Skin effect for different copper bar dimensions.
\r\n\tThis book will mainly cover work related to: (i) cells mechanosensing and mechanotransduction mechanisms (ii) computational and experimental techniques in mechanobiology, (iii) mathematical mechanobiological models of bone remodeling, (iv) bone mechano-transduction, (v) innovative tools for mechanobiology and the role of medical imaging in this field and (vi) any other proposals related to innovations, clinical application and perspectives of mechanobiology.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0a38ccecc83b50d8b015a6dd2533049d",bookSignature:"Prof. Abdelwahed Barkaoui",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10255.jpg",keywords:"Nuclear Mechanotransduction, Mechanosensitivity, Fluids Mechanics, Multiscale Mechanobiology, Modeling Cellular Mechanics, Finite Elements Method, Bone Remodeling, Mechanics Stimulus, Multi-scale Modeling, Mechanobiology Tools, Cell Imaging, Cell-Substrate Interactions",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 2nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 10th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Assistant director of LERMA laboratory, head of mechanical discipline at ECINE and coordinator of the ECINE study program accreditation committee, a member of the editorial board of several international scientific journals, also a member of the American Society of Mechanical (ASME) Engineers European Society of Biomechanics (ESB) and the International Society of Biomechanics (ISB).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320631",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelwahed",middleName:null,surname:"Barkaoui",slug:"abdelwahed-barkaoui",fullName:"Abdelwahed Barkaoui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320631/images/system/320631.jpg",biography:"Abdelwahed BARKAOUI is an Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the International University of Rabat. He obtained his University habilitation from the University of Tunis El Manar-Tunisia in 2017 and his Ph.D. from the University of Orleans, France in 2012. He has a master\\'s degree in mechanics obtained from the INSA of Lyon, France, and an engineering diploma in electromechanics from ENI-Sfax, Tunisia. Currently, dr. BARKAOUI is the assistant director of the LERMA laboratory and coordinator of the Modelling & Simulation in Biomechanics & Biomaterials (MS2B) team. He is responsible for the mechanical discipline and coordinator of the ABET accreditation project at the Higher School of Energy Engineering. His research is focused on biomechanics, mechanobiology, and biomedical engineering. He was a member of the editorial board of several international scientific journals such as Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology “Biomechanics” (IF=5,9), BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders (IF:2.6), BMC Biomedical Engineering, Series on Biomechanics, as well as a reviewer for several international journals\nin the field of biomechanics and mechanical engineering. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The standards dealing with the very low voltage systems (VLV) provide a general guidance. For example, the 2014/35/UE European Directive for the CE marking fixes the voltage level at 75 V DC, hence, in practice this could be the choice for the battery voltage.
Furthermore, in the automotive realm, the European Regulation R100 concerning the approval of vehicles with regard to specific requirements for the electric powertrain, has even reduced the maximum voltage level to 60 V (Class A). This range of voltage will therefore ease the design constraints and the operational maintenance of the vehicle. The 60 V is generally considered as the reference level of VLV for electric vehicles.
At this low voltage range, there is a large choice of commercially available off-the-shelf components for the power electronics needed to drive the electric motor, regardless its technology, DC motor, synchronous motor or induction motor, though knowing that the permanent magnet synchronous motors are emerging as one of the best candidate to dominate the market of powertrain electrification.
However, at low voltage, when the level of the required electrical power reaches a certain threshold, which is around 30 kW, the availability of the power electronics components becomes considerably limited given the high current level to be handled by the controller, which is greater than 500A at a battery voltage of 60 V. Indeed, this poses very challenging constraints on the design of the power modules where the high current gets closer to the switching capability limit of the transistors available on the market (very low voltage MOS technology). We will be detailing the challenges and the associated solutions related to this topic in a later section of the chapter.
The technology outlined in this chapter, where many validation prototypes are presented, brings some original solutions to the design of very low voltage electric powertrains, even at high power level. Many electric vehicles presented in this chapter involving a power as high as 100 kW.
First of all, we will discuss the design techniques of an electric motor being optimised to operate at very low voltage. Afterwards, several techniques of power distribution have been described, which enables the required total electrical power to be shared between several controllers. Finally, we present an overview of the limits of feasibility of the power electronics that would be required to drive electric motors at very low voltage, based on the current available technologies of the semiconductors components.
