The role of HRM in supporting various KM strategies.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80355-220-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-219-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-221-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"56a4bfdf71363b77f6fed81f28e5acb6",bookSignature:"Dr. Venkata Krishna Parimala",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10962.jpg",keywords:"WSN Architectures, Models and Systems, Quality of Service, Performance Analysis, QoE, Energy Management, Protocols, Systems, Algorithms, IoT Enabled Applications, Trust Models, Data Visualization",numberOfDownloads:162,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 27th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. P. Venkata Krishna is a pioneering researcher in Wireless Networks and IoT and he has authored over 200 research papers in various national and international journals and conferences. Dr. Krishna has an h index of 23 and is the editor for the ObCom series of International conference proceedings and a founding member of the ObCom International Conference. Dr. Krishna is also a senior member of several professional societies such as IEEE, ACM, CSI, and IE(I).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"234338",title:"Dr.",name:"Venkata Krishna",middleName:null,surname:"Parimala",slug:"venkata-krishna-parimala",fullName:"Venkata Krishna Parimala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/234338/images/system/234338.jpg",biography:"Dr. P. Venkata Krishna is currently a Professor of Computer Science and a Director at Sri Padmavati Mahila University, Tirupati, India. He received his B. Tech in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupathi, India, M. Tech in Computer Science & Engineering from REC, Calicut, India, and he received his Ph.D. from VIT University, Vellore, India. Dr. Krishna has several years of experience working in academia, research, teaching, consultancy, academic administration and project management roles. His current research interests include Mobile and wireless systems, cross-layer wireless network design, QoS, and Cloud Computing. He was the recipient of several academic and research awards such as the Cognizant Best Faculty Award for the year 2009-2010 and the VIT Most Active Researcher Award for the year 2009-2010. His biography was also selected for inclusion in the 2009-2010 edition of Marquis Who’s Who in Science and Engineering and the Marquis Who’s Who in the World, California, USA. He is the editor for the ObCom series of International conference proceedings and he is a founding member for ObCom International Conference. He has authored over 200 research papers in various national and international journals and conferences. He has produced 10 Ph.D.’s and 1 MS by research degree under his guidance and has guided several masters and bachelor's projects. Dr. Krishna has authored 15 books on Computer Networks and Programming Languages. He has delivered several keynote addresses and chaired sessions in reputed conferences. He is currently serving as editor in chief for the International Journal of Smart Grid and Green Communications, Inderscience Publishers, Switzerland, and also the editor for the International Journal of Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, and Journal of Advanced Computing Technologies. He is an Associate Editor for the International Journal of Communication Systems, Wiley. He is senior member of several professional societies such as IEEE, ACM, CSI, IE(I), etc.",institutionString:"Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"81946",title:"Energy Management in Wireless Sensor Network",slug:"energy-management-in-wireless-sensor-network",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81473",title:"IoT-Based Decision Support System for Health Monitoring of Induction Motors",slug:"iot-based-decision-support-system-for-health-monitoring-of-induction-motors",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81385",title:"Localization Context-Aware Models for Wireless Sensor Network",slug:"localization-context-aware-models-for-wireless-sensor-network",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80499",title:"Network Slicing for Industrial IoT and Industrial Wireless Sensor Network: Deep Federated Learning Approach and Its Implementation Challenges",slug:"network-slicing-for-industrial-iot-and-industrial-wireless-sensor-network-deep-federated-learning-ap",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80045",title:"Resource Allocation in Wireless Body Area Networks: A Smart City Perspective",slug:"resource-allocation-in-wireless-body-area-networks-a-smart-city-perspective",totalDownloads:72,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"441704",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Javor",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441704/images/20009_n.jpg",email:"ana.j@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors, and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67167",title:"Aligning Human Resource Management with Knowledge Management for Better Organizational Performance: How Human Resource Practices Support Knowledge Management Strategies?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86517",slug:"aligning-human-resource-management-with-knowledge-management-for-better-organizational-performance-h",body:'\nIn the knowledge economy, knowledge is recognized as the major source of wealth production, and managing knowledge effectively and efficiently is considered to be a key success factor to gain sustainable competitive advantage for organizations [1, 2, 3]. Notably, competitive advantage is increasingly based on the successful application, leverage and creation of knowledge—especially knowledge embedded in human assets. Managing knowledge effectively is as a significant factor in innovating faster and better than competitors [4, 5, 6]. Human resource management (HRM) practices—major contributor to organizations’ competitive advantage—should be utilized to manage organizational human assets through facilitating the development of competencies that generate organizational knowledge [4, 5, 7, 8, 9]. Ananthram et al. [3] suggested that a new paradigm of HRM is evolving towards “strategic human assets” theory in pursuit of firm global competitive advantage. This paradigm is built on two pillars: strategic agility and knowledge management (KM). However, much of the literature of KM continues to reflect a techno-centric focus, similar to that of information management, which in essence regards knowledge as an entity that can be captured, manipulated and leveraged. This is a limited and ultimately hazardous perception [4]. It is widely accepted that “it is not technology, but the art of human- and humane-management” that is the continuing challenge for executives [5]. In this regard, Gloet [4] illustrated a revitalization of the HRM function to respond to the demands of the knowledge economy, looking both within and outside the organization. The traditional focus on managing people has been broadened to managing organizational capabilities, relationships, learning and knowledge. Banerjee [6] also believes that we must look beyond human capital to a more sustainable and holistic view of individuals; suggesting the term “sustainable human capital” that moves away from the traditional view of human capital.
\nThe collective knowledge of human expertise through their abilities, experience and interaction with the individual’s environment has become such a critical resource to reinvest [1]. It is important that knowledge is viewed as a social creation emerging at the interface between people and information, especially within communities engaged in communication, knowledge-creation, and knowledge-sharing and learning [4]. The most crucial point about HRM is that people and their interpersonal relations become and are treated as resources [10]. The success of strategic HRM in the knowledge economy also depends on its ability to harness the hidden potential in the informal social architecture, including tacit knowledge, co-operation and informal learning [5].
\nHRM and KM are two people-centered concepts focusing on using, sharing and creating knowledge [5, 8]. Mainly, knowledge cannot be managed in the void—without people—and vice versa [10]. As Thite [5] identified some key HR strategies for effective people-centric partnership in KM, namely, trusting HR philosophy, institutionalizing learning to learn, and fine-tuning HR systems in recruitment, retention, performance and reward management [5]. Most researchers suggest that KM can be interpreted as a form of HRM. In particular, HRM supports employees in creating and managing knowledge through the sharing of ideas, opinions and experiences [8].
\nSuccessful businesses demand high-performing HRM practices and effective KM capacity. Those are two complementary processes and interdependent constructs in the theory of knowledge-based view of the firm as they have a direct link with strategic management and strategic HRM [3, 8]. At the firm-level, the theory suggests that organizations must make investments in developing the human capital of their workforce in order to increase firm performance [6]. Svetlik and Stavrou-Costea [10] demonstrate the benefits of using an integrative approach between HRM and KM, where one reinforces and supports the other in enhancing organizational effectiveness and performance. Gope et al. [8] argue that HRM practices can improve management process at the organizational level by increasing employees’ skills and abilities, influencing their behavior and attitudes and increasing their motivation and learning capacity, and through facilitating the development of competencies. Specifically, the contribution of HRM to KM is at the high end of the value chain as it primarily creates and sustains a culture that fosters innovation, creativity and learning [5]. A collection of research articles explores how HRM and KM are interrelated and provide empirical support for such a connection, and many will be highlighted in this review. The implicit assumption is that HRM and KM should still come closer together.
\nTo this end, this chapter examines developments in research on KM and HRM linkage and then seeks to elaborate on their implications for practice. The chapter is structured as follows, a background to conceptualization, approaches and strategies of KM, and then the role of HRM in supporting various KM strategies.
\nIn order to understand KM, the underpinning idea of the knowledge concept needs to be examined and understood, as differing perceptions of knowledge tend to shape the various KM perspectives. Broadly, the knowledge concept is debated among two main groups: objectivists and those who adopt “epistemology of practice” [11]. This categorization in Ryle (1963), cited in Nilsson and Ellström [12], is referred to as a “theoretical component” and a “practical component”. Objectivists view knowledge as an object that can be referred to as declarative, propositional or codified knowledge and can be managed separately. Objectivists classify knowledge into various types and provide models of how to manage their interactions and transformations. The most popular categorization is the differentiation between explicit and tacit knowledge, for example, see [13]. Another common labeling is concerned with where knowledge is situated. It differentiates between personal and organizational knowledge. Organizational knowledge is infused in the organization itself, whether systematically through procedures or unsystematically through culture [14]. Their main philosophical approach is dualism, which depends on classifications, taxonomies and contingencies [15].
\nAlternatively, members of the “epistemology of practice” propose that knowledge is tacit in nature and is unlikely to be transformed fully into explicit knowledge. Practical knowledge or “know-how” is associated with experience, is implicit or expressed only in practice, and is thus inseparable from actions [12, 15]. Even if tacit knowledge was partially transformed into explicit knowledge, it will unavoidably contain tacit aspects. Moreover, even if employees are willing to express the knowledge they are in possession of, the likelihood is that they know more than they initially realize. In this sense, knowledge cannot be perceived as a separate object from the knower. “Epistemology of practice” follows a duality philosophy that depends upon structurational models, theories of practice and pragmatism [15]. The most important factor here is the personal nature of tacit knowledge, which requires the willingness, on the part of those workers who possess it, to share and communicate it [16].
\nDiffering perspectives of what knowledge is lead to differing KM formulations. Reviewing existent various KM definitions and categorizing them based on defining the nature of knowledge, reflects the basic assumption of two paradigms that have been labeled differently. These two paradigms can be illustrated in a continuum with a range from IT-based/Hard/Calculative/Mechanistic/Scientific paradigm to a Social/Organic/Soft/Humanistic one. In reality, juncture and co-proximity orientations of each paradigm stem from ontological and epistemological assumptions on KM’s nature [17]. Those two paradigms lead to two KM approaches/perspective. The first is IT-focused, where organizations approach KM in a mechanistic, systematic and techno-centric way to enhance knowledge integration and creation [2, 17]. The second is HR-focused, where firms’ orientation to KM is more ecological-focused and people-centric, aiming to increase employee interaction and to flourish employee behaviors and an organizational culture that enhances KM activities such as knowledge sharing and creation [2, 17].
\nThe IT perspective perceives KM as a process to store information into databases logically and make knowledge accessible [11, 18]. With this in mind, the main KM goal here could be seen as the codification of knowledge. This codification step is believed to minimize the risk of knowledge loss and maximize knowledge sharing, protection and utilization. A major criticism of IT usage in this context is that it deals with knowledge as information, i.e., it separates it from the knower. However, even if this could be considered “doable,” there are still other factors to be considered. The “interpretive flexibility” symptom is one of these factors and is a symptom that reveals itself when an employee is contributing or interpreting information.
\nIn contrast, the HR perspective emphasizes the point that IT solutions are information providers only. They are considered to lack comprehension, be vulnerable and not to encourage trust and loyalty among the workforce of a company. The quintessence of the HR perspective is based on interaction, networking, direct tacit knowledge-sharing and building a knowledge-sharing/creating culture [19]. Knowledge-intensive organizations need to develop a culture that promotes organizational learning; that encourages innovation and the development of novel systems and processes, products and services [20].
