessions, of 45 minute each week. It was found that the trained group has a significantly lower number of erythrocytes, hematocrit, and hemoglobin as compared to the control, untrained group.
\nThe applied factor analysis showed that “sports practicing” has a strong impact on the values of these indicators (Р < 0.001). The average values in the trained group were below the lower reference limit for the population of the same age [31, 32]. It turned out that active sports do not affect the average amount of erythrocytes.
\nSpecific gender differences in performance were found between trained and untrained boys and girls. Trained boys had significantly lower values of the red blood cell count (by 6.14%), hematocrit (by 6.78%), and hemoglobin (by 7.21%) compared to the same indicators in untrained students, as the average values were lower than the reference for the same age. Similar results were obtained for the girls actively practicing sports. No differences in the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) between trained and untrained boys and girls were found.
\nA statistically significant effect of the type of practiced sports discipline by boys on the studied indicators was observed. For example, swimmers had a lower red blood cell count by 10.4% than that of the controls, rowers—by 7.5%, weight lifters—by 6.6%, practicing team sports—by 5%, wrestlers—by 4.4%, and track and field athletes—by 3.5%. In respect of hemoglobin concentration, swimmers had lower values by 13% than those of untrained students, wrestlers—by 7.8%, rowers—by 7.3%, weightlifters—by 4.2%, and practicing team sports—by 4.1%. In swimmers, lower hematocrit by 10.1% than that of the controls was found, in wrestlers—by 7.3%, in play sports—by 7%, and in rowers—by 6.2%.
\nIn girls, the lowest values of the erythrocyte count were found with the rowers (by 4.4% below those of the untrained). The lowest value of hemoglobin was found with the rowers, practicing team sports, and swimmers.
\nCorrelation analysis showed that in athletes, there is a relationship between sports experience and the reduction of the studied hematologic parameters. The highest degree of correlation in boys was found between the length of sports experience and the reduction in swimmers and rowers. In girls, such a high correlation was found in those practicing judo.
\nSocially important diseases include a large and diverse group of conditions that are characterized by high frequency, high cost of treatment, and rehabilitation and require specialized medical care. They affect a part of the population in active working age and lead to various complications and disability, and in addition, they have a high mortality rate and thus cause a serious economic damage to people. Psychological harm affects not only patients but also their loved ones. Some of the widely spread socially important diseases include some diseases of the cardiovascular system, metabolic diseases (obesity, metabolic syndrome, and diabetes), some mental illnesses, cancer, osteoporosis, etc. The increase in their frequency in recent decades is associated with a greatly neglected physical activity of the population, affecting increasingly younger groups of people. In this regard, given the above physiological adaptive effects of the increased outdoor recreation physical activity, the latter is a favorable preventive tool to reduce the risk of such diseases, and its practice would lead to significant medical and social benefits.
\nCardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in most countries around the world.
\n\nArterial hypertension (AH) affects more than one billion people worldwide. It is a permanent increase in systolic and/or diastolic arterial blood pressure. Depending on the course and severity of AH, various complications develop, such as early atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease, including myocardial infarction, renal disease, retinopathy, vascular disorders, etc.
\nA number of clinical and experimental studies evidence that the recreation physical exercise of the aerobic type can be used as a prevention or drug-free therapy for hypertension, as it has a hypotensive effect and favorably affects some of the cardiovascular risk factors (dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, obesity, etc.), resulting in a reduced risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality [33, 34]. One of the largest meta-analyses conducted so far shows that aerobic exercise in hypertensives reduces systolic pressure by about 5–10 mmHg but has almost no effect on diastolic arterial blood pressure [35]. Optimizing the duration, frequency, and intensity of the applied endurance exercise is of key importance for the effective reduction of high blood pressure. In patients, training with an intensity of 40–60% of VO2max, 30–60 minute per day, 3–5 days a week, is recommended; however, the issue of exercise refinement is still not fully resolved [34, 35, 36].
\n\nIschemic heart disease is due to the disparity between the volume of the coronary blood flow and the oxygen needs of the myocardium because of a change in the coronary blood flow. Some of the risk factors for the development of the disease include AH, dyslipidemia, smoking, diabetes, family history, increased body weight, mental stress, and last but not least—reduced physical activity.