When an electric motor is operating at very low voltage, there is an opportunity to optimise its winding in order to significantly enhance its performance. Conventionally, the windings of electric motors are based on an enamelled round wire (loose random conductors), as illustrated in the Figure 1b. In this case, the copper fill factor inside the stator slot is very poor, where, unless relying on non-conventional manufacturing processes (segmentation, etc.), only around 40% can be achieved in the best case (pure copper CSA/naked slot area), it can be even less than 30% when considering very small size motors with tiny slots.
(a) Solid bar winding vs. (b) Round wire winding.
At very low voltage, the conductors inside the slot are connected in parallel where the number of turns is inherently very low. In the case of a winding design with one turn per slot, which is often the case at VLV, it appears to be more judicious to replace the multi-strand conductor with a single solid copper bar adjusted to the slot dimensions, as illustrated in the Figure 1a. In the latter case, the copper fill factor inside the slot can reach approximately 80%, which consequently doubles, even triples, the copper volume for a given motor size.
At a constant copper loss and a given slot cross sectional area, the relationship between the RMS current, Ib, in the solid bar conductor and the total RMS current, If, in the equivalent slot wound with multi-strand round conductor is as follows:
The coefficients σrb and σrf represent the copper fill factor inside the slot with solid bar conductor and with multi-strand round conductor, respectively. With the 80% fill factor in the first case and 35% in the second one, the current carried by the solid bar conductor is 50% higher, and, consequently, the output torque of the motor increases in the same proportion.
The Figure 2 illustrates how difficult it is to perform a high quality winding with loose round wire. It can be easily noticed that a non-negligible part of the copper is located outside the active part of the motor (i.e. stator). This bulky copper outside the stator slots increases the volume, the weight and the loss of the machine. All these drawbacks are addressed with the use of a solid bar conductor.
Electric motor end-windings wound with loose round wires.
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate some of our products made using a solid bar winding. It can be easily seen that the useless copper at the end-windings (overshooting the stator core pack) is less bulky and well controlled. These proposed winding techniques are most convenient for low voltage electrical machines.
Solid bar winding, distributed winding.
Solid bar winding, wave concentrated winding.
The distributed winding shown in Figure 3, with one slot per pole and per phase, is well suited to medium range power machines (a few tens of kW) operating at few hundreds Hz electric frequency [1, 2, 3]. The structure shown in Figure 4 is more original where the phases are wound around the tooth (wave concentered winding) and grouped in separate sectors [1, 4, 5], without phase overlaps at the end-windings of the machine. This structure is rather well suited for small electrical machines which can then operate at very high frequency (up to 2000 Hz), the resulting winding is very compact.
This technique is not commonly used in practice due to the fact that the solid bars are prone to very high AC copper loss (under alternating regime) which can be much higher than the DC ohmic loss.
Additional losses in massive conductors can be prohibitive, but a detailed study of these phenomena [1, 4] shows that the advantages of the approach largely outweigh the disadvantages if the winding is appropriately designed [1, 3, 4]. Paradoxically, the concept can be perfectly applied, as we will see, to high pole count electric motors operating at high frequency, which is the case for all machines with high power density for embedded applications.
Many industrial motor manufacturers, especially for electric vehicles, are using the solid bar copper winding, in particular via the “hairpin” technique consisting in a “pin” forming that can ease the overlapping of conductors at the end-windings (cf. Figure 5), but the overall design approach of these machines remains conventional, especially because it uses several conductors per slot. The approach presented in this chapter is distinguished by the use of a single solid bar per slot (one turn per slot), which allows to optimise many parameters and to reach unmatched level of compactness, for high power electric motors operating at very low voltage.
Hairpin winding (courtesy of special machine tool company).
In summary, the main pros in using solid bars are:
Enhanced copper fill factor (80% filling instead of 40%).
The iron-copper thermal resistance is reduced.
The slots opening width can be very small which increases the flux density in the air gap and decreases the cogging torque and eventually the torque ripple.
The copper overhangs are very compact and controlled.
The winding manufacturing process is simplified and can be easily automated.
The machine is more robust and reliable.
And the main cons are:
Higher copper loss density
The connection of the copper bars in order to form the whole winding is more complex.
In order to be able to effectively implement the technique of winding with single bar per slot, it is mandatory to fully control the additional copper losses associated with the operation at high electrical frequency.
The different phenomena related to alternating flux density inside the copper yielding to excessive loss are well describes in the literature [6, 7], however we recall here the two main ones.