\nKM approaches take an organizational focus in order to optimize organization design and workflows [2]. The approach and perspective to KM can be considered essential to forming a KM strategy. Decision makers’ attitude towards the knowledge concept, KM perspective and their managerial philosophy translates into a KM strategy. Alignment between organizational, HRM and KM strategies is a key element for organizational management in the knowledge era [7]. So, in order to operationalize KM into a strategy, we need to understand how organizations view KM.
\nThe predominant view among academics and practitioners seems to be that KM is a “process”; a set of interrelated activities that should be facilitated—mainly through informal mechanisms that are supported by leadership styles and organizational practices, for example, see [15]. The process aims to make the maximum use of knowledge existent within organizations. Hosseingholizadeh [17] on the base of reviewing 32 KM models, found that nine main components (core knowledge activities) that can be viewed as a process of KM. Those are goal setting and knowledge identification, creation, acquisition, evaluation, organization, preservation, retention and update, sharing, application, and finally KM effectiveness evaluation. She added that this process-based approach is vital to improving knowledge work activities.
\nFollowing the IT and HR perspectives, Hansen et al. [21] proposed two main strategies: codification and personalization, respectively. Each stresses various KM activities and their interrelations and management.
\nCodification aims at codifying and storing knowledge with a high dependency on IT for further reuse. Its competitiveness lies in the ability to deliver fast, reliable and high-quality solutions, which are usually mature services and competitively priced [21]. Personalization refers to the development of tacit knowledge that is based on employee insights, intuition and personal skills for solving complex problems. Such knowledge is mainly shared through direct person-to-person contacts. Dialogs, learning histories and communities of practice are among the techniques that have to be used in order to facilitate tacit knowledge sharing. Personalization and explorative learning are closely related, where explorative learning is associated with complex search, basic research, innovation, risk-taking and more relaxed controls. The stress is on flexibility, investment in learning and the creation of new capabilities [22]. Personalization competitive advantage is creativity and innovation in supplying unique and customized services that can be priced at high-profit margins [21].
\nHansen et al. [21] highlighted that the two strategies differ in addressing the competitive strategy, economic models, IT and HR. This account stresses the need for the best fit between HRM practices an organization’s approach to managing knowledge work [22]. Realizing that, in reality, organizations usually use a combination of the two strategies, Hansen et al. [21] argued that one strategy will be used to a greater extent whilst the other one is relegated to a more supportive role. They claimed that one should be stressed or else the KM strategy’s focus will be confusing and will lead to failure and inconsistency with the organizational strategy. The codification strategy and low-cost strategy, for instance, both focus on effectiveness, lowering cost and standardization. The combined KM and general strategy of this kind are called exploitative strategy. Similarly, personalization strategy and differentiation center on new capabilities, innovation and new ways of working. This kind of KM and general strategy is termed as an explorative strategy [22]. Both strategies have the capacity to be successful, if the correct strategy is chosen according to the organizational situation.
\nHowever, many scholars criticized Hansen et al. [21] claim that either personalization or codification should be dominant. For example, Edwards et al. [23] found that many practitioners believe that a combination of both strategies should be utilized and should be considered to be of equal importance. Support for the latter observations is visible in a socio-technical approach laid down by Pan and Scarbrough [24], who suggested a multi-layered interaction model for KM. The model takes into account the following facets: infrastructure, info-structure and info-culture.
\nBased on previous discussions, it can be deduced that there is a logical sequence that links knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies (see Figure 1). If a particular person favors the objectivist approach, then ultimately the KM aspect aims at transforming tacit and personal knowledge into explicit and organizational knowledge. Following on from this, the IT approach is adopted, with the eventual use of the codification strategy. Alternatively, if the decision makers are supporters of the “epistemology of practice” philosophy, then they believe that knowledge exists within individuals and is tacit in nature. The decision makers are then likely to support an HR-based approach to KM with an underpinning personalization strategy. It has been noted, however, that these two approaches are not mutually exclusive and completely independent of one another. Alternatively, Edwards et al. [23] suggested a combination strategy; where opposing perspectives and strategies are held on an equal footing. It then follows that if the premise of this approach is followed then the debate concerning the knowledge concept is of less concern.
\nThe knowledge management sequential model.
Knowledge as an asset and KM as a process has received considerable attention in the strategic management and strategic HRM-literature, as a means to attain competitive business advantage [3]. KM’s effectiveness often depends on HRM processes and on the quality of management’s strategic alignment (organization, people and knowledge). HRM must be analyzed as a factor influencing KM implementation [7]. From the strategic HRM perspective, a set of integrative HR practices that support a firm’s strategy produce a sustainable competitive advantage. Human capital (skills, knowledge and behaviors) and organizational capital (routine, systems, tacit knowledge) are the most cited resources in the resource-based view literature, which are gained over time and make it difficult for competitors to interpret and imitate [25].
\nHRM is understood here as a set of policies, practices and systems that influence behaviors, attitudes and performance of organizational members, aiming to increase their competitiveness and learning capacity, to the extent of creating a culture of learning. For example, Gope et al. [8] found that HRM practices, which enhance individual learning, motivation and retention of employees with an intention to boost knowledge-acquisition and knowledge-sharing, improve organizational performance. Their findings also showed that the traditional roles of HRM practices are evolving to support the achievement of talent management goals such as talent identification, talent development and talent engagement. As suggested by Bontis and Serenko [26], employees’ capabilities depend on their training and development as well as job satisfaction levels. Arunprasad [25] noted that strategic HRM practices are significantly and positively related to learning outcomes. For instance, staffing and performance evaluation are the factors that significantly contributed to learning dynamics in software firms. Therefore, according to Theriou and Chatzoglou [16], firms pursuing best HRM practices achieve higher performance through designing HR practices that support KM and organizational learning capability, and in return, the creation of organizational capabilities. It is suggested that best HRM practices are not only related directly to organizational capability, but also indirectly related to the processes of organizational learning capability and KM. In fact, HRM acquires a key role in potentiating and facilitating both KM and learning processes [7]. Thus, if HRM is about managing people effectively and if people’s most valuable resource is knowledge, then HRM and KM are closely interrelated [10].
\nStudies of an alternative point of views have examined the type and quality of HRM and KM linkages. It is widely accepted that HRM is not KM [27]. For example, Teece (2000), cited in Svetlik and Stavrou-Costea [10], argues that KM is more multifaceted than HRM because it involves managing intellectual property rights and the development and transfer of individual and organizational know-how. However, Svetlik and Stavrou-Costea [10] stated that HRM and KM share common activities, goals and strategies when creating work units, teams, cross-functional cooperation, as well as communication flows and networks inside the organization and across its borders. They proposed an integrative approach between KM and HRM, so that if we compare the KM cycle with HRM processes, we will find that various activities are shared between both.
\nThe literature has for a long time supported the claim that employees are the most important organizational asset, especially when it comes to achieving an effective KM process [12, 22, 27, 28]. Employees are the vehicles for knowledge creation, sharing and implementation. Nilsson and Ellström [12] emphasized that the general organizational success is increasingly associated with identifying, recruiting, managing, and retaining high performers or talented individuals to meet the present and future demands of an organization. Therefore, the core purpose of the HR function is to develop, select and hire people, train and develop the staff, evaluate their performance, reward them and create a culture of learning to support and achieve the business strategy [22]. In fact, human capital advantage stems from having more capable people than the competition [29]. Shaw et al. [30] argue that human capital can meet the criteria of sustained advantage, when HRM investments are aimed at increasing the knowledge and skills of the workforce and also to tightly integrate the human capital.
\nTherefore, HRM activities, such as recruitment and selection, education and training, performance management and reward systems, are essential for managing knowledge properly [28] and contribute instrumentally to improving the knowledge flow, i.e., acquisition, transfer and its integration in the organization [7]. Zhou et al. [31] found that several HRM practices (namely, internal communication, training and performance appraisals) play an important role in helping firms to build absorptive capacity and to enhance knowledge transfer during mergers and acquisitions. Knowledge sharing practices must be integrated into strategic business objectives, human resources practices, and the organization’s culture so as to encourage and support on-going collaborative behavior [32].
\nSome scholars have highlighted recently “Knowledge-based HRM” including those HRM practices purposefully designed to enhance knowledge processes within an organization [33] with the need to reposition its functions, orienting them towards strategic capacities of knowledge. That is to manage knowledge workers, to construct a value from knowledge and to assess the risk of knowledge loss [7]. For instance, Hussinki et al. [34] divided HRM practices into several categories such as heterogeneous workgroups and brainstorming commitment-based HR practices (e.g., employee empowerment and career development) and knowledge-based (e.g., recruiting, professional development, and employee retention).
\nBroadly speaking, HRM should be aligned with KM and organizational strategies, especially as there is a positive relationship between HRM and those of performance and innovation [21, 35, 36]. HR policies should also be evaluated on their ability to foster the application of personal knowledge for the benefit of the firm. Gourlay [37] added that the employees’ willingness to cooperate with KM initiatives is likely to be dependent on HRM policies and procedures. Moreover, Kase and Zupan [35] commented that the performance of HRM should be linked with learning, innovation and intellectual capital. It should focus on building social capital and knowledge networks. An advantage of using HRM is that it is built through the maintenance and development of human capital and organizational processes. This gives it a major role in managing social networks, which are essential in transferring tacit knowledge. Hosseingholizadeh et al. [38] added that HR practices have a vital role in supporting knowledge-work within organizations, especially that they empirically confirmed that motivation, ability and the opportunity provided to knowledge-workers influence knowledge application, sharing and creation. HR practices should focus mainly on enhancing employees’ ability and motivation for them to contribute individually to KM activities.
\nSome scholars have stated previously that the HR section in an organization is the one best equipped to handle KM initiatives due to the fact that the activities of the department itself do not directly conflict with the KM initiatives [39]. However, whether or not the HR section is chosen to undertake this role is based on the performance of the department, i.e., the better it performs, the more trust is generated within the organization and the more likely it is to be chosen as the best candidate to roll out KM initiatives [40]. It should also be borne in mind that HRM practices are not exclusively actioned by the HR department per se; top, medium and line managers are highly involved in HR practices as well. This leads to the assumption that, even if HR departments are assigned to play a leading role in KM, strong results are not expected exclusively from them [19].
\nHRM at its strategic and functional levels should be aligned with organizational and KM strategies and practices. The personalization approach usually aids decentralized, explorative and double-loop learning along with organic organizational strategies. This is different from the codification approach, which aids to a greater extent centralized, exploitative and single-loop learning along with standardization strategies [22, 41]. HRM practices in an organization are adjusted in line with which approach is adopted. In the literature, it is not clear exactly how the combination approach, when used, handles the different KM approaches and organizational strategies in the context of translating their goals into HRM practicalities. Thus, the chapter focuses on the personalization and codification strategies while assigning the contextual HR practices under each strategy.
\nTo understand the overall effect HRM practices can have, it is best to view them in combinations [41]. Horwitz et al. [42] stated that HRM practices should be aligned with HRM, KM and organizational strategies but also noted that other organizational factors could also be considered to influence the development of HRM practices. These factors could be the size and nature of the industry, the organizational characteristics of a firm and the ownership structure of a firm, along with cross-cultural factors and cultural differences. The competitiveness of human capital has also been claimed to have an effect on the selection of HRM practices, which inevitably goes on to affect KM [43].
\nIn short, various HRM practices do have a noticeable effect on KM [36, 40, 44, 45, 46]. There are, of course, numerous HRM practices that exist in current literature; however, only six HR practices that have been discussed in depth in previous literature are analyzed in this article. These six HR practices are: recruitment and selection, compensation management, training and development, performance management, retention management and career management. Although each will be discussed separately, the alignment of each practice with others under each KM strategy is highlighted in Table 1. In this study, according to Kianto et al. [33], traditional HRM practices have seen from a knowledge-based perspective and integrated with KM. The nature of these practices is outlined in the following sections.