\nA study of people with ischemic heart disease using coronary computed tomography angiography shows that regular, moderate to intense, exercises for endurance (three or more times a week, for 60 minutes or more) has a beneficial effect on the course of disease [37]. In US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement, 2017, it is recommended to maintain a healthy lifestyle and follow a balanced diet and appropriate physical activity for adults with cardiovascular risk factors and also for those without high cardiovascular risk [38]. The higher frequency of physical activity and aerobic training to increase the level of cardiorespiratory fitness leads to a reduction in the incidence and occurrence of complications of cardiovascular diseases [39].
\n\nObesity is most commonly defined as a condition with an increased body mass index over 30 (kg/m2). Its frequency has been on the rise in recent decades. It is widespread in all countries and affects more and more children. Although it has a broad etiology (endocrine diseases, intake of medications due to other diseases, mental illnesses, genetic predisposition, etc.), the leading cause is an unbalanced diet and reduced physical activity. Obesity is associated with a high risk of developing type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, bronchial asthma, and cancer. It is perceived as a condition of chronic low-grade inflammation with all consequences thereof, and ultimately significantly deteriorates the lifestyle of those affected.
\n\nType 2 diabetes is a metabolic disease, which is characterized by the development of insulin resistance. It occurs with disorders of the carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. All systems and organs are affected, and the changes are mostly in the blood vessels and the nervous systems. It leads to serious, often irreversible complications.
\n\nMetabolic syndrome is defined as a combination of interrelated risk factors for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Its main components are abdominal obesity, atherogenic dyslipidemia, high blood pressure, and insulin resistance with/without impaired glucose tolerance. It is considered a proinflammatory and prothrombic condition. It is widely spread and has an increased mortality.
\nAn integral part of the treatment of metabolic diseases is a change in lifestyle, including increased physical recreation activity. A study conducted on children shows that for just 12 weeks, the performance of one-hour outdoor physical activities, 3 or 2 times a week, reduces their body mass index and is a preventive measure against children’s obesity. Physically active children in this study have increased their social–emotional wellness [40].
\nResearch on the relationship between body mass index and total fat mass index, and some cardiometabolic parameters in young people—aged 10 and 18 years, evidences that higher total fat mass index and body mass index are associated with higher arterial blood pressure, higher plasma levels of very low-density lipoproteins, low-density lipoproteins, triglycerides, insulin, and lower levels of high-density lipoproteins. The same study also reported that body mass index and total fat mass index increased at the age of 18, which in turn was associated with higher values of glycoprotein acetyls [41].
\nThere is ample evidence that increased physical activity has a neuroprotective effect and can be used as a means to accelerate the recovery processes of both the peripheral and central nervous systems after nerve injuries, as well as to slow down neurodegenerative processes in the brain [42]. Outdoor recreational physical activity can induce endogenous neuroprotection by activating multiple mechanisms, such as promoting neurogenesis, improving the neurovascular unit integrity, decreasing apoptosis, and modulating inflammation.
\nSome studies have reported a correlation between the decreased neurotrophin production and diseases, such as depression, schizophrenia, and dementia [43]. Rodent models have shown that increased physical activity elevates the expression of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampal and cortical areas, and it has been related to the improvement of cognitive function, including memory [44]. Both acute, high-intensity activity and regular, moderate aerobic exercise have been reported to increase the levels of circulating neurotrophic factors and enhance neurotransmission, exerting beneficial effects on mood and cognitive functions in individuals of all ages. Additionally, increased physical activity promotes brain health by supporting the cerebrovasculature, sustaining the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, increasing glymphatic clearance and proteolytic degradation of amyloid beta species, and regulating microglia activation [45, 46].
\nIn recent years, a number of data have been accumulated on the beneficial physiological and psychological effects of physical activity in epilepsy. Epilepsy is a socially important disease characterized by a persistent predisposition to generate epileptic seizures with neurobiological, cognitive, psychological, and social consequences. Systematic physical exercise, on one hand, reduces the severity and frequency of seizures, and on the other hand, raises the seizure threshold in both animal models with epilepsy [47, 48] and in clinical trials with epileptic patients [49]. Although the mechanisms are not fully explained, it is believed that due to its neuroprotective effect, physical exercise successfully counteracts harmful factors, such as distress, intoxication, degenerative changes, and circulatory disturbance, which can lead to seizures and impairment of cognitive functions in these patients [50]. Epilepsy itself and most of the antiepileptic medications impair the cognitive functions [51], which requires the search for methods that complement the basic therapy to reduce cognitive deficits. Our previous experimental studies have shown that the regular physical exercise reduces the cognitive deficit from the application of antiepileptic medications and suppresses depression and anxiety behavior in epilepsy [44, 51, 52].