In order to quantify the loss increase, the kAC coefficient is introduced, which is the ratio of the total AC copper loss, PAC, to the DC copper loss, PDC, in the winding, at given current:
The best known phenomenon causing these additional losses is called “skin effect”, it appears in any electrical conductor carrying an alternating current. The skin effect tends to push the current back to the periphery of the conductor, as shown in the following Figure 6.
Current density distribution in two conductors having the same cross-section with round and rectangular shape at different frequencies [
The current density, J, in a round conductor, as a function of the distance from the periphery, r, in sinusoidal regime, is expressed by the following relationship:
where δ represents the skin depth at a conductivity σ of the conductor:
The current density at the skin depth is roughly equal to 37% of its value at the surface, while it is only equal to 5% at three times δ.
In the case of a rectangular conductor the relationships of the skin effect are more complex. The following equation [1, 6] is valid for both cases round conductor and rectangular conductor, and allows to precisely quantify the increase in copper loss due to the skin effect:
S and p respectively represent the cross section area and the perimeter of the conductor.
Table 1 gives the values of KAC for different bar shapes (used in the prototypes presented later) and different frequencies. The dimensions of the bar are defined in Figure 7.
# | Dimensions hbar x tbar (mm) | Frequency (Hz) | δ (mm) à 100 °C | KAC |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 4x5 | 800 | 2,7 | 1,003 |
2 | 3x5 | 1666 | 1,9 | 1,009 |
3 | 8x4 | 800 | 2,7 | 1,009 |
4 | 8x3 | 133 | 6,6 | 1 |
Skin effect for different copper bar dimensions.
Main dimensions of the slot and the copper conductor.
According to the Table 1, in the worst case scenario, the increase in copper loss due to the skin effect is less than 1%, so this phenomenon is not significant at the considered frequencies.
The second observed phenomenon causing excess copper loss is known as field effect or inductance effect. Unlike the skin effect, it only takes place in the copper volume surrounded by a magnetic circuit (stator). This phenomenon is depicted in Figure 8. In this case, the additional loss is due to the transverse flux (slot leakage flux) produced by the armature current, which closes in the slot width (tenc), creating induced currents in the solid bar which will lead to an uneven current density distribution, being much higher in the lower part (near the slot opening) than in the upper part of the solid bar.
Illustration of the uneven distribution of the current density inside the conductor due to the slot transverse flux.
The field effect phenomenon is the main cause of increased losses, where the KAC coefficient can be greater than 4 if it is not well controlled, which would cancel out most of the benefits introduced by the use of the solid bar winding.
The coefficient KAC related the field can be precisely calculated using the following analytical relationship [1, 7]:
This relationship is only valid when KAC > 1. Table 2 summarises the value of KAC for exactly the same configurations considered in Table 1.
# | hbar (mm) | tbar/tenc | Frequency (Hz) | δ (mm) à 100°C | KAC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 4 | 0,83 | 800 | 2,7 | 1,35 |
2 | 3 | 0,83 | 1666 | 1,9 | 1,44 |
3 | 8 | 0,8 | 800 | 2,7 | 2,65 |
4 | 8 | 0,75 | 133 | 6,6 | 1,05 |
Field effect for different copper bar dimensions.
According to the results presented in Table 2, it can been clearly seen that, as expected, the increase in copper loss due to the use of solid bars is significant, however, the solid bar still beneficial even at high frequencies when considering the overall performance of the machine. Indeed, in order to illustrate this point, we can consider the configuration # 2 operating at a nominal frequency of 1666 Hz. The use of a solid bar would increase the current in the slot, at constant DC losses, by about 50% (cf. relation (1)), while the increase in losses in AC mode would require it to be reduced by 20% (
The remaining examples of Table 2 will be analysed when their corresponding products are presented later in this chapter.
In electric vehicles, the electric motors can be fed by one or more power converters depending on one or multiple energy sources. Whether it is an airplane, an electric vehicle or a boat, several energy sources are available with different characteristics, operating modes and architectures. The most characteristic quantities are the voltage and the current levels requiring the use of specific power and passive components. The architecture design of these converters, whether forward, isolated or segmented, is a first issue that must be specific to the application. Another problem is the integration of static converters in order to increase their compactness (power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios) because the high power and the low voltage imply very high currents which are not very favourable to a high efficiency and to a volume reduction. Of course, cost constraints are very important in the automotive field and must be integrated from the start of the design process.