\n\n | Codification | \nPersonalization | \n
---|---|---|
HRM | \nAlignment with the codification and organizational strategies Focus on retrieving and contributing to explicit knowledge Focus on short-term contributions Catering for centralization, exploitative, single-loop learning and standardization strategies | \nAlignment with the personalization and organizational strategies Focus on knowledge sharing and creation and innovation Focus on the short-term, medium-term and long-term contributions Catering to decentralization, explorative, double-loop learning and organic strategies | \n
Recruitment and selection | \nLimited sets of skills and experience for most new recruits with a focus to fill “job vacancies” Highly qualified “key employees” with demonstrated technical knowledge The tendency towards seeking a cultural fit | \nFocus on filling “knowledge gaps” Highly qualified new recruits with knowledge depth and breadth, ability to learn and willingness to share knowledge The tendency towards achieving a flexible and diversified culture | \n
Compensation management | \nIndividual incentives Extrinsic rewards Short-term incentives | \nBoth individual and group incentives Intrinsic rewards are primary while extrinsic ones should satisfy Both short-term and long-term incentives | \n
Training and development | \nFor most, training subjects are limited to procedural knowledge and IT skills needed to accomplish current tasks Formal T&D Internal T&D Structured T&D | \nTraining subjects are diversified and address technical and interpersonal skills needed for current and future tasks The training aims to strengthen the depth and breadth of knowledge embedded in employees Informal T&D is primary and formal T&D is secondary Both internal and external T&D Unstructured T&D is primary and structured T&D is secondary | \n
Performance management | \nFocus on basic business and IT knowledge Focus on individual performance Utilized to identify underperformers Underperformers face a high risk of dismissal | \nFocus on the breadth and depth of knowledge/skills/competencies Focus on individual and group performance Utilized to locate the knowledge gaps and to form personal development plans Underperformers are tolerated | \n
Retention management | \nLow retention rates Retention plan focuses on a few key experts Knowledge-retention orientation through codification | \nHigh retention rates People-retention orientation Direct knowledge-sharing between leavers and successors | \n
Career management | \nLimited progress for most employees Rare hierarchal and lateral movements | \nPromotion is encouraged and, at many organizations, it is a must Dual career ladders Early lateral movements Potential shortage in managerial skills due to emphasizing technical career ladders | \n
The role of HRM in supporting various KM strategies.
Constantly new and changing demands in the world of work create challenges for HR professionals attempting to identify and develop relevant talent. However, the identification and development of talent have generally been based on a technical rational perspective that is driven from labor economics [12]. But, it seems that traditional recruitment and selection practices can block knowledge sharing between groups or departments in firms organized according to the functional principle [22]. In a knowledge-intensive labor market, it is increasingly difficult to assess the competence of individuals in relation to the requirements of specific jobs [12].
\nThe recruitment and selection process are what provide the input of human capital. From a KM standpoint, recruitment and selection should aim at filling knowledge gaps, which allows an organization to adopt a more flexible approach, as opposed to simply “filling jobs” [47]. The aim of the recruitment process is to attract, obtain and create knowledge [42]. Moreover, Arunprasad [25] found that staffing is a significant factor contributing to the learning dynamics and innovation within firms—both at the individual and group levels.
\nFirstly, within the personalization strategy, knowledge workers’ essential abilities and skills required for efficient KM, which are: a commitment to learn and develop, creativity, the ability to deal with complexity, adaptability and cooperation [33, 47]. Smith [36] added to this list lateral and visionary thinking, demonstrated skills and abilities, resilience, the capacity to be a team player and a willingness to share accrued knowledge. Further to this, Robertson and Hammersley [48] identified high specialization, knowledge in other disciplines, commercial awareness and innovative ability as strong characteristics on which to base a recruitment decision. Narasimha [49] also stressed demonstrated depth and breadth of knowledge as being important. Taylor [50] stated that new recruits must also have altruistic behavior. Arunprasad [25] observed that selection criteria of new recruits test for learning ability of individuals, decision-making approach, a desire to share tacit knowledge and readiness to take additional responsibility. In addition to the aforementioned abilities and competencies, it could be argued that the higher the occupation level recruited for under the personalization strategy, the more the hiring decision accounts for the intensity of industry experience and the demonstrated depth and breadth of specific bodies of knowledge. In short, knowledge-based recruitment involves a strong and explicit focus on choosing candidates with relevant knowledge, learning and networking capabilities [33].
\nAs for the process of recruitment and selection under a codification strategy, most new recruits target to fill vacancies at the entry-level positions. Hansen et al. [21], stipulates that new recruits—at junior levels—need limited specialized knowledge for their employment as their job description is mainly concerned with extracting knowledge from databases. Accordingly, the selection decision focuses on the candidates’ abilities and skills to effectively utilize codified knowledge, to abide by preset work processes and procedures and to be productive within a short time frame after joining the organization. However, when it comes to the few experts that organizations depend on to design products and services, formulate work processes and procedures and ensure customer satisfaction, the selection processes focus on their demonstrated experience and depth of knowledge that could be directly exploited after joining the firm. Consistently, an effective selection is vital to acquire new knowledge and increase innovation for top key employees in the hotel industry [51]. That said, they found that this is not true for low-skill workers; where recruiting them will not have a significant effect on increasing the human capital. Firms which adopt the codification strategy, the development of technological solutions is encouraged, particularly in electronic recruitment and psychometric testing [22, 52]. Therefore, based on the preceding analysis of required KSAs under each strategy, it could be argued that the recruitment and selection process is more stringent for companies that adopt a personalization strategy as opposed to those that adopt a codification strategy.
\nAnother major debate in relation to the recruitment and selection process is concerned with so-called “cultural fitness.” Studies highlight the importance of a fit between new recruits and the organization’s knowledge culture. They stress a fit between organizational culture and hiring of suitable personalities, as well as the socialization of individuals into the culture of the firm [22]. Others emphasized the need to select individuals capable of adapting to different cultures rather than fitting an existing culture [47]. The logic behind this thinking is that the organizational culture of a firm may change in essence over time, rather than remaining fixed and static. Furthermore, Currie and Kerrin [53] placed emphasis on the importance of new employees having a good level of general business knowledge rather than simply having the functional skills required for the role, the reason being that employees with good general business knowledge can more effectively “bridge” the cultural gap between organizational entities. To present a different point of view, Kase and Zupan [35] emphasized the importance of recruitment and selection in being able to find people who fit the organizational culture and support knowledge networks. This “cultural fit” perspective was criticized due to the potential risk of duplicating employee skills, which in turn could limit the ability of newly recruited employees to contribute their new skills to the knowledge base of the company [47]. It may be hypothesized from the literature that the “cultural fit” approach to recruitment is more suitable for companies that adopt the codification approach to KM, whilst recruiting employees who embody cultural diversity and flexibility would be better suited to companies that adopt the personalization approach to KM. Thus, the recruitment process for all the companies considers the level of fit between the individual and the organizational culture. This influences the cultural aspects of the socialization process of individuals within the organization, as well as encourages and supports the interchange of knowledge among the old and new members [8].
\nAdding to the work of Hansen et al. [21], Haesli and Boxall [19] highlighted that the organizations that adopt the codification strategy to KM suffer from a relatively higher labor turnover than those that follow the personalization strategy. So, to maintain a level of staff necessary to sustain the organization, a large portion of the duties undertaken in the HRM department will be based around the recruitment and replacement of people to fill the natural vacancies caused by high staff turnover. The working environment in a company also tends to repress the full range of skills an employee possesses. This is due to the fact that there are often few opportunities to utilize such skills, as these types of companies often have an expected dependency on IT and existing information and solutions. These kinds of companies, however, do tend to exhibit a higher level of overall HR spending due to the relatively larger expense of training and recruiting new employees along with having to live with reduced productivity during the induction periods of new recruits. Gope et al. [8] found that most of the companies tend to focus on the use of employment agencies to recruit talented employees and introduce new knowledge into the company. However, also the internal recruitment process is adopted, mainly for promotions and change of positions.
\nArguably, compensation management acts as an effective tool to motivate employees to acquire, use, share, transfer and create knowledge [33, 36, 39]. Compensation management system should recognize innovation, risk-taking and group collaboration [46]. Furthermore, some scholars have suggested that relative compensation should also be based on contribution, knowledge and skills without sole emphasis on hierarchical position, i.e., taking into account teamwork and flexibility rather than functional and individual measures [54, 55]. Despres and Hiltrop [54] added that rewards should be engineered based on employees’ perceptions and not those of managers, with proper justification and communication.
\nOne of the main arguments in this area is focused on whether individual or group incentives should be utilized as a source of motivation to stimulate KM activities. Kase and Zupan [35] stressed the importance of group incentives, arguing that they encourage network cohesion. Yet, they also acknowledge the importance of all incentive levels being included in the overall compensation of individuals. Laursen and Mahnke [41] state that individual incentives serve to underline the strong performance of individual employees when carrying out personal tasks. Yet, they also stress that the process of allocating individual incentives should be reliably measured or the process could be viewed as being complicated and lacking in fairness. Siemsen et al. [56] graded compensation management based on inter-employee linkages within workgroups. These gradings can be categorized under three group headings: outcome, help and knowledge linkages. The first group, outcome, tends to emphasize the coordination of the group whilst the latter two promote cooperation. They found that if employees are “outcome-linked” then individual incentives were found to work best; however, if the employees are reliant on helping each other (or “help-linked”) within the group to complete the goal, then group incentives produce an optimal result. When employees are knowledge-linked then both individual and group incentives are considered vital and complementary. Individual incentives are important in encouraging an employee to put his/her acquired knowledge into use, while the group incentives encourage possessors to share their knowledge. Siemsen et al. [56] made similar findings that add to Taylor’s [50] contribution in which he found that group-based incentives promote a greater degree of co-operation between employees. Moreover, Quigley et al. [57] found that group incentives are stronger in promoting knowledge sharing from the provider perspective when supported by organizational norms.
\nTherefore, whenever tasks are interrelated, group incentives are perceived as a better choice of compensatory measure for employees. This holds true whenever the standardization level is low and the output process is complex. Another potential drawback to individual incentives is that they limit potential knowledge and information sharing, i.e., they create an atmosphere of secrecy. When individual incentives are used by organizations, they tend to be used to reward the achievement of personal and short-term goals. Overall knowledge creation and the achievement of long-term objectives are rewarded through group incentives. Thus, the literature indicates that group incentives are more suitable than individual ones when interaction and direct tacit knowledge sharing are required. In this fashion, group incentives then seem to serve companies that adopt personalization strategies the best; however, individual incentives are not wholly excluded: rather they are relegated to playing a secondary role. If individual incentives were dominant in this type of organization, then employees would be encouraged to push for an outcome favorable to themselves as opposed to pursuing the group goal. For companies with a codification-based strategy, personal incentives are more commonplace. This is due to the fact that interaction between employees is less necessary to the company goal and personal effort in extracting explicit knowledge is considered more essential.