\nThe regular outdoor recreation physical activity improves the physical and mental condition of the individual, but data on the positive effect of physical exercise in epilepsy are still being clarified. This is one of the reasons for the healthcare organizations to warn people with epilepsy to avoid certain types of physical exercise because of the potential risks of inducing seizures or injury [53]. Extreme sports are prohibited, such as some of the winter ones (snowboarding and extreme skiing), water sports (diving), freestyle (fencing and mountain biking), and in ball sports, head playing is not allowed.
\nA number of studies have noted a link between the level of physical activity and the severity of symptoms in depression and conditions of anxiety. A sedentary lifestyle is a prerequisite for deteriorating mental health, while physical exercise reduces the risk of developing these conditions [54, 55, 56]. Mental health prevention includes stimulating the population for increased physical activity, including outdoor recreation.
\n\nMalignant diseases form a severe heterogenous group of diseases. The most commonly diagnosed are cancers of breast, colon and lungs. It is a worrying fact that in 2012 alone, 14 million new cases were registered worldwide [57, 58]. The frequency is expected to rise to 22 million newly registered annually over the next two decades [57]. This requires strengthening of preventive measures, such as visits to preventive examinations, avoidance of harmful habits, rational nutrition, maintaining optimal body weight, and increasing physical activity [58].
\n\nOsteoporosis is a disease characterized by deterioration of the microarchitecture of the bone tissue and a decrease in the mass of the bone stock, which leads to an increased risk of fractures. A number of factors determine bone mass: genetic, nutritional, bad habits, hormonal, intake of some medications, hypokinesia, immobilization, etc. There is strong evidence that physical activity in a “dose-dependent” manner slows down the loss of bone mass in postmenopausal women. The outdoor physical exercise in the form of recreation procedures can increase bone mineral density [59].
\nTimely and complex treatment of socially important diseases leads to their more favorable course delay or avoidance of the occurrence of complications, as well as to the better quality of life of patients. The prevention of these diseases would lead to an improvement in the health status of the population as well as a number of economic and social benefits. Undoubtedly, outdoor recreation physical activity is a part of the prevention of most noninfectious socially important diseases.
\nOutdoor recreation physical activity is causing beneficial physiological changes in the body, which affect both the somatic and mental health. Adaptation changes concern cardiorespiratory, endocrine, nervous, and most of the other functional systems:
It causes an increase of the activity of muscle oxidative enzymes in the pathway of carbohydrate, fat metabolism, and in the respiratory chain.
Along with the increased muscle vascularization, the outdoor recreation physical activity is associated with partial muscle fiber transformation in submaximal trained muscle groups.
A metabolic adaptation occurs due to the shift from carbohydrates to fats as a source of energy during exercise with a submaximal intensity with a following “glycogen-sparing” effect, which in turn delays the time to fatigue and increase physical endurance.
Long-lasting changes in humoral immunity manifested by an increase of serum IgA and IgG levels occur as a result of outdoor recreation activity.
Adaptation of the oxygen delivery system and of the mitochondrial oxygen utilization system is observed, which results in an increase of the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and economy of the oxygen utilization.
The hormonal response to outdoor recreation physical activity is associated with better adaptation to physical stress and maintenance of homeostasis.
Outdoor recreation physical activity is beneficial for prevention and treatment of socially important diseases, such as increased blood pressure, ischemic heart diseases, metabolic syndrome, diabetes type 2, etc.
The increased outdoor physical activity has a neuroprotective effect. It can be used to accelerate the recovery process after nerve injuries, to slow down neurogenerative processes and have beneficial effects in epilepsy, depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairments.
Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.
",metaTitle:"IntechOpen Women in Science Program",metaDescription:"Supporting women in scientific research and encouraging more women to pursue careers in STEM fields has been an issue on the global agenda for many years. But there is still much to be done. And IntechOpen wants to help.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, we’re laying the foundations for the future by publishing the best research by women in STEM – Open Access and available to all. Our Women in Science program already includes six books in progress by award-winning women scientists on topics ranging from physics to robotics, medicine to environmental science. Our editors come from all over the globe and include L’Oreal–UNESCO For Women in Science award-winners and National Science Foundation and European Commission grant recipients.