The complex power conversion and management functions implemented in the vehicle concern the electric motor, its control electronics, the transmission and management of energy by the charger and the converters used to power the navigation and entertainment systems. All these elements are supplied with very low voltages ranging from 12 V to 48 V, sometimes 60 V, which leads to favouring the use of 100 V components. At the drive train level, it is recommended to stay at low voltage, in order to simplify the control and most important to optimise the efficiency and therefore enhance the autonomy by avoid putting converters in series to adapt the voltage levels (for example, low-voltage battery and high-voltage motor). In other words, it is better to avoid a DC/DC stage between the battery and the inverter and therefore to only have the inverter between the battery and the motor. Furthermore, in order to recover the energy during braking phases, the DC/DC converter has to be reversible which would make its design more complex. A classical architecture is given in Figure 9.
Example of a drive train with a single power inverter.
The electrical connection must also be appropriately designed because for a small vehicle, whether it is full electric or micro/mild hybrid type, with for example a power of around 30 kW at 48 V the currents are very high (650A for 48 V). The wiring with a large cross section must therefore be as short as possible and the inverter placed as close as possible to the motor and the battery, ideally in the same compartment and taking advantage of the car structure to dissipate the heat rejection.
Increasing the power of the electric motor quickly becomes a problem if the supply voltage does not increase proportionally because high DC bus and phase currents lead to an unreasonable increase in the number of semiconductor and passive components required. To reach the required switching capability, the surface area of the PCB, the volume of the cooling system and the size of the connectors should be increased accordingly, thus resulting in a weight increase of the electronic system and also a high cost incompatible with the requirements of the automotive field.
Alternatively, when the power becomes too high (at VLV) and therefore the currents are very high (>500A), the solution would be to segment the machine winding into many stars and supply them with several synchronised inverters as shown in Figure 10.
Distributed system for segmented winding.
In Figure 10, the power is shared between two inverters, which mean that there are not too many components in parallel in each inverter arm, and that the inverters are less complex, less cumbersome and easier to build, and, also, that the connections are less bulky with less losses.
The static converters contains power modules which allow the classical energy conversion functions (AC/DC or DC/AC) and which are generally designed based on two main categories of components, namely the MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) for low voltage inverters or IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) for high voltage ones. The field of application and the necessary integration of this static converter make it possible to determine the most suitable components according to several parameters such as power and voltage as well as the switching frequency. Figure 11 gives a detailed breakdown of the use of these components.
Use of the different types of switchers depending on the application [
For electric vehicles, the silicon MOSFETs and IGBTs are mainly used. In this field, the battery DC voltage is switched at frequencies ranging from 5 to 20kHz. This switching level is usually achieved by the use of well-adapted control laws. The components required for the DC/AC conversion function are usually packaged in modules. The electric motor of a power train system is three-phase, this implies that the inverter structure must be composed of at least six switches that are bidirectional in current formed by the association of an IGBT with a freewheeling diode or MOSFET in parallel that are naturally bidirectional in current due to their intrinsic integrated diode.
It is also useful to keep in mind that failures can be experienced in a power converter, it is essential that the reliability of this power converter is as high as possible in the case of an electric vehicle for the obvious safety reasons. Several studies show that the power modules can be the most weak part of a converter [9, 10]. The causes of failure are mainly due to temperature (frequent thermal cycling of components and high steady state current), but also to moisture, vibrations and contaminations during the manufacturing process. The Figure 12 shows the results of two studies carried out on the failure modes of power converters.
Distribution of failure sources in a power converter [
The choice of a very low voltage supply, in this case 60 V, allows the use of commercial converters. However, as soon as the required power imposes a current higher than 500 A, it is necessary to design a bespoke power converter or, alternatively, to associate several of them in parallel. The technological constraints and standardisation lead to given silicon chip sizes which are then the building blocks of larger components. The increase in current capacity is thus achieved by combining elementary units in parallel.
Figure 13 shows some examples of power modules used in some conventional electrified vehicles.
Examples of inverters in the realm of electric vehicles [
We can note here that the semiconductors are associated in parallel in order to be able to switch important currents which depends on the power and the supply voltage of the machine and thus on the range of the EV (low range, high range, commercial vehicle...).
For example, the Tesla Model S has 10 IGBT chips per phase (i.e. 30 per module) to provide the 800 kW needed to power this vehicle whereas a Renault Zoé only needs 12 IGBT chips per module to ensure its nominal operation at 400 V/300 A.