\nAnother issue related to compensation management is whether intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards or a combination of the two should be given to personnel completing KM-based tasks. For this circumstance, it seems that the characteristics of personnel described in knowledge worker-based literature are in alignment with those described in the literature published about the personalization strategy. Smith [36] claimed that knowledge workers value nonfinancial incentives more than financial ones. Consistently, Zhou et al. [31] found that performance-based compensation (extrinsic) has an insignificant effect in supporting absorptive capacity and knowledge transfer in mergers and acquisitions. Additionally, Despres and Hiltrop [54] suggested that effective compensation systems during the knowledge economy era should place emphasis on social and intrinsic needs rather than extrinsic needs (which should be regarded as secondary). Not underestimating extrinsic motivators, Hosseingholizadeh et al. [38] empirically demonstrated that intrinsic motivators have much more influence on knowledge-work than extrinsic motivators. Lee and Ahn [58], in addition to this, argued that intrinsic rewards tend to support the vision of a company that holds a personalization-based approach, whilst formal extrinsic rewards tend to support the vision of a company that holds a codification-based approach.
\nWhereas Vicere [59] stressed that knowledge workers should be paid fairly and mostly want part of the organizational profit through methods of equity sharing. Gope et al. [8]\' findings also stated employees are expected to repeat positive behavior in obtaining rewards and recognition by the company. Thus, the firms use compensation and rewards as tools to elicit, enhance and maintain the desired knowledge sharing behavior of employees.
\nMany scholars stated that compensation systems should strike a balance between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, for each addresses a different “need” [39, 58]. Managers can use both tangible/financial (e.g., bonuses and one-off rewards) and intangible/nonfinancial incentives (e.g., status and recognition) to motivate employees to share, create and apply knowledge [33]. This is consistent with the practices of most companies, where this kind of rewarding system motivates and supports individual employee’s performances through better learning and commitment that increase the motivation to share and create new knowledge, as already confirmed in other studies [8].
\nAnother debate in this topic area is that concerning the use of short-term and long-term rewards. Many argue that using a combination of the two is the most favored method for companies, as the short-term rewards act as a direct motivator encouraging individual and group contributions, whilst long-term rewards are important for the retention of employees by rewarding them for long-term organizational performance [47]. Olomolaiye and Egbu [39] highlighted the importance of long-term incentives in the process of grouping key contributors with the organization. It can be hypothesized that short-term incentives would be utilized to a greater degree in the codification-based companies; however, both reward types seem important in personalization-based and combination-based companies.
\nTraining and development allow the employees of an organization to acquire and develop key skills that improve personal and organizational performance. The process itself is viewed by many scholars as being an effective HRM practice that aids the implementation of the KM strategy, activities and outcomes. HRM-related research on KM is chiefly focused on the transfer of knowledge by training [60]. Knowledge transfer concerns various forms of learning, the creation of a knowledge sharing climate, the establishment of training units which assess and analyze training needs, provide and evaluate training, and lead towards learning organizations [10]. Application of training is important to develop employees’ learning capabilities and provide a common language and shared vision. This would develop a high level of self-efficacy so that employees may feel more assured of their abilities and will be more likely to exchange knowledge with others, thus fostering the acquisition of new knowledge and the dissemination of individual knowledge within the firm [8]. Training and development has a positive effect on increasing human capital and subsequently innovation within the hotel industry [51]. They argued that employee development tends to be much more effective than recruitment in increasing human capital. Similarly, Keat and Lin [61] found that talent development has a mediating effect between knowledge management and organizational performance in Malaysian private colleges. They added that employee development is more important than retention management, as their findings found no support that talent retention has a mediating factor between knowledge management and organizational performance.
\nTo begin with, this section investigates the subjects of training under each KM strategy. Training subjects under personalization are more diverse than under codification and include subjects that strengthen employees’ technical and interpersonal skills. Yahya and Goh [46] also declared that training should include some leadership skills and the ability to manage change as well as further training in the use of creativity, problem-solving skills and quality initiatives. Training is an important way of complementing the breadth and depth of knowledge that already exists in individuals in line with the KM strategy of the organization (which should identify the current competencies and the competencies that are desired in the future) [49]. Similarly, Kianto et al. [33] stated that knowledge-based training and development involve regularly developing the depth and breadth of employees\' knowledge and expertise, personalizing training to fit particular needs and, finally, ensuring continuous employee development. In order to stay at the forefront of their professional fields they must be constantly aware of developments within their specific disciplines and professions and they need to participate in activities that offer opportunities to further their own professional development [22]. Smith [36] also added that developing a breadth of knowledge helps to create a strong general ability within employees, whilst developing a depth of knowledge produces employees with specialist knowledge. Training should be suggested as a means of focusing on growing the exploratory knowledge of employees instead of simply concentrating on developing traditional exploitative knowledge [36]. For skilled workers, providing team-based training, project-oriented training, on-the-job training, leadership development and other programs that are designed to improve quickly the employees’ learning capability are vital [8].
\nOn the other hand, the vast majority of training under a codification strategy is concerned with equipping employees with the technical skills that are needed for employees to be functional within their current role. The main training subjects focus on gaining procedural knowledge and enabling employees’ to effectively utilize IT.
\nThe training and development process is generally classified as being either formal or informal, with each classification contributing differently to KM. Brelade and Harman [47] saw formal training as an aid enabling employees who have the relevant skills to utilize information, create knowledge and work in teams. Smith [36] highlighted the importance of educating employees to enable them to understand the knowledge concept and the approach to knowledge that their company has adopted. This can be achieved by using awareness programs and by informing the employees within the company of new processes and procedures. The training should also include the appropriate usage of IT, and employees should know how and what knowledge should be located, extracted, used and shared. Moreover, as the mentors and coaches of employees, managers should be well trained especially when it comes to delivering feedback on how they can improve and foster creativity [59]. According to O\'Neill and Adya [32], effective communication strategies by themselves are insufficient to transform employees into active knowledge workers. Managers must educate employees on how to share knowledge in ways that benefit the organization as well as their own careers. This necessitates familiarity with effective knowledge sharing practices, processes, and supporting technologies [32]. Direct training also involves building people skills such as networking, team building and effective communication.
\nAs for informal training and development, Olomolaiye and Egbu [39] highlighted its importance in strengthening knowledge sharing and competencies such as through mentorship and on-the-job training. They suggested that employees should be involved in different teams, to help build their cooperation and knowledge-sharing capabilities, as an excellent informal training method. Alonderiene et al. [62] stated that up to 70 or 90% of workplace learning takes place at an informal level. Kase and Zupan [35] also stressed that employees’ skills can be developed strongly if they are moved between different workgroups to experience different working patterns. Filius et al. [44] also state that a high level of effective learning takes place when employees are involved in innovative projects. Smith [36] added that partnership working, peer assistance and a strong apprentice-mentor relationship all contribute to effective informal training. Cai et al. [63] found that informal network, not a formal one, has a significant impact on employees’ performance. A study conducted by Manuti et al. [64] showed that communities of practice are effective learning spaces; beneficial for both individuals and organizations. From an individual perspective, communities could be beneficial in developing professional skills, a stronger sense of identity and finding continuity even during discontinuity and change. From an organizational perspective, communities of practice could help drive the strategy, start new lines of business, solve problems quickly and transfer best practices. Sprinkle and Urick [65] suggested that improved learning will occur in organizations that facilitate targeted socialization, respond to new preferences and trends in development programs while leveraging multiple approaches including informal/individualized initiatives (such as on-the-job education, mentorship programs), and embrace multiple types of volunteering activities.
\nThe majority of literature that focuses on informal training tends to emphasize its role in building interaction, tacit knowledge sharing, creativity and innovation, which directly contribute to the goals of a company that has a personalization-based approach. Formal training is still important in an organization that has adopted this strategy type, but it tends to play a more secondary role. As for organizations that have a codification-based approach, the majority of the training is conducted formally and consists of the teaching of routine skills that are generally basic business- and IT-based.
\nAlso, training can be classified as internal or external. Laursen and Mahnke [41] realized that internal training helps to form effective teams and develop strong team working. Internal training also aids in the externalization (converting tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge) and socialization (sharing tacit knowledge) phases in Nonaka’s Socialization-Externalization-Combination-Internalization (SECI) model whilst external training strengthens the internalization phase (converting explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge). Both are essential for knowledge creation and sharing. External training can help employees to acquire new skills and learn about new technologies. However, the training is not usually firm-specific. Varying forms of internal training such as internal seminars and “on-the-job” training are seen to be of greater help in nurturing more company-specific knowledge. Kase and Zupan [35] also stated that internal training helps to build cohesive groups while external training helps to form intra-organizational and extra-organizational networks.
\nFirms adopting codification strategies tend to hire undergraduates and train them in groups to be implementers, i.e., to emphasize knowledge acquisition, manipulation, and storage, including the focus on technology [21, 52]. Personalization firms hire graduates to be inventors, i.e., to use their analytical and creative skills on unique business problems, and to share and disseminate knowledge [22]. In codification-based firms, employees are trained to achieve specific tasks that generally only need existing firm processes to achieve their goals; therefore, internal training is seen to be sufficient. However, personalization-based firms tend to emphasize knowledge creation and innovation, which often require both external and internal input. Consequently, the dual use of both internal and external training is seen to be favorable.
\nMoving onto a different aspect of training and development, Robertson and Hammersley [48] stated that training and development needs should be specified by the employees themselves due to the fact that they, more than anyone else, should have an idea of their strengths and weaknesses. Employees should be trusted with their choices and consequently make it their own personal responsibility to integrate training activities into their schedule without interfering with their workload and productivity. A parallel view of this theory was found by Filius et al. [44], who noted that firms seem to prefer unstructured training. However, many scholars argue that such freedom offered to workers should be infrequent and training direction should be disseminated from the top of an organizational hierarchy downwards. There are also positive aspects to such structured training, which consist of the ability to build a common understanding of a workforce that helps lower “barriers” when developing a work culture. Bearing these factors in mind, it can be hypothesized that structured training best serves firms that have a codification-based approach. For firms that have an underpinning personalization-based strategy, unstructured training can act as a primary teaching tool, with structured training acting as a secondary training method.
\nWhen compared with other HRM practices, performance management seems to have the strongest impact on the activity of knowledge sharing within an organization [53]. Criteria that are measured send a message to employees of what is valued in the organization; therefore, performance management can hinder or support KM activities within and across organizational agents. Hannula et al. [45] stressed the use of this practice in measuring various competencies, as it tends to be a strong indicator for assessing KM activities within a firm. Olomolaiye and Egbu [39] went one step further by stating that performance appraisal should measure its outcome in terms of knowledge sharing and not simply through inputs and processes. Yahya and Goh [46] also emphasized its importance in changing employees’ behavior towards KM and also in highlighting the knowing-doing gap. The outcome of such an assessment should then act as an input to the KM process. Additionally, Arunprasad [25] found that performance evaluation, in addition to other HRM practices, contributes significantly to the organizational learning dynamics. He added that performance evaluation contributes to individual and team level learning, which is in line with some of the previous research conclusion.
\nThat said, performance management systems can inhibit knowledge sharing. Along the performance management lines, Currie and Kerrin [53] recognized that varying company departments have differing performance management systems that tend to reflect an individual department’s goal as opposed to a company one. This seems to have caused knowledge sharing to be stronger within the company departments but weakened from department to department. Consistently, Edvardsson [22] found that conflict between different functions can be due to the divergent objectives set out for employees in the performance agreements. In this circumstance, the focus should be given to long-term organizational goals such as learning rather than solely stressing the short-term targets set for departmental performance. O\'Neill and Adya [32] stressed the need to involve managers to individually motivate workers to share knowledge, especially that knowledge-sharing as an activity tends to be intrinsically motivating to employees on their own and in the moment. Therefore, orientation coaching and mentoring should be provided by managers in addition to including knowledge sharing in performance appraisals.