\\n\\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
\\n\\nAll project proposals go through a two-stage peer review process and are selected based on the following criteria:
\\n\\nPlus, we want this project to have an impact beyond scientific circles. We will publicize the research in the Women in Science program for a wider general audience through:
\\n\\nInterested? If you have an idea for an edited volume or a monograph, we’d love to hear from you! Contact Ana Pantar at book.idea@intechopen.com.
\\n\\n“My scientific path has given me the opportunity to work with colleagues all over Europe, including Germany, France, and Norway. Editing the book Graph Theory: Advanced Algorithms and Applications with IntechOpen emphasized for me the importance of providing valuable, Open Access literature to our scientific colleagues around the world. So I am highly enthusiastic about the Women in Science book collection, which will highlight the outstanding accomplishments of women scientists and encourage others to walk the challenging path to becoming a recognized scientist." Beril Sirmacek, TU Delft, The Netherlands
\\n\\nAdvantages of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, we’re laying the foundations for the future by publishing the best research by women in STEM – Open Access and available to all. Our Women in Science program already includes six books in progress by award-winning women scientists on topics ranging from physics to robotics, medicine to environmental science. Our editors come from all over the globe and include L’Oreal–UNESCO For Women in Science award-winners and National Science Foundation and European Commission grant recipients.
\n\nWe aim to publish 100 books in our Women in Science program over the next three years. We are looking for books written, edited, or co-edited by women. Contributing chapters by men are welcome. As always, the quality of the research we publish is paramount.
\n\nAll project proposals go through a two-stage peer review process and are selected based on the following criteria:
\n\nPlus, we want this project to have an impact beyond scientific circles. We will publicize the research in the Women in Science program for a wider general audience through:
\n\nInterested? If you have an idea for an edited volume or a monograph, we’d love to hear from you! Contact Ana Pantar at book.idea@intechopen.com.
\n\n“My scientific path has given me the opportunity to work with colleagues all over Europe, including Germany, France, and Norway. Editing the book Graph Theory: Advanced Algorithms and Applications with IntechOpen emphasized for me the importance of providing valuable, Open Access literature to our scientific colleagues around the world. So I am highly enthusiastic about the Women in Science book collection, which will highlight the outstanding accomplishments of women scientists and encourage others to walk the challenging path to becoming a recognized scientist." Beril Sirmacek, TU Delft, The Netherlands
\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"289905",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Inamuddin",slug:"inamuddin",fullName:"Inamuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289905/images/system/289905.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Inamuddin is currently working as an assistant professor in the Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, and more specifically, renewable energy and the environment. He has published 127 research articles in international journals of repute and 18 book chapters in knowledge-based book editions published by renowned international publishers. He has published 39 edited books with Springer, United Kingdom, Elsevier, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. USA, CRC Press Taylor & Francis, Asia Pacific, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., Switzerland, and Materials Science Forum, USA. He is a member of various editorial boards serving as associate editor for journals such as Environmental Chemistry Letter, Applied Water Science, Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, Springer-Nature, Scientific Reports-Nature, and the editor of Eurasian Journal of Analytical Chemistry.",institutionString:"King Abdulaziz University",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"99002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Koontongkaew",slug:"koontongkaew",fullName:"Koontongkaew",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Thammasat University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"156647",title:"Dr.",name:"A K M Mamunur",middleName:null,surname:"Rashid",slug:"a-k-m-mamunur-rashid",fullName:"A K M Mamunur Rashid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"MBBS, DCH, MD(Paed.), Grad. Cert. P. Rheum.(UWA, Australia), FRCP(Edin.)",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Khulna Medical College",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"234696",title:"Prof.",name:"A K M Mominul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a-k-m-mominul-islam",fullName:"A K M Mominul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000cA8dpQAC/Co2_Profile_Picture-1588761796759",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Mominul Islam received both of his bachelor's and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that, he joined as Lecturer of Agronomy at Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, Bangladesh, and became Professor in the same department of the university. Dr. Islam did his second Master’s in Physical Land Resources from Ghent University, Belgium. He is currently serving as a postdoctoral researcher at the Department of Horticulture & Landscape Architecture at Purdue University, USA. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Plant Allelopathy from The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Allelopathy of five Lamiaceae medicinal plant species”. Dr. Islam is the author of 38 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 1 book chapter, and 3 books. He is a member of the editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is supervising the research of MS and Ph.D. students in areas of Agronomy. Prof. Islam is conducting research on crop management, bio-herbicides, and allelopathy.",institutionString:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangladesh Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"214531",title:"Mr.",name:"A T M Sakiur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"a-t-m-sakiur-rahman",fullName:"A T M Sakiur Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Rajshahi",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"66545",title:"Dr.",name:"A. F.",middleName:null,surname:"Omar",slug:"a.-f.-omar",fullName:"A. F. Omar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. A. F. Omar obtained\nhis Bachelor degree in electrical and\nelectronics engineering from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2002, Master of Science in electronics\nengineering from Open University\nMalaysia in 2008 and PhD in optical physics from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2012. His research mainly\nfocuses on the development of optical\nand electronics systems for spectroscopy\napplication in environmental monitoring,\nagriculture and dermatology. He has\nmore than 10 years of teaching\nexperience in subjects related to\nelectronics, mathematics and applied optics for\nuniversity students and industrial engineers.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"191072",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191072/images/system/191072.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam received both of his bachelor and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that he joined as Lecturer of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh and became Professor in the same department of the university. He is currently serving as Director (Research) of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph D degree in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was “Improvement of Biodiesel Production through Genetic Studies of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)”. Dr. Islam is the author of 98 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 11 book chapters and 3 books. He is a member of editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is also serving as the General Secretary of Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, Seminar and research Secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh and member of several professional societies. Prof. Islam acted as Principal Breeder in the releasing system of BU Hybrid Lau 1, BU Lau 1, BU Capsicum 1, BU Lalshak 1, BU Baromashi Seem 1, BU Sheem 1, BU Sheem 2, BU Sheem 3 and BU Sheem 4. He supervised 50 MS and 3 Ph D students. Prof. Islam currently supervising research of 5 MS and 3 Ph D students in areas Plant Breeding & Seed Technologies. Conducting research on development of hybrid vegetables, hybrid Brassica napus using CMS system, renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"322225",title:"Dr.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam received both of his bachelor's and Master’s degree from Bangladesh Agricultural University. After that he joined as Lecturer of Genetics and Plant Breeding at Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh, and became Professor in the same department of the university. He is currently serving as Director (Research) of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur, Bangladesh. Dr. Islam has obtained his Ph.D. degree in Chemical and Process Engineering from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The dissertation title of Dr. Islam was 'Improvement of Biodiesel Production through Genetic Studies of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)”. Dr. Islam is the author of 99 articles published in nationally and internationally reputed journals, 11 book chapters, 3 books, and 20 proceedings and conference paper. He is a member of the editorial board and referee of several national and international journals. He is also serving as the General Secretary of Plant Breeding and Genetics Society of Bangladesh, Seminar, and research Secretary of JICA Alumni Association of Bangladesh and a member of several professional societies. Prof. Islam acted as Principal Breeder in the releasing system of BU Hybrid Lau 1, BU Lau 1, BU Capsicum 1, BU Lalshak 1, BU Baromashi Seem 1, BU Sheem 1, BU Sheem 2, BU Sheem 3 and BU Sheem 4. He supervised 50 MS and 3 PhD students. Prof. Islam currently supervising the research of 5 MS and 3 PhD students in areas Plant Breeding & Seed Technologies. Conducting research on the development of hybrid vegetables, hybrid Brassica napus using CMS system, renewable energy research with Jatropha curcas.",institutionString:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"91977",title:"Dr.",name:"A.B.M. Sharif",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"a.b.m.-sharif-hossain",fullName:"A.B.M. Sharif Hossain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"97123",title:"Prof.",name:"A.M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Sharif Ullah",slug:"a.m.m.