The inverter should be compactly designed and should preferably be mounted as close as possible to the motor. The elements that contribute to the performance of the power module and therefore of the inverter are:
well-balanced current in the parallel MOSFETs,
low VDS peak at turn-off,
low Rdson when the MOSFETs are turned on,
low Rth of the heat sink.
In addition to conduction losses, switching losses must also be minimised to ensure optimum efficiency and minimal impact on the vehicle autonomy.
The design of the converter must also take into account the control boards, the drivers and the cooling system. Figure 14 shows the controller and driver circuitry for the Lexus hybrid vehicle.
Examples of controllers and driver circuitry [
Nowadays, new materials are emerging to replace silicon such as: silicon carbide (SiC) and Galium nitride (GaN). These materials allow higher switching frequencies, greatly reduced losses and higher operating temperatures resulting in more compact cooling systems, however, they also require a better control of the EMC and the PCB routing.
Many small electric vehicles (boat, kart, motorcycle, quad, cart, utility tricycle, small urban vehicle, unlicensed vehicle...) are equipped with an electrical motorisation with a power ranging from 10 kW to 30 kW. We present in this section a motor architecture optimised to operate at this power level and at very low voltage.
The winding technique for the electric motor is depicted in Figures 3 and 15, the slot copper bars are connected to each other at the end-windings via bridges bars located in two planes (crook bar and bow bar). In this case the overhangs are extremely compact. This configuration of the bars corresponds to the case number 1 in Tables 1 and 2.
Winding architecture - 20 kW very low voltage motor. (a) Winding layout, (b) 3D CAD view of the wound stator.
To optimise the manufacturing costs, all motors in this power range will use the same stator laminations, the same number of poles; hence, the number of bars is always the same, only the length of the stator stack is likely to evolve in order to comply with the different specifications, we will be giving two examples.
The motors are assembled in square shaped housing (212x212 mm2 CSA), as shown in Figure 16.
A motor portfolio with a power ranging from 10 kW to 30 kW, operating at very low voltage (courtesy of SMVE performance SAS).
The first specification we present is related to a marine outboard motor (electric boat), where the nominal speed of the propeller is 1750 rpm, with a reduction ratio of the transmission angle equal to 2.
The simplified specifications of the motor are as follows:
Rated power: 10 kW
Nominal speed: 3500 rpm
Power supply voltage: 50 VDC
Efficiency: greater than 90%
There is no need here to detail the EMAG sizing of the motor, which is conventional and does not fit the main purpose of this chapter. The following Table 3 summarises all the main characteristics of the motor.
Stator outer diameter | 208 mm |
Stator inner diameter | 172 mm |
Magnetic airgap length | 1,5 mm |
Magnet height | 6 mm |
Stator stack length | 35 mm |
Winding bar dimensions (hxw) | 4x5 mm |
Slot dimensions (hxw) | 4,8x5,8 mm |
Stator corepack | M270-35A |
Magnets | N35UH |
Pole number | 16 |
Slot number | 48 |
Phase rated current | 240A RMS |
Phase resistance (AC, KAC = 1,05), 20°C - 100°C | 1,3 mΩ - 1,7 mΩ |
Torque coefficient kt | 0,113 Nm/A |
Total weight (including mechanics) | 8 kg |
Nominal torque-to-weight ratio | 3.3 Nm/kg |
Joule losses (at 100°C) | 300 W |
Iron losses + mechanical losses | 250 W |
Efficiency | 95% |
Cooling method | Natural convection |
Characteristics of the electric boat motor.
This first case of sizing shows that even with a relatively low nominal operating speed, it is possible to reach high specific performances where, in particular, the power density is higher than 1 kW/kg, without impairing the efficiency. The latter is a key performance in the case of electric boat where the nominal speed corresponds to a permanent operating speed because the vehicle regime is stable during the navigation.
For this second studied case, we use the same motor structure, but considering a much higher power, adapted to the motorisation of a small sport vehicle, a kart for example.
The simplified specifications of the motor are as follows:
Maximum power: 25 kW
Maximum speed: 6000 rpm
Power supply voltage: 60 VDC
Efficiency: greater than 90%
The following Table 4 summarises the characteristics of the motor designed for this specification. The laminations are identical to those of the previous case (electric boat Section 4.1).