\nOlomolaiye and Egbu [39] also argued that performance appraisal should stress intrinsic needs, teamwork and collaboration. Additionally, Brelade and Harman [47] were of the view that the assessment should include the acquisition of new skills and knowledge by an employee and how he or she has taken on new projects and responsibilities, contributed to a community or a team and participated in developing others. Along similar lines, Narasimha [49] looked at the performance appraisal process as a measurement of innovation level and how an employee has sought to develop knowledge. However, Smith [36] raised the issue of complexity and difficulty in measuring intangible outcomes such as tacit knowledge sharing. That said, Kianto et al. [33] stressed that performance appraisal should focus on development and feedback, rather than taken as an evaluative tool only. Feedback helps to identify gaps between performance and targets.
\nOne of the main outcomes of the appraisal process is the aim to reward employees who contribute positively to KM outcomes and activities. Reasonable failures should be tolerated in order to promote a culture of action and risk-taking [46]. In their case study on a knowledge-intensive organization, Robertson and Hammersley [48] realized that underperformers were endured due to the realization that the knowledge-creation process is inconsistent and unpredictable and holds the possibility that it may not succeed. Olomolaiye and Egbu [39] added that performance appraisal helps to allocate key knowledge holders, which then enables organizations to focus on the retention of those employees. However, all of these aims are based on healthy feedback from management, which requires a high level of specific training for managers on how to develop such skills.
\nFinally, performance management has been recognized by some as one of the strongest influences on KM as a whole. The topics of debate that have occurred in the literature about this subject can be summarized as follows: how and what is measured in the appraisal process, who should be rewarded and the process to deal with underperformers. In companies with a codification approach, performance management is all about measuring and improving known and expected tasks, which are based around an employee’s ability to grasp and implement basic business and IT knowledge. Underperformers can be considered somewhat expendable and easily replaced due to the simple nature of the skills needed for the role. Also, within the codification strategy, efforts associated with systems and technologies are more likely to be recognized and rewarded. Inside such a paradigm, key performance is related to technology, technology application and the volume of data [22]. At the opposite end of the scale, a company with a personalization-based approach is concerned with the breadth and depth of an employee’s skills and competencies. Underperformers are tolerated as the tasks they undertake can be considered as relatively more complex, mostly intangible and riskier. Moreover, the personalization paradigm focuses more on people, where key performance indicators are related to people and tacit forms of knowledge as well as the quality of data [22].
\nMany scholars claim that organizations should value the high levels of tacit and personal knowledge that many people have, and it should be down to HRM to build effectively a good level of loyalty and retention rates [39]. Papa et al. [66] found that employee retention improves the effect of knowledge acquisition and innovation performance. They explained that employee retention increases employee commitment and trust, thus fostering knowledge specialization and fortification and creating an innovation culture. Moreover, employee retention increases knowledge retention and organizational knowledge base. Knowledge retention will even augment when benefiting from the employee knowledge-acquisition.
\nDeveloping the knowledge worker’s organizational loyalty does appear to be more problematic because of labor market conditions, where the skills and knowledge of knowledge workers are typically relatively scarce, creates conditions for knowledge workers which are favorable to mobility. This is a potential problem because the knowledge possessed by knowledge workers is typically highly tacit [18]. Horwitz et al. [42] found that retention management was a useful tool for retaining organizational knowledge. They added that high retention rates help to protect the cultural fabric, competitive capability and intellectual capital of an organization. Moreover, Kase and Zupan [35] mentioned that, in certain networks, there are individuals who are placed in a central position that makes them essential for KM activities. With that in mind, effort should be made to retain, train and develop such personnel. This could require changing the HR strategy to an organization that is more learning-based. Studies on knowledge workers have found that they tend to have a high need for autonomy, significant drives for achievement, stronger identity and affiliation with a profession than a company, and a greater sense of self-direction. These characteristics make them likely to resist the authoritarian imposition of views, rules and structures [22].
\nRetention management is currently facing many challenges, one of which was raised by Young [67]—the aging workforce issue. This particular problem has been intensified because of increasing competition to attract younger employees and complications that have arisen from passing knowledge from one generation to another, as well a lack of age diversity in an organization [42]. Some of the solutions that have been suggested for knowledge retention in these circumstances are: the codification of retirees’ knowledge, potentially offering them part-time or flex-time jobs, undertaking succession planning, making early identification of potential leaders for the organization and training them in mentoring programs and, finally, phased retirement options. Another issue is the higher turnover rates of knowledge workers. Knowledge workers have higher turnover rates that result in them costing 2.5 times more than other workers due to re-employment costs [42]. It has been noted though that the new generation, generally, tends to have less organizational loyalty [67].
\nSmith [36] suggested that retention management should be about retaining knowledge rather than people. For this purpose, some organizations have created formal knowledge-retention methods in order to capture the existing level of knowledge held by experienced personnel who are due to leave. Some firms conduct exit interviews and knowledge-capture sessions, while others opt for even more systematic and scheduled knowledge-retention approaches. The knowledge that is acquired by these means can be utilized to set up various beneficial company practices. However, the ability of organizations to transform tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge is still considered to be problematic and there are still many academics who question the effectiveness of using formal methods to capture tacit knowledge.
\nOn the subject of why a company may have a high retention rate, the cause among some knowledge workers is a supportive working environment [48]. They state that recommendations should be made to companies to trust employees to manage their own time and tasks as well as offering them the freedom to choose the projects they are willing to work on based on their judgment of their own ability to contribute to a project. High retention rates could be achieved through motivating employees by using an incentive system that rewards the sharing of knowledge and provides recognition [42]. They added that job satisfaction is the result of a fair salary, the nature of work undertaken and future employability prospects along with good quality relationships with peers. Similarly, Gope et al. [8] found that many companies provide high professional training, career opportunity and high compensation packages to attract the employees and enhance their ability and motivation for acquiring knowledge. If the company succeeds to retain their employees, then the organization benefits from the knowledge embedded within them. Besides, the organizational and dynamic culture based on individual empowerment, reciprocal engagement and flexible benefit encourages employees to continue to work in the same organization. Accordingly, mixtures of rewards are needed to motivate knowledge workers. These include: equitable salary structures; profit-sharing or equity-based rewards; a variety of employee benefits; flexibility over working time and location, as well as being given credit for significant pieces of work.
\nFor many knowledge workers it is as motivating to have free time to work on knowledge-building projects, going to conferences or spending time on interesting projects, as monetary rewards [22]. Haesli and Boxall [19] realized, through empirical evidence that organizations that follow a personalization-based approach do tend to emphasize the retention of employees as a methodology for maintaining overall competency levels. The retention process can be achieved through understanding employees’ particular needs and by meeting their expectations, engineering an adequate compensation system, providing challenging work and autonomy and linking payments to an individual’s performance and capabilities. However, firms must be aware that retention is not the “be all and end all,” i.e., complete focus must not be placed on only retaining personnel skills as recruiting new employees is still a powerful method of enriching the current body of knowledge in an organization.
\nAlvesson [68] managed to identify two forms of loyalty. The first is institutional loyalty, which is formed through the working culture, the social norms and supporting practices within a particular group or company. The second type of loyalty is called communication loyalty. It is formed by creating an identity for oneself through a group and by forming strong interpersonal relationships and sharing common interests. Both can be considered important; however, for the knowledge workers group, communication loyalty seems to act as a stronger retention factor. Additionally, Brelade and Harman [47] emphasized the importance of the psychological contract with an employee and the addressing of personal aspirations and lifestyle issues in relation to retaining knowledge workers. They added that knowledge workers are more inclined to leave due to the leadership and managerial styles exhibited in a company rather than salary issues.
\nCompanies with a codification-based approach seem to be less concerned with employee retention, with the exception arising when it comes to keeping key experts who contribute to their explicit knowledge body. Companies that have a personalization-based approach place more value on personal and tacit knowledge and tend to be keener to engage in the struggle for high retention rates. In other words, codification-based companies tend to concentrate on pure knowledge retention whilst personalization-based companies place a greater emphasis on retaining people.
\nCareer management is the personal and organizational responsibility for employee professional progression by increasing their knowledge base and allowing them to progress within the organizational hierarchy. The changing nature of work towards knowledge work has resulted in a major transition in the shape of careers and their management within organizations and novel approaches for the management of careers evolve, at both the individual and the organizational levels [69].
\nMany scholars emphasize that knowledge sharing is enabled through functional teams and individuals who act to decrease the potential barriers between different divisions or departments. Yet, such adjustments, especially when it comes to lateral movements that are needed to form such teams, are somewhat risky in nature, as there is a risk that some individuals may leave their organizations due to this situation [53]. The conscious choice of an employee to leave in this situation is down to their personal preference to stay within their expertise area. Examples of other causes may include fear of losing power and status, lack of awareness of potential benefits and lack of trust. So, it has been suggested that such movements should be undertaken at the early stages of careers, so as to establish a “norm” within a career plan. This could potentially aid the new recruits from the outset, in forming their internal network and utilizing it as they progress later on.
\nHansen et al. [21] suggested that different KM strategies require different methods of career management. Companies that have adopted the personalization approach like to promote upward movements: it is either “up or out” for some. Some scholars claim that knowledge workers have primary responsibility for their own career development [69]. Employee seen as especially valuable to the organization are developed more proactively by the organization and this often includes a stronger role for the organization in planning their careers and facilitating careers moves-now part of \'talent management\' [70]. Along the same line, Gope et al. [8] revealed that companies encourage their employees towards self-choice career development and unhindered growth and provide them with flexibility and opportunities to enhance individual learning capabilities for creating new knowledge and sharing it in different functions and divisions. This is consistent with other studies on knowledge acquisition and knowledge sharing. Subsequently, some firms have created two hierarchies as a response to the personal career needs: a managerial hierarchy and an expert-oriented hierarchy. However, the increasing willingness of knowledge workers to stay in their domain of expertise mixed with the onset of increased organizational de-layering (which forces a reduction in the numbers of middle managers), there is a relative drought occurring of managerial talents that are needed to fill senior positions. Accordingly, firms are looking outside their own firms and recruiting externally to fill top managerial positions. This is increasing the personnel cost due to the labor market shortage and the decreasing retention rate.
\nThis is at odds with a codification-based company, where progress is limited due to emphasis being placed on routine job roles [21]. Hierarchal movements are also limited for low-skilled employees. There is always difficulty in sparking interest in career progression in such mundane environments.
\nOverall, however, most scholars believe that career adjustments should always concentrate on involving KM roles and functions and then altering them to filling the knowledge gaps within the organization.
\nThe contributions made by this chapter can be separated into two major areas. The first contribution can be deemed as being the utilization of the KM Sequential Model to produce a logical link between various knowledge concepts, KM perspectives and KM strategies (Figure 1). The second contribution can be deemed as the suggestions made, based on the literature review, for the role of various HR practices in supporting different KM strategies (Table 1). The chapter suggests an alignment between HRM and its practices and various KM strategies. As many scholars have highlighted, in this study we proposed an integrative approach between KM and HRM, so that if we compare the KM cycle with HRM processes, we found that various activities are shared between both.
\nThe constructed framework of HR practices under each KM strategy assumed that the practices should be consistent in order to best support the organizational strategy towards KM. Arguably, the HR strategy achieves its optimal supportive role by constructing a combination of practices that are consistent and complimentary in catering to the objectives set by the organizational strategy. However, in reality this might not be the case. HR strategies are subject to other forces such as organizational size, available resources, leadership climate, internal politics and power structures, structural inertia and cultural considerations that might inhibit the alignment of HR practices with the identified KM strategies.