-sharif-ullah",fullName:"A.M.M. Sharif Ullah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/97123/images/4209_n.jpg",biography:"AMM Sharif Ullah is currently an Associate Professor of Design and Manufacturing in Department of Mechanical Engineering at Kitami Institute of Technology, Japan. He received the Bachelor of Science Degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1992 from the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh. In 1993, he moved to Japan for graduate studies. He received the Master of Engineering degree in 1996 from the Kansai University Graduate School of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering (Major: Manufacturing Engineering). He also received the Doctor of Engineering degree from the same institute in the same field in 1999. He began his academic career in 2000 as an Assistant Professor in the Industrial Systems Engineering Program at the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, as an Assistant Professor in the Industrial Systems Engineering Program. In 2002, he took up the position of Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the United Arab Emirates (UAE) University. He was promoted to Associate Professor in 2006 at the UAE University. He moved to his current employer in 2009. His research field is product realization engineering (design, manufacturing, operations, and sustainability). He teaches design and manufacturing related courses at undergraduate and graduate degree programs. He has been mentoring a large number of students for their senior design projects and theses. He has published more than 90 papers in refereed journals, edited books, and international conference proceedings. He made more than 35 oral presentations. Since 2005, he directs the advanced manufacturing engineering research laboratory at Kitami Institute of Technology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kitami Institute of Technology",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"213441",title:"Dr.",name:"A.R.Kavitha",middleName:null,surname:"Balaji",slug:"a.r.kavitha-balaji",fullName:"A.R.Kavitha Balaji",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anna University, Chennai",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"172688",title:"Prof.",name:"A.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Salker",slug:"a.v.-salker",fullName:"A.V. Salker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Goa University",country:{name:"India"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5684},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5166},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1682},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10211},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:887},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15616}],offset:12,limit:12,total:10241},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"25"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Feed Additives in Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:2},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5131},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"814",title:"Fluid Dynamics",slug:"mechanical-engineering-fluid-dynamics",parent:{title:"Mechanical Engineering",slug:"mechanical-engineering"},numberOfBooks:8,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:255,numberOfWosCitations:211,numberOfCrossrefCitations:95,numberOfDimensionsCitations:244,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"mechanical-engineering-fluid-dynamics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"4690",title:"Mass Transfer",subtitle:"Advancement in Process Modelling",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6a48c13966c5b7c9ecf0af315f87048b",slug:"mass-transfer-advancement-in-process-modelling",bookSignature:"Marek Solecki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4690.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43535",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek",middleName:null,surname:"Solecki",slug:"marek-solecki",fullName:"Marek Solecki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1659",title:"The Particle Image Velocimetry",subtitle:"Characteristics, Limits and Possible Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"64321309762b4a1b34529238e32ac638",slug:"the-particle-image-velocimetry-characteristics-limits-and-possible-applications",bookSignature:"Giovanna Cavazzini",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1659.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111606",title:"PhD.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Cavazzini",slug:"giovanna-cavazzini",fullName:"Giovanna Cavazzini"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"615",title:"Advanced Methods for Practical Applications in Fluid Mechanics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"779d768a546af1ba3f0aa171d0c5a9ee",slug:"advanced-methods-for-practical-applications-in-fluid-mechanics",bookSignature:"Steven A. Jones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/615.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64477",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:"A.",surname:"Jones",slug:"steven-jones",fullName:"Steven Jones"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1955",title:"Hydrodynamics",subtitle:"Advanced Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a2f5fb60944543c693da3c7aa4f07dae",slug:"hydrodynamics-advanced-topics",bookSignature:"Harry Edmar Schulz, André Luiz Andrade Simões and Raquel Jahara Lobosco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1955.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20241",title:"Prof.",name:"Harry",middleName:"Edmar",surname:"Schulz",slug:"harry-schulz",fullName:"Harry Schulz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1954",title:"Hydrodynamics",subtitle:"Optimizing Methods and Tools",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"502818cd3f53e68a788a01c693a29e5d",slug:"hydrodynamics-optimizing-methods-and-tools",bookSignature:"Harry Edmar Schulz, André Luiz Andrade Simões and Raquel Jahara Lobosco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1954.