Stator stack length | 28 mm |
Pole number | 16 |
Slot number | 48 |
Phase rated current | 490A RMS |
Phase resistance (AC, KAC = 1,35), 20°C - 100°C | 1,3 mΩ - 1,7 mΩ |
Torque coefficient kt | 0,082 Nm/A |
Total weight (including mechanics) | 7 kg |
Nominal torque-to-weight ratio | 5,7 Nm/kg |
Joule losses (at 100 °C) | 1220W |
Iron losses + mechanical losses | 500 W |
Efficiency | 94% |
Cooling method | Natural convection |
Characteristics of the electric kart motor.
This sizing case is extreme, because, given the power, we are at the limit of feasibility at VLV, especially if we consider the phase current reaching 500 A. However, contrary to the previous case, the maximum power is transient because the speed of a small sport car is very variable on a winding track, the thermal steady state depends on the nature of the latter.
Even though the efficiency remains good, the losses at maximum power are high, more than 2 kW, but in this vehicle the motor is located outside and will be naturally cooled by a large amount of air flow (Figure 17). The maximum speed of the vehicle is well above 100 km/h, a natural convection cooling is sufficient. Furthermore, the heat exchange is improved by the very low copper to iron thermal resistance.
Electric kart.
This application illustrates the implementation of the concept for a motor operating at very high electrical frequency for an aeronautical application. It is a laboratory study [1] based on the motorisation specification of one of the first industrial all-electric aircraft, namely the Efan, from AIRBUS (Figure 18). The project was quickly abandoned by AIRBUS, but it was taken up by several other companies, and some versions are now offered for sale to the aero clubs.
Prototype Efan (courtesy of AIRBUS).
The power supply voltage of the Efan motor was equal to 300 V, we think that a VLV version would make sense to facilitate the maintenance operations of the aircraft, if it is particularly used in the aero clubs. This approach is all the more interesting as it also allows the search for very high specific performances thanks to the properties of the winding with only one solid bar per slot. The weight of the motor is, of course, one of the first sizing criteria.
To maximise the power-to-weight ratio, we have designed an electric motor operating at high frequency. The winding structure is special [1, 4, 5, 14], where the phases are arranged in six separate sectors, the electrical phase shift is ensured by introducing an intermediate irregular tooth, as illustrated in Figures 4,19 and 20. This winding design allows, on the one hand, to keep a limited number of slots (36 slots), despite the large number of poles (40 poles), and, on the other hand, to avoid the end-windings overlaps, resulting in very short overhangs.
Structure of the “per group” winding.
High frequency electric motor prototype. (a) Wound stator. (b) Rotor assembly.
The simplified specifications are as follows:
Maximum power: 26 kW
Maximum speed: 5000 rpm
Power supply voltage: 80 VDC
Weight: less than 7 kg
Efficiency: greater than 92%
The Table 5 shows the main characteristics of the electric motor.
Stator outer diameter | 137 mm |
Stator inner diameter | 120mm |
Magnetic airgap length | 1 mm |
Stator stack length | 92 mm |
Winding bar dimensions (hxw) | 3x5 mm |
Slot dimensions (hxw) | 4x6 mm |
Stator corepack | Iron-Cobalt, 0,2 mm |
Magnets | N35EH |
Pole / slot number | 40 / 36 |
Phase rated current | 400 A RMS |
Phase resistance (AC, KAC = 1,44), 20 °C - 100 °C | 1,85 mΩ - 2,44 mΩ |
Torque coefficient kt | 0,125 Nm/A |
Total weight (including mechanics) | 6 kg |
Nominal torque-to-weight ratio | 8.3 Nm/kg |
Nominal power-to-weight ratio | 4,3 kW/kg |
Joule losses (at 100 °C) | 1200 W |
Iron losses + mechanical losses | 400 W |
Efficiency | 94% |
Cooling method | Natural convection |
Characteristics of the electric aircraft motor.
The structure with large number of poles allows to obtain high specific power, more than 4 kW/kg. The VLV winding contributes to this level of performance without compromising the efficiency. The additional loss coefficient, KAC, remains moderate despite operating at a frequency of 1666 Hz. As the motor is placed behind the propulsion propeller, the 1600Wof total losses will be easily evacuated.
When the required power of the vehicle motorisation exceeds the threshold of 30 kW (approximate), it becomes difficult, if not impossible, to supply the motor with a single controller because the phase currents become prohibitive at VLV. The two examples discussed in this paragraph show how to solve this problem using power partitioning.
The first considered case of high power motorisation is that of a rally type sporty vehicle (Figure 21).