\nSo far, the available literature on the role of HRM in supporting KM theoretically suggests a strong potential contribution for HR practices in implementing effective KM strategies. Various HRM practices were discussed and relationships made with KM activities, although the relationships mooted were mainly theoretical in nature or focusing on a few HR practices to empirically claim such a relationship. Due to the perceived novelty of this research field within HRM specifically and management studies in general, there are many contributions that have the potential to be made in this field. That being said, there is a definite niche for empirical research to be undertaken in this particular area. There is, of course, a probability that undiscovered gaps between theory and practice do indeed exist. Moreover, most of the studies focused on a few HR practices and not comprehensively covered HR practices in supporting KM strategies. Therefore, future empirical studies that look at HR practices as a combination in supporting KM are needed to claim the alignment of HR practices in supporting KM activities in practice and not only in theory.
\nA targeted empirical research effort is definitely needed to uncover the mechanisms that link HRM and KM and aid the deepening of our academic and practical understanding of the subject. Academically, empirical research will add to the available body of knowledge in the KM and HRM literature and allow amendments to be made to theoretical assumptions. Practically speaking, this effort would help to enforce KM initiatives within firms and it would assist in repositioning HRM in a more strategic position fit for tackling the knowledge economy era.
\nWith the KM strategy and the implications it has for HRM, there is a debate regarding whether organizations should place emphasis on the personalization-based approach, the codification-based approach or a combination of the two. Although this argument may sound theoretical in nature, its empirical consequences are, nonetheless, important. Agreeing with Hansen et al. [21], the chapter indicates complications and inconsistencies when both a personalization strategy and a codification strategy are stressed. This is due to the differing—and sometimes contradictory—HRM practices suggested to support each strategy.
\nHowever, the suggestion put forth by Edwards et al. [23] is equally viable, based on a number of reasoning points. Firstly, both standpoints agree that a personalization approach and a codification approach coexist within a single organization, yet with different roles. They can either be rated as being of equal importance or as one method acting as a primary method with the other as a secondary method. Therefore, if Hansen et al. [21] are indeed right, then how can a supportive strategy be highlighted given that the firm places sole emphasis on its primary strategy? Secondly, although a combination approach may indicate an unclear strategic orientation within a company; this may actually be a reflection of the organizational complexity and the need to accommodate different strategies to serve various needs.
\nNonetheless, the combination approach is tempting in that it sums up well the benefits of the personalization and the codification strategies. However, if it is practiced then empirical examinations are needed so its implementation mechanisms can be understood. In theory, the combination approach seems more inclined towards a personalization-based approach, with minor differences. So, it can be hypothesized that, within a combination strategy, the HRM and organizational practices of a company with a personalization approach would prevail over those of a company that has adopted the codification approach. Yet, how would contradictory practices be resolved in such a strategy? Also, the adoption of the combination strategy would raise issues, one being equality and fairness based on whether employees are treated differently within one firm.
\nMoreover, the literature focuses on debating and studying KM strategies at the organizational level. However, this might be a limited perception of reality. Different KM strategies might exist at various organizational levels. Thus, further research studying KM strategies at the intra-organizational level might be useful to address how knowledge is managed at various geographical locations, occupational levels, departments and practices. Subsequently, How HRM practices accommodate for various KM strategies within the same organization? Are HRM practices customized within organizations to support various strategies or are they standardized based on the holistic KM orientation at the organizational level.
\nAlso, it is possible that both the HR and IT approaches within the same organization are weak and underdeveloped. Therefore, under such circumstances, how organizations manage their knowledge to ensure their output quality and quantity?
\nIt is also interesting to further investigate the contextual characteristics under each KM strategy. Hansen et al. [21] focused on the competitive strategy, economic models, IT and HR. Other attributes such as the leadership style, culture type and organizational structure are some factors that might act as forces influencing the KM strategy formulation and implementation.
\nAnother factor that future studies should focus on is the rise of artificial intelligence and its impact on KM and HR practices. It might be that the debate of either having a codification or personalization dominant strategy or the argument of having an equal-dominance coexistence of those strategies are obsolete. New KM strategies might emerge in organizations that highly depend on automation, artificial intelligence and big data, with a mass customization competitive advantage. For example, KM might be leaning towards a more partnership model between human capital and machines and software. Under such a strategy, what will be the role of HRM and how HR practices will be constructed? A parallel influence, related to the increasing embedment and dependence on technology within some organizations is the changing nature of the workplace and work arrangements. For example, the impact of the increasing trends of crowd-workers, virtual employees, teleworkers, dematerialization of workplace, etc., will definitely have an impact on KM and the supporting HR practices.
\nMetal nanowires (MNWs) such as silver, copper, nickel, and gold nanowires have a large value of conductivity and transparency. It could be replaced by ITO, but yet these MNWs networks or grids or meshes need more research and development (R&D) consideration from the scientific community in order to make them proficient for successful applications in recent transparent electrodes (TEs) industry. This can be realized by synthesizing MNWs using simple and economic solution-phase techniques and then transferring these MNWs into coating source. That coating source will be used to coat a transparent substrate with a film of MNWs. Even though silver (Ag) (approximately $766/kg) is costly than indium (In) (approximately $601/kg) [1, 2, 3], but these silver nanowires (Ag-NWs) can be synthesized using roll-to-roll inexpensive solution coating methods. Because of their economic processing expenditure, the stipulation of Ag-NWs is rising for their appliance in touch sensors as TEs.
Some researchers have reported the scalable synthesis of Cu-NWs via solution coating techniques to make TEs with performance equivalent to ITO [4]. This is inspired by the insight of combining the low cost and simple deposition techniques of Cu-NWs; since Cu is more copious (~1000 times) and less expensive (100 times) than Ag or In.
Recently, Cu-NWs have presented the transmittance of ~96% and sheet resistance of ~100 Ω/sq. However, a major challenge for the successful application of Cu-NWs as TEs is to protect it from oxidation while maintaining its performance equivalent to ITO. As discussed above, here are various substitutes available for ITO, but the successful candidate is MNWs networks or meshes which are capable of showing performance equivalent to ITO due to ease of synthesis via solution coating techniques. Moreover, MNWs networks or meshes are more flexible and stretchable as compared to ITO [5]. These nanowires based transparent conducting electrodes based devices or individual metal nanowires based nanodevices will be used under the harsh environment such as the upper space radiation environment. Therefore, radiation effects study on these metal nanowires is important.
Damage to the structure of nanomaterials on contact to high energy ion beams has been the general perceptive, but recent research has made known it to be as a tool to tailor electronic, optical and field emission properties and to change the structure of nanomaterials in an excellent controllable way [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Ion beam radiation effects on MNWs have been recently studied [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. In literature, protons ions irradiated bismuth nanowires (Bi-NWs) were reported and found that electrical conductivity decreased with an increase in protons beam fluence due to crystal structural damage, while see-back coefficient remained un-affected. It was concluded that the crystal structure of Bi-NWs destroyed under protons irradiation, which consequently decreased mobility, whereas carrier concentration was unchanged [17]. Molecular dynamics simulations study was reported to examine a damage profile in Cu-NWs that occurred during exposure to ions beam having low energies [18]. A similar study has been done employing molecular dynamics simulations and found that mechanical properties of Cu-NWs are devastated due to ion beam irradiation [19]. Moreover, enhancement in conductivity of Cu-NWs is reported after their irradiation with gamma rays [20]. In addition, Co-NWs were irradiated with gallium (Ga+) Ions and found that the propagation field of domain walls is modified within the magnetic channels [21]. Moreover, interconnections through welding of various nanomaterials have also been built using different ion beams, which lead to enhance electrical conductivity [22, 23, 24].
To understand ion implantation effects on nanomaterials clearly, one must be aware of radiations and basics of ion solid interaction mechanisms. However, the unfavorable outcomes of radiations are termed as radiation-induced damage. In the next section, the general effects of irradiation on materials are discussed briefly.
In ion beam implantation process principle is based on the extraction of beams of ions from the source and accelerate at a specific voltage often lies between 50 and 250 keV with a desired energy up to 10 MeV before transportation and impingement on the target or substrate [25]. The impingement causes the ions to interact with the specimen surface in which some are embedded in the specimen while some are scattered. Ion implantation is ingenious in surface modification of materials while retaining their bulk properties [25, 26, 27]. The beam implantation process, which can be static, broad and unidirectional, can either improve or cause a defect in the properties of materials like toughness, fatigue, wear, hardness, friction, dielectric, magnetic, electronic, resistive and superconductivity [25]. These effects are subjected to the applications of the prepared materials. This implantation can be done in materials like ceramics, insulators, semiconductors, metals, alloys and polymers. The magnitude of the defect caused in the materials depends majorly on the mass of the incoming ion to the specimen, the accelerating voltage used for the beam, the thermal properties of the point defects confining the cascade region and the crystal structure of the specimen [25, 26, 27, 28].
The most characteristic feature in ion implantation of materials is the generation of lattice disordered, which can be enhanced using low dose energy of heavy ions. In optical materials, ion implantation often stimulates luminescence to analyze the purity and point defects in the materials. Also, electro-optic, birefringence, refractive index, optical waveguide, reflectivity absorption band, thermoluminescence, electrical conductivity, piezoelectric, an optoelectric, and acoustic wave can be controlled with the effect of ion implantation [26, 27, 28].
The ion implantation effect also creates luminescence in some crystal materials. The luminesces observed during ion beam implantation in materials give information on the dynamic defect states owing to the transient features by the passage of ions that are difficult to excite. The defects observed can then be sensed by ion beam-induced luminescence and give information about the decay, impurities, or growth of the inherent defect state of the sample [24, 29].
The morphological image of un-implanted Ag-NWs is presented in Figure 1(a). The morphology shows long-shaped Ag-NWs. After 5 MeV, carbon ions implantation at the dose of 5 × 1014 ions/cm2, Ag-NWs diffused at the junction points, as shown in Figure 1(b) [30]. At high ion dose of 1 × 1016 ions/cm2, Ag-NWs start to be sliced, i.e., reduce the diameter and finally cut the nanowires as shown in Figure 1(c, d), respectively [30].
(a) Un-implanted Ag-NWs, (b) 5 MeV carbon ions at the dose of 5 × 1014 ions/cm2, and (c, d) 1 × 1016 ions/cm2 (reuse after copyrights permission) [
The un-implanted Cu-NWs image is presented in Figure 2(a), shows a long-shaped Cu-NWs. The diameters of un-irradiated Cu-NWs ranged from 100 to 150 nm. After 10 MeV Cu ions implantation at the dose of 5 × 1015 ions/cm2, Cu-NWs diffused at the junction points, as shown in Figure 2(b). At high ion dose of 1 × 1016 ions/cm2, Cu-NWs start to be sliced, i.e., reduce the diameter and finally NWs are cut, as shown in Figure 2(c).
(a) Un-implanted Cu-NWs, (b) 10 MeV Cu ions at 5 × 1015 ions/cm2, and (c) 1 × 1016 ions/cm2 fluence.
The TEM micrograph before H+ ions implantation of Ni-NWs is presented in Figure 3(a). The Ni-NWs showed minor melting on the surface of the nanowires. After implantation with 2.75 MeV H+ ions at fluence of 1 × 1016 ions/cm2, Ni-NWs diffused to each other at junction points and seen in Figure 3(b). The interconnections of Ni-NWs after H+ ions beam irradiation are clearly shown by the TEM analysis. The reason for the interconnections between Ni-NWs might be heat induced due to H+ ions beam irradiation, which leads to melt and fusing of Ni-NWs into each other at intersecting positions [13, 14].