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"20241",title:"Prof.",name:"Harry",middleName:"Edmar",surname:"Schulz",slug:"harry-schulz",fullName:"Harry Schulz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"530",title:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d7473a9763ff4ee9a4f8bb5a1ba9cd5e",slug:"convection-and-conduction-heat-transfer",bookSignature:"Amimul Ahsan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/530.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36782",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amimul",middleName:null,surname:"Ahsan",slug:"amimul-ahsan",fullName:"Amimul Ahsan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"924",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",subtitle:"Modeling and Simulation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671686ebedf504b399b01e0a9f8ecfd3",slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-modeling-and-simulation",bookSignature:"Monwar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/924.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"18207",title:"Prof.",name:"Md Monwar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"md-monwar-hossain",fullName:"Md Monwar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"228",title:"Waves in Fluids and Solids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91a31715c4cb38a9c947a519163c45fc",slug:"waves-in-fluids-and-solids",bookSignature:"Ruben Pico Vila",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/228.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49934",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruben",middleName:null,surname:"Pico Vila",slug:"ruben-pico-vila",fullName:"Ruben Pico Vila"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:8,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"22262",doi:"10.5772/19836",title:"Modelling of Heat Transfer and Phase Transformations in the Rapid Manufacturing of Titanium Components",slug:"modelling-of-heat-transfer-and-phase-transformations-in-the-rapid-manufacturing-of-titanium-componen",totalDownloads:2717,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,book:{slug:"convection-and-conduction-heat-transfer",title:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer",fullTitle:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer"},signatures:"António Crespo",authors:[{id:"36414",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Crespo",slug:"antonio-crespo",fullName:"Antonio Crespo"}]},{id:"20087",doi:"10.5772/21503",title:"Soliton-Like Lamb Waves in Layered Media",slug:"soliton-like-lamb-waves-in-layered-media",totalDownloads:1890,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"waves-in-fluids-and-solids",title:"Waves in Fluids and Solids",fullTitle:"Waves in Fluids and Solids"},signatures:"I. Djeran-Maigre and S. V. Kuznetsov",authors:[{id:"43397",title:"Dr.",name:"Irini",middleName:null,surname:"Djeran-Maigre",slug:"irini-djeran-maigre",fullName:"Irini Djeran-Maigre"},{id:"43398",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"sergey-kuznetsov",fullName:"Sergey Kuznetsov"}]},{id:"20412",doi:"10.5772/21230",title:"Nonequilibrium Fluctuations in Micro-MHD Effects on Electrodeposition",slug:"nonequilibrium-fluctuations-in-micro-mhd-effects-on-electrodeposition",totalDownloads:1293,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"heat-and-mass-transfer-modeling-and-simulation",title:"Heat and Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat and Mass Transfer - Modeling and Simulation"},signatures:"Ryoichi Aogaki and Ryoichi Morimoto",authors:[{id:"42360",title:"Prof.",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Aogaki",slug:"ryoichi-aogaki",fullName:"Ryoichi Aogaki"},{id:"54508",title:"Mr",name:"Ryoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Morimoto",slug:"ryoichi-morimoto",fullName:"Ryoichi Morimoto"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"25446",title:"Flow Instabilities in Mechanically Agitated Stirred Vessels",slug:"flow-instabilities-in-mechanically-agitated-stirred-vessels",totalDownloads:3148,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"hydrodynamics-advanced-topics",title:"Hydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Hydrodynamics - Advanced Topics"},signatures:"Chiara Galletti and Elisabetta Brunazzi",authors:[{id:"75453",title:"Dr.",name:"Chiara",middleName:null,surname:"Galletti",slug:"chiara-galletti",fullName:"Chiara Galletti"},{id:"75834",title:"Prof.",name:"Elisabetta",middleName:null,surname:"Brunazzi",slug:"elisabetta-brunazzi",fullName:"Elisabetta Brunazzi"}]},{id:"48887",title:"Mass Transfer in Multiphase Systems",slug:"mass-transfer-in-multiphase-systems",totalDownloads:9565,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"mass-transfer-advancement-in-process-modelling",title:"Mass Transfer",fullTitle:"Mass Transfer - Advancement in Process Modelling"},signatures:"Badie I. Morsi and Omar M. Basha",authors:[{id:"174420",title:"Prof.",name:"Badie I.",middleName:null,surname:"Morsi",slug:"badie-i.-morsi",fullName:"Badie I. Morsi"},{id:"174770",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar M.",middleName:null,surname:"Basha",slug:"omar-m.