Sporty full electric vehicle.
The simplified specifications of the motor are as follows:
Maximum power: 100 kW
Maximum speed: 5000 t/mn
Power supply voltage: 100 VDC
In order to divide the power supplied to the motor, the winding was designed based on the technique described earlier in Figure 15, and is split into two electrically isolated stars, as depicted in the following Figure 22; each half-winding being fed by a dedicated controller and delivering half of the total required power.
Dual stars winding layout.
Table 6 summarises all the main characteristics of the electric motor. In this case, we are using the solid bar configuration corresponding to case 3 in Table 2.
Stator outer diameter | 204 mm |
Stator inner diameter | 156 mm |
Magnetic airgap length | 2 mm |
Magnet height | 5 mm |
Stator stack length | 175 mm |
Winding bar dimensions (hxw) | 8x4 mm |
Slot dimensions (hxw) | 9x5 mm |
Stator corepack | M270-35A |
Magnets | N35UH |
Pole number | 16 |
Slot number | 48 |
Phase rated current | 650 A RMS |
Phase resistance (AC, KAC = 2,39 - 2 x 3 phase), 20 °C - 100 °C | 1,85 mΩ - 2,4 mΩ |
Torque coefficient kt | 0,46 Nm/A |
Total weight (including mechanics) | 40 kg |
Nominal torque-to-weight ratio | 7,5 Nm/kg |
Joule losses (at 100 °C) | 6000 W |
Iron losses + mechanical losses | 1400 W |
Efficiency | 95% |
Cooling method | Natural convection |
Characteristics of the sporty vehicle electric motor.
The losses at simultaneously maximum power and maximum speed are too high, more than 7 kW, particularly due to a high KAC coefficient, but this is only a transient regime occurring during the acceleration phase. Again, here the steady-state thermal behaviour also depends on the nature of the track which cannot be defined a priori, but in all cases the efficiency is high and greater than 95%. However, at low speed acceleration, the copper losses are halved at constant current because the KAC coefficient tends towards 1, the efficiency, therefore, remains high over a wide speed range. The partition of the power on multiple converters makes it possible to reduce the phase current to 650 A during the transient regime. The bar winding has allowed the design of a very compact motor reaching high power density (4 kW / kg in transient regime).
The second example of power partitioning is that of an utility vehicle, an electric tractor for winegrowers (Figure 23).
This tractor is equipped with four electrified wheels fully independent. The topology of the motors is very similar to that described in section 4. The solid bars configuration corresponds to line 4 of Tables 1 and 2. The four electric motors drive the wheels via a gearbox with a reduction ratio of 1/40.
The simplified specifications of the motors are as follows:
Maximum power: 40 kW
Rated power: 5 kW
Maximum speed: 4000 rpm
Nominal speed: 1000 rpm
Power supply voltage: 80 VDC
The nominal operating condition of the electric tractor corresponds to the ploughing phase, where the displacement speed is low and the total required mechanical power does not exceed 20 kW. The tractive force applied on the plough is approximately 16 kN. The sizing was carried out based on the tractor behaviour with a conventional thermal engine.
The power partition, via the use of four electric motors, enables to have a significant power available for the transient mode, approximately 160 kW, thanks to the capacity of over-torque necessary for obstacles clearing and vehicle overspeed during the road trips. During the latter operating conditions, the motors are running without flux weakening. However, this high power is only used very rarely, and only temporarily, in the case of transporting heavy loads on steeply sloping roads.
The efficiency of each electric motor at the nominal conditions, at low speed and at an output torque of 50 Nm per motor, is about 95% and this because the copper losses in the 24 mm2 solid bars are very low due to the very low electrical frequency (133 Hz).
Electric tractor.
According to the various examples discussed in this chapter, it can be seen that it is possible to design an electric vehicle drive train operating at very low voltage (battery voltage below 120 VDC) and over a wide power range (up to 100 kW). An original, compact and high efficiency motorisation solution using a solid bar winding has been presented. In all the cases, the sizing constraints of the motor controller have been taken into account.
alternating current, alternating voltage direct current, direct voltage skin depth in AC mode Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Compatibility solid bar height slot height Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor current density additional loss coefficient AC / DC Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor Joule AC losses in conductors Joule DC losses in conductors Printed Circuit Board MOSFET drain source electrical resistance heat sink thermal resistance copper fill factor solid bar width slot width MOSFET drain source voltage Very Low Voltage
In recent years, the Brazilian Judiciary has been advancing toward turning all its acts digital. Following this direction, the Brazilian Labour Court implemented in 2012 the Electronic Judicial Process (acronym in Portuguese for “
Knowing that human beings cannot promptly analyze a large set of data, especially when such data do not appear to correlate, a way to assist in the pattern-recognition process is through statistical, computational, and data analysis methods. From the perspective that an exponential increase in textual data exists, the analysis of patterns in legal documents has become increasingly challenging.