(a) TEM image of Ni-NWs before H+ irradiation, and (b) TEM images of interconnected Ni-NWs after irradiation at a dose 1 × 1016 ions/cm2.
The morphological changes of MNWs such as the reduction in the diameter of nanowires after ion beam implantation, slicing and cutting metal nanowires might be heat induced owing to the ions beam implantation along the track of ions which leads to the melt and fuse of MNWs into each other at intersecting positions [13, 14]. As mentioned above, the connection of metal nanowires might be because of localize heat induced due to interaction of ions with MNWs or due to accumulation of atoms sputtered from MNWs lattices due to collision cascade effect induced by ions beam irradiation.
In our previous reports, a similar mechanism of the interconnection of MNWs was also observed after the interaction of H+ ions with Ag-NWs [13, 14]. In general, the interaction of ions with MNWs may be of two types: I-Columbic interaction in which energetic ions interact with electrons in the atoms of material or II-elastic interaction in which energetic ion strikes with nuclei of atoms in the material. If the collision between incident energetic ion and atom in the material would be of the elastic type, then an atom would be sputtered out from the lattice and lead to a secondary collision with another atom in the lattice. In this manner, the collision cascade effect would result in the ejection of atoms from NWs lattices. Usually, in case of low energy ions, the dominancy of the sputtering phenomenon would result in the accumulation of sputtered atoms on intersecting positions and lead to the interconnection between them. In the case of Columbic interaction, the generation of localized heat leads to the diffusion of atoms on the intersecting positions, which would result in the welding or joining of the intersecting positions.
In the case of metals, the produced heat due to the ionization and increase in the temperature of the metal are all absorbed. This increment in temperature would result in the melting of MNWs and eventually interconnection is obtained between the melted NWs on intersecting positions in a better way. If the beam energy incident ion is high in MeV range, then more chances of production of localized heat rather than collision cascade effect will be observed and if the beam energy is low in keV range then the sputtering phenomenon would be dominant [14].
XRD measurements taken at room temperature were used to study the structural changes in pristine and Ag-NWs as shown in Figure 4.
XRD spectra of (a) un-implanted Ag-NWs, (b) 5 MeV C ions at the dose of (c) 2 × 1015 ions/cm2.
The diffraction pattern of the pristine sample shows peaks at 2θ angles of 38.6° and 44.11o, which corresponds to (111) and (200) planes of face-centered cubic Ag-NW. However, when XRD patterns of C ion irradiated Ag-NWs were compared with the pristine XRD pattern, it revealed a slight shifting of 2θ positions of diffraction peaks. This shifting in the 2θ position might be due to strain, which is often produced from surface defects, grain boundaries, dislocations, etc. Moreover, it can be observed from Figure 4 that XRD peak intensities decrease with an increase in ion beam fluence. This decrease in XRD peak intensities might be due to the production of irradiation-induced defects such as point defects, dislocations, and grain boundaries, which accumulated to form defect clusters and led to the formation of a few pockets of amorphous zones. The crystal quality of material degrades due to the presence of these amorphous zones [30].
Structural changes by ion implantation in Cu-NWs were studied using the XRD technique. In this study, Cu-NWs were irradiated with 100 keV H+ beam at different fluence from 1 × 1015ions/cm2 to 5 × 1016 ions/cm2, Cu-NWs was done by XRD technique and compared with the un-irradiated spectrum. Figure 5 shows the XRD spectra of samples irradiated at different fluences. Figure 5(a) shows the XRD spectrum of un-irradiated Cu-NWs. The XRD spectrum comprised of one (111) peak at 2
XRD spectra of Cu-NWs (a) Un-implanted; (b-d) implanted with 100 keV H+ ions at different doses.
These defects sites were observed by HRTEM study of ion irradiated in Cu-NWs. It was observed that at low ion irradiation, few point defects were created as the ion fluence increases, these point defects agglomerate to form large amorphous zones. These defects and amorphous zones give a path to O atom to form the Cu2O phase in Cu-NWs.
The XRD measurements taken at room temperature before and after exposure to the beam of H+ ions on Ni-NWs are seen in Figure 6. The XRD patterns exhibit peaks of face-centered cubic planes (111) and (200) of Ni-NWs [20]. Changes in angle positions are not observed after proton irradiation; whereas, the intensities of the peaks were seen to increase after exposure to H+ ions beam. The increase in peaks intensities might be associated with improvement in the crystalline structure of NWs. The crystalline structure might be improved due to the localized heating effect of Ni-NWs induced by H+ ions beam irradiation.
XRD patterns of Ni-NWs (a) before irradiation and (b) irradiated with H+ ions at fluence 1 × 1016 ions/cm2.
All publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his/her institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click here.
\n\nFor Editorial Policies for journals please consult individual journal pages.
',metaTitle:"Editorial policies",metaDescription:"Editorial policies",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/editorial-policies",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"8,9,10,11,14,15,20,22,24"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"093f9e26bb829b8d414d13626aea1086",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11561",title:"Zeolite From Wastes - New Perspectives on Innovative Resources and Their Valorization Process",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"611776f7f3cc9951a8956d2e3d535a8e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Chatchawal Wongchoosuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"34521",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chatchawal",surname:"Wongchoosuk",slug:"chatchawal-wongchoosuk",fullName:"Chatchawal Wongchoosuk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11910",title:"Frontiers in Voltammetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fc53a7599a61ed04a0672a7bca81e9c2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajendrachari Shashanka, Dr. Kiran Kenchappa Somashekharappa, Dr. Sharath Peramenahalli Chikkegouda and Dr. Shamanth Vasanth",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11910.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"246025",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashanka",surname:"Rajendrachari",slug:"shashanka-rajendrachari",fullName:"Shashanka Rajendrachari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11922",title:"Watermarking - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9843dc1d810407088ed9eef10768a64b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Joceli Mayer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11922.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"110638",title:"Prof.",name:"Joceli",surname:"Mayer",slug:"joceli-mayer",fullName:"Joceli Mayer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11517",title:"Phase Change Materials - Technology and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1b7a5f2631db5e49399539ade1edf264",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Manish K Rathod",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11517.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"236035",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Rathod",slug:"manish-rathod",fullName:"Manish Rathod"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11451",title:"Molecular Docking - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11932",title:"New Materials and Enhanced Performance of Sodium-Ion Batteries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"75c27a6f2739e8af817bace95b0e50d6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Fatma SARF",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11932.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"245850",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fatma",surname:"SARF",slug:"fatma-sarf",fullName:"Fatma SARF"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11528",title:"Maintenance Management - Current Challenges, New Developments, and Future Directions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a3e4ad5806a77b0e930fbd4cb191bee2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Germano Lambert-Torres, Dr. Erik Leandro Bonaldi and Dr. Levy Ely Oliveira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11528.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"112971",title:"Prof.",name:"Germano",surname:"Lambert-Torres",slug:"germano-lambert-torres",fullName:"Germano Lambert-Torres"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11486",title:"Climate Change - Recent Observations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"741543ff220f5cf688efbf12d3e2f536",slug:null,bookSignature:"Assistant Prof. Terence Epule Epule",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11486.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"348146",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Terence Epule",surname:"Epule",slug:"terence-epule-epule",fullName:"Terence Epule Epule"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11509",title:"Wireless Power Transfer - Perspectives and Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f188555eee4211fc24b6cca361983149",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11509.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"126825",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11760",title:"Applications and Use of Diamond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2edcf9a24450d8655e756e1080defe32",slug:null,bookSignature:"Mr. Evgeniy Lipatov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11760.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"21254",title:"Mr.",name:"Evgeniy",surname:"Lipatov",slug:"evgeniy-lipatov",fullName:"Evgeniy Lipatov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:38},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:65},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:116},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:174},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4428},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1316",title:"Higher Education",slug:"higher-education",parent:{id:"265",title:"Education",slug:"social-sciences-education"},numberOfBooks:9,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:166,numberOfWosCitations:50,numberOfCrossrefCitations:71,numberOfDimensionsCitations:130,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1316",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"11004",title:"Medical Education for the 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8863875cdefa578f26a438ea21bdc1e",slug:"medical-education-for-the-21st-century",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Stanislaw P. Stawicki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11004.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",middleName:null,surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10495",title:"Insights Into Global Engineering Education After the Birth of Industry 5.0",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e83ddb1aa8017926d0635bbe8a90feca",slug:"insights-into-global-engineering-education-after-the-birth-of-industry-5-0",bookSignature:"Montaha Bouezzeddine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10495.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313464",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Montaha",middleName:null,surname:"Bouezzeddine",slug:"montaha-bouezzeddine",fullName:"Montaha Bouezzeddine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8283",title:"Innovations in Higher Education",subtitle:"Cases on Transforming and Advancing Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c8b8a6fe8578fbf2398932ce8c1b717",slug:"innovations-in-higher-education-cases-on-transforming-and-advancing-practice",bookSignature:"Dominique Parrish and Joanne Joyce-McCoach",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8283.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197795",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Parrish",slug:"dominique-parrish",fullName:"Dominique Parrish"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8039",title:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0c99d528dbcc6ed5e8a26f96b36c812d",slug:"theorizing-stem-education-in-the-21st-century",bookSignature:"Kehdinga George Fomunyam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8039.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"267912",title:"Dr.",name:"Kehdinga George",middleName:null,surname:"Fomunyam",slug:"kehdinga-george-fomunyam",fullName:"Kehdinga George Fomunyam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9040",title:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education",subtitle:"Current Developments and Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3ef45143bf2a8d798f0e423e098afe6c",slug:"pedagogy-in-basic-and-higher-education-current-developments-and-challenges",bookSignature:"Kirsi Tirri and Auli Toom",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9040.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"234399",title:"Prof.",name:"Kirsi",middleName:null,surname:"Tirri",slug:"kirsi-tirri",fullName:"Kirsi Tirri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7804",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1722e45e6ebd731426bc0e4ac5c6eee2",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century",bookSignature:"Reginald Botshabeng Monyai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7804.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210249",title:"Prof.",name:"Reginald",middleName:"Botshabeng",surname:"Monyai",slug:"reginald-monyai",fullName:"Reginald Monyai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7576",title:"Reimagining New Approaches in Teacher Professional Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ebab0695715a9b2a759da32380ded9a",slug:"reimagining-new-approaches-in-teacher-professional-development",bookSignature:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7576.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",middleName:"Petrus",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5773",title:"Global Voices in Higher Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98977ad0f9bc0a5224a23d6f67b343ca",slug:"global-voices-in-higher-education",bookSignature:"Susan L. Renes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5773.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158868",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Renes",slug:"susan-renes",fullName:"Susan Renes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1990",title:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e9f445b89a42e6221004f529ac247127",slug:"international-perspectives-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",bookSignature:"Joi L. Moore and Angela D. Benson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1990.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102403",title:"Dr.",name:"Joi L.",middleName:null,surname:"Moore",slug:"joi-l.-moore",fullName:"Joi L. Moore"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:9,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32519",doi:"10.5772/33745",title:"Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses",slug:"self-regulated-learning-activities-supporting-success-in-online-courses-",totalDownloads:2691,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"1990",slug:"international-perspectives-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",title:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education",fullTitle:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education"},signatures:"Maureen Snow Andrade",authors:[{id:"96902",title:"Dr.",name:"Maureen",middleName:null,surname:"Snow Andrade",slug:"maureen-snow-andrade",fullName:"Maureen Snow Andrade"}]},{id:"32516",doi:"10.5772/32879",title:"Open and Distance Learning in Dual Mode Universities: A Treasure Unexploited",slug:"open-and-distance-learning-in-dual-mode-universities-a-treasure-unexploited",totalDownloads:5389,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1990",slug:"international-perspectives-of-distance-learning-in-higher-education",title:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education",fullTitle:"International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education"},signatures:"Paul Birevu Muyinda",authors:[{id:"93065",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Birevu Muyinda",slug:"paul-birevu-muyinda",fullName:"Paul Birevu Muyinda"}]},{id:"69651",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89841",title:"Parental Engagement in Children’s Learning: A Holistic Approach to Teacher-Parents’ Partnerships",slug:"parental-engagement-in-children-s-learning-a-holistic-approach-to-teacher-parents-partnerships",totalDownloads:1389,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This study presents the standpoint of parental engagement, conceptualized by Janet Goodall and collaborators, as a framework that is coherent to the principles of the holistic approach of pedagogy to teacher-parents’ partnerships. We bring forward the evolution of the concept of parental engagement and its main standpoints, in relation to more traditional theories on parental involvement. We also discuss previous findings about teachers’ and parents’ roles in education and teacher-parents’ partnerships, as well as how do changes in educational paradigms challenge home-school collaboration. Finally, the article highlights the need to implement research-based parental engagement practices in educational systems around the world.",book:{id:"9040",slug:"pedagogy-in-basic-and-higher-education-current-developments-and-challenges",title:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education",fullTitle:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges"},signatures:"Cristiana Levinthal de Oliveira Lima and Elina Kuusisto",authors:null},{id:"65030",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83417",title:"Lack of Qualified Teachers: A Global Challenge for Future Knowledge Development",slug:"lack-of-qualified-teachers-a-global-challenge-for-future-knowledge-development",totalDownloads:2054,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"A major challenge for teacher education in the twenty-first century is to provide society with qualified teachers to teach and prepare the next generation of citizens. The situation in, for example, Sweden and South Africa faces huge issues concerning an increased lack of teachers in the future, as well as difficulties with teacher attrition. Examples from the USA show that up to 50% of new teachers quit working as teachers within 5 years. The difficulties with knowledge transfer to new generations, are a global threat. In this chapter, the deficiency of examined teachers is addressed in Section 1. This is followed by an overview of two key aspects of teachers’ professional development, namely bridging the gap between practice and theory to enhance teaching quality as well as the importance of practice-based professional development to maintain teachers to work as teacher in a long-term perspective. The results of a case study of students’ views on theories are presented, showing a strong experienced dichotomy between theory and practice, and difficulties to see how theories could be used to better understand classroom situations. Finally, a proposal of how to bridge the gap between theory and practice with designed modules is presented.",book:{id:"7804",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Mona Holmqvist",authors:[{id:"275455",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Holmqvist",slug:"mona-holmqvist",fullName:"Mona Holmqvist"}]},{id:"70433",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90502",title:"The Moral Role of Pedagogy as the Science and Art of Teaching",slug:"the-moral-role-of-pedagogy-as-the-science-and-art-of-teaching",totalDownloads:1127,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to present the key concepts and actors in pedagogy and didactics in the context of institutional teaching. We present a holistic approach to education and view human beings as lifelong learners who need to be educated comprehensively to actualize their full potential. In this chapter we discuss how pedagogy, the science and art of teaching, can promote the educational goals identified in the curriculum. In this chapter we adhere to the Didaktik curriculum tradition in which values and morals are emphasized in guiding the teaching-studying-learning process. This means that pedagogy is moral in nature, and the teacher’s main task is to reflect the values underlying her teaching and the purposes she wants to advance in her teaching. We also discuss the current pedagogical challenges in both basic and higher education in educating students for the twenty-first century.",book:{id:"9040",slug:"pedagogy-in-basic-and-higher-education-current-developments-and-challenges",title:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education",fullTitle:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges"},signatures:"Kirsi Tirri and Auli Toom",authors:[{id:"234399",title:"Prof.",name:"Kirsi",middleName:null,surname:"Tirri",slug:"kirsi-tirri",fullName:"Kirsi Tirri"},{id:"298433",title:"Dr.",name:"Auli",middleName:null,surname:"Toom",slug:"auli-toom",fullName:"Auli Toom"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69139",title:"Formative Assessment in Mathematics Education in the Twenty-First Century",slug:"formative-assessment-in-mathematics-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Assessment does not always have to involve paper and pencil but can instead be a project, an observation, or a task that shows a student has acquired the concept and can make sound connections and linkages with other related concepts. Learning is meaningful when the student comprehends the relationship of what is being learned to other knowledge. Furthermore, concept map measures aspects of learning, which conventional tests cannot measure such as students’ misconceptions. As such, the chapter shall focus on formative assessment in mathematics classroom mediated by a method of teaching (concept mapping) that promotes critical thinking, which assists teachers to teach and assess students’ understanding and make connections between concepts explicitly.",book:{id:"8039",slug:"theorizing-stem-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Benard Chigonga",authors:[{id:"298587",title:"Dr.",name:"Benard",middleName:null,surname:"Chigonga",slug:"benard-chigonga",fullName:"Benard Chigonga"}]},{id:"68547",title:"The Role of Mathematical Modeling in STEM Integration and Education",slug:"the-role-of-mathematical-modeling-in-stem-integration-and-education",totalDownloads:1246,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"With the rapidly developing technology, the labor force of the society has changed direction, and in the age of informatics, creative engineering applications have come to the forefront. Accordingly, the education levels of the labor force were also changed. The science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education model in most countries aims to teach science, mathematics, technology, and engineering in relation to primary, secondary, high school, and higher education. STEM education, which has an impact in our country in recent years, has an important role in acquiring new skills, supporting creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship, gaining the ability to transition between professions and adapting to new occupations. Nowadays, technology is expected to have different skills from individuals who will work in different fields with rapid development. Also, different teaching strategies play a major role in STEM integration and training. One of them, mathematical modeling, is the process of analyzing real-life or realistic situation using mathematical methods in the most general sense. The idea that mathematical modeling cycles should be used in STEM education at all levels from primary to tertiary education has gained importance in recent years, since it increases the students’ motivation towards the lesson and they learn better by concentrating their attention.",book:{id:"8039",slug:"theorizing-stem-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Theorizing STEM Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Murat Tezer",authors:[{id:"299964",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Tezer",slug:"murat-tezer",fullName:"Murat Tezer"}]},{id:"66203",title:"Including Students with Disabilities in a Physical Education Teacher Preparation Program: An Institutional Perspective",slug:"including-students-with-disabilities-in-a-physical-education-teacher-preparation-program-an-institut",totalDownloads:1943,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The increasing number of students with disabilities who have the goal of becoming a teacher in either elementary or high school is one of the challenges we are currently facing at the academic colleges of education in Israel. In this chapter, we address the inclusion challenge, namely how we have taken up the challenge to modify one existing teacher preparation program (TPP) in physical education (PE) to enable students with disabilities to study at the same level as the other students who are enrolled in the program. The chapter is composed of four sections. In the first section, we introduce the term inclusive education, elaborate upon its concepts, and highlight a number of developmental phases associated with this term. In the second section, we present the theoretical background and the practical frameworks of an inclusive pedagogy. In the third section, we describe a number of actions taken in one college that enabled students with disabilities to enroll in a PE TPP. In the fourth section, we conclude our discussion and provide a number of ideas for future research, in order to strengthen the understanding of how to integrate students with disabilities in PE TPP.",book:{id:"7804",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century"},signatures:"Ronnie Lidor and Yeshayahu Hutzler",authors:[{id:"293567",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronnie",middleName:null,surname:"Lidor",slug:"ronnie-lidor",fullName:"Ronnie Lidor"},{id:"293600",title:"Prof.",name:"Yeshayahu",middleName:null,surname:"Hutzler",slug:"yeshayahu-hutzler",fullName:"Yeshayahu Hutzler"}]},{id:"69651",title:"Parental Engagement in Children’s Learning: A Holistic Approach to Teacher-Parents’ Partnerships",slug:"parental-engagement-in-children-s-learning-a-holistic-approach-to-teacher-parents-partnerships",totalDownloads:1389,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This study presents the standpoint of parental engagement, conceptualized by Janet Goodall and collaborators, as a framework that is coherent to the principles of the holistic approach of pedagogy to teacher-parents’ partnerships. We bring forward the evolution of the concept of parental engagement and its main standpoints, in relation to more traditional theories on parental involvement. We also discuss previous findings about teachers’ and parents’ roles in education and teacher-parents’ partnerships, as well as how do changes in educational paradigms challenge home-school collaboration. Finally, the article highlights the need to implement research-based parental engagement practices in educational systems around the world.",book:{id:"9040",slug:"pedagogy-in-basic-and-higher-education-current-developments-and-challenges",title:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education",fullTitle:"Pedagogy in Basic and Higher Education - Current Developments and Challenges"},signatures:"Cristiana Levinthal de Oliveira Lima and Elina Kuusisto",authors:null},{id:"55240",title:"Challenging Performativity in Higher Education: Promoting a Healthier Learning Culture",slug:"challenging-performativity-in-higher-education-promoting-a-healthier-learning-culture",totalDownloads:1789,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The nature and context of education have changed dramatically in recent decades. The increased prioritisation of standardisation, performance indicators and metrics often means that holistic, affective and wellbeing education are seen as less important in the educational endeavour. The value of education for education's sake is under siege. Previous emphasis on the education of the whole person (i.e., moral and creative aesthetic development) is often replaced by a more functionalist perspective of education as servicing economic need and global capitalist interests. Marketization of education has increased at an exponential rate and has had an adverse impact on the health and well‐being of both educators and students. This chapter elucidates how the triad of assessment, student well‐being and academic well‐being intersects in the ever increasing performative and neo‐liberalist cultures of higher education. It demonstrates the reciprocal dynamic of stress that is becoming more and more evident among educators and students. The chapter makes the case for more empowering and human‐centred educative contexts in order to facilitate better educational outcomes for students and healthier outcomes for all involved in the educational endeavour.",book:{id:"5773",slug:"global-voices-in-higher-education",title:"Global Voices in Higher Education",fullTitle:"Global Voices in Higher Education"},signatures:"Christine Deasy and Patricia Mannix‐McNamara",authors:[{id:"198284",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine",middleName:null,surname:"Deasy",slug:"christine-deasy",fullName:"Christine Deasy"},{id:"198290",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Mannix McNamara",slug:"patricia-mannix-mcnamara",fullName:"Patricia Mannix McNamara"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1316",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81937",title:"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)",slug:"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli-",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99007",abstract:"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"},{id:"80280",title:"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe",slug:"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe",totalDownloads:87,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99941",abstract:"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi"},{id:"78597",title:"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development",slug:"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s",totalDownloads:134,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99940",abstract:"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Lawrence Jones-Esan"},{id:"79197",title:"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education",slug:"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100813",abstract:"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. Teachers also revealed some dissatisfaction in the way they are experiencing university life due to the overwork resulting from the multiple tasks required in the four activity strands (teaching, research, management and extension) with an impact on quality and innovation, but in line with what the institution demands.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Elisa Chaleta"},{id:"78595",title:"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability",slug:"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99974",abstract:"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{id:"79255",title:"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities",slug:"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101063",abstract:"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Christopher B. Mugimu"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{},subseries:{},overviewPageOFChapters:[],overviewPagePublishedBooks:[],openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"