-basha",fullName:"Omar M. Basha"}]},{id:"25437",title:"One Dimensional Turbulent Transfer Using Random Square Waves – Scalar/Velocity and Velocity/Velocity Interactions",slug:"one-dimensional-turbulent-transfer-using-random-square-waves-scalar-velocity-and-velocity-velocity-i",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"hydrodynamics-advanced-topics",title:"Hydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Hydrodynamics - Advanced Topics"},signatures:"H. E. Schulz, G. B. Lopes Júnior, A. L. A. Simões and R. J. Lobosco",authors:[{id:"20241",title:"Prof.",name:"Harry",middleName:"Edmar",surname:"Schulz",slug:"harry-schulz",fullName:"Harry Schulz"}]},{id:"37156",title:"Characterization of the Bidirectional Vortex Using Particle Image Velocimetry",slug:"characterization-of-the-bidirectional-vortex-using-particle-image-velocimetry",totalDownloads:2144,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"the-particle-image-velocimetry-characteristics-limits-and-possible-applications",title:"The Particle Image Velocimetry",fullTitle:"The Particle Image Velocimetry - Characteristics, Limits and Possible Applications"},signatures:"Brian A. Maicke and Joseph Majdalani",authors:[{id:"64718",title:"Prof.",name:"Joe",middleName:null,surname:"Majdalani",slug:"joe-majdalani",fullName:"Joe Majdalani"},{id:"111632",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",middleName:null,surname:"Maicke",slug:"brian-maicke",fullName:"Brian Maicke"}]},{id:"25453",title:"Flow Evolution Mechanisms of Lid-Driven Cavities",slug:"flow-evolution-mechanisms-of-lid-driven-cavities",totalDownloads:2807,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"hydrodynamics-advanced-topics",title:"Hydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Hydrodynamics - Advanced Topics"},signatures:"José Rafael Toro and Sergio Pedraza R.",authors:[{id:"75766",title:"BSc.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Pedraza",slug:"sergio-pedraza",fullName:"Sergio Pedraza"},{id:"81379",title:"MSc.",name:"José Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Toro",slug:"jose-rafael-toro",fullName:"José Rafael Toro"}]},{id:"37152",title:"Limits in Planar PIV Due to Individual Variations of Particle Image Intensities",slug:"limits-in-planar-piv-due-to-individual-variations-of-particle-image-intensities",totalDownloads:1841,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"the-particle-image-velocimetry-characteristics-limits-and-possible-applications",title:"The Particle Image Velocimetry",fullTitle:"The Particle Image Velocimetry - Characteristics, Limits and Possible Applications"},signatures:"Holger Nobach",authors:[{id:"101177",title:"Dr.",name:"Holger",middleName:null,surname:"Nobach",slug:"holger-nobach",fullName:"Holger Nobach"}]},{id:"22261",title:"Heat Transfer Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Beams Reinforced with GFRP Bars",slug:"heat-transfer-analysis-of-reinforced-concrete-beams-reinforced-with-gfrp-bars",totalDownloads:5694,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"convection-and-conduction-heat-transfer",title:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer",fullTitle:"Convection and Conduction Heat Transfer"},signatures:"Rami A. Hawileh",authors:[{id:"46905",title:"Dr.",name:"Rami",middleName:null,surname:"Hawileh",slug:"rami-hawileh",fullName:"Rami Hawileh"}]},{id:"25439",title:"Nonautonomous Solitons: Applications from Nonlinear Optics to BEC and Hydrodynamics",slug:"nonautonomous-solitons-applications-from-nonlinear-optics-to-bec-and-hydrodynamics",totalDownloads:1522,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,book:{slug:"hydrodynamics-advanced-topics",title:"Hydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Hydrodynamics - Advanced Topics"},signatures:"T. L. Belyaeva and V. N. Serkin",authors:[{id:"66736",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Serkin",slug:"vladimir-serkin",fullName:"Vladimir Serkin"},{id:"66765",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatyana",middleName:"Leonidovna",surname:"Belyaeva",slug:"tatyana-belyaeva",fullName:"Tatyana Belyaeva"}]},{id:"25450",title:"Hydrodynamics on Charged Superparamagnetic Microparticles in Water Suspension: Effects of Low-Confinement Conditions and Electrostatics Interactions",slug:"hydrodynamics-on-charged-superparamagnetic-microparticles-in-water-suspension-effects-of-low-confine",totalDownloads:1845,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"hydrodynamics-advanced-topics",title:"Hydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Hydrodynamics - Advanced Topics"},signatures:"P. Domínguez-García and M.A. Rubio",authors:[{id:"68119",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Domínguez-García",slug:"pablo-dominguez-garcia",fullName:"Pablo Domínguez-García"},{id:"75303",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",middleName:null,surname:"Rubio",slug:"miguel-angel-rubio",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Rubio"}]},{id:"25438",title:"Generalized Variational Principle for Dissipative Hydrodynamics: Shear Viscosity from Angular Momentum Relaxation in the Hydrodynamical Description of Continuum Mechanics",slug:"generalized-variational-principle-for-dissipative-hydrodynamics-shear-viscosity-from-angular-momentu",totalDownloads:1792,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"hydrodynamics-advanced-topics",title:"Hydrodynamics",fullTitle:"Hydrodynamics - Advanced Topics"},signatures:"German A. Maximov",authors:[{id:"73783",title:"Dr.",name:"German",middleName:null,surname:"Maximov",slug:"german-maximov",fullName:"German Maximov"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"mechanical-engineering-fluid-dynamics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/172593/jocianelle-fernandes",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"172593",slug:"jocianelle-fernandes"},fullPath:"/profiles/172593/jocianelle-fernandes",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()