Currently, one of the major challenges in the legal area is to respond quickly to the growing judicial demand. The Brazilian legal system provides for ways to ensure the swift handling of judicial proceedings, such as the principle of the reasonable duration of a case, the principle of speed, the procedural economy, and due process to optimize the procedural progress [2]. Therefore, with the aid of some clustering mechanism, that is, the grouping of processes, with a good rate of similarity between the documents to be analyzed, it was possible to help in the distribution of work among the advisors of the office for which the process was drawn. In addition, it contributed to the search for case law1 for the judgment of the cases in point, to ensure a speedy trial, upholding the principle of legal certainty. According to Gomes Canotilho [3]:
Thus, this legal management tool created positive impacts such as the decrease of the operational costs of a legal proceeding, as a result of reducing its duration, meaning lower expenses on the allocation of the necessary resources for its judgment.
Recently, machine learning algorithms have demonstrated through research that they are powerful tools capable of solving high-complexity problems using natural language processing (NLP) [4]. In this sense, it is possible to highlight the works of [5, 6, 7, 8, 9], which apply the techniques of word-embedding generation, a form of vector representation of terms, and consequently of documents, taking into account their context. The use of these word embeddings is essential when analyzing a set of unstructured data presented in the form of large-volume documents in court.
Nowadays, a specialist screens the documents and distributes among the team members the legal proceedings to be judged, setting up a deviation from the main activity of this specialist, which is the production of draft decisions. This contributed to an increase in the congestion rate (an indicator that measures the percentage of cases that remain pending solution at the end of the base year) and to the decrease in the meeting of demand index (acronym in Portuguese for “
Description | 2° Degree | 1° Degree | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Magistrates | Legal authority | 559 | 3077 | 3636 |
Legal workers | Public administration employee | 6911 | 22,785 | 29,696 |
Stockpile | Number of pending cases | 792,223 | 3,741,548 | 4,533,771 |
New cases | Number of new cases | 898,104 | 2,632,093 | 3,530,197 |
Judged | Number of cases judged | 989,324 | 3,036,686 | 4,026,010 |
Closed | Number of cases with final decision | 941,356 | 3,244,652 | 4,185,708 |
IAD | Closed cases/new cases | 104.8% | 123.3% | 118.6% |
Congestion tax | Closed cases/(new cases + stockpile) | 45.7% | 53.6% | 52.0% |
Knowledge | Fact awareness phase | — | 35.1% | 35.1% |
Execution | Judgment enforcement phase | — | 72.7% | 72.7% |
New cases | Average number of new cases per magistrate | 1607 | 662 | 821 |
Workflow | Average number of cases per magistrate | 3583 | 2794 | 2,927 |
Judged cases | Average number of cases judged per magistrate | 1770 | 1103 | 1216 |
Closed cases | Average number of cases closed per magistrate | 1684 | 1179 | 1264 |
New cases | Average number of new cases per worker | 135 | 83 | 95 |
Judged cases | Average number of cases judged per worker | 300 | 351 | 339 |
Closed cases | Average number of cases closed per worker | 141 | 148 | 146 |
Report of indicators of Brazilian labor justice.
This work aims, therefore, to present the degree of similarity between the judicial documents that was achieved in the inferred groups through unsupervised learning
This degree of congruence signals the model’s performance and is set from the average similarity measure of the grouped files, based on the similarity cosine between the elements of the group to its centroid and, comparatively, by the average cosine similarity among all the documents of the group.
Aiming to delimit the scope of this research, a dataset containing information from documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed (acronym in Portuguese for “
For the present work, a literature review on unsupervised machine learning algorithms applied to the legal area was performed, using NLP, and an overview of recent techniques that use artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms in word-embedding generation. Then, we applied some methods until the results were obtained, comparing and discussing them, and finally, conclusions and future challenges were presented.
Machine learning algorithms have in the most recent research demonstrated a great potential to solve high-complexity problems, which follow the categories into (i) supervised machine learning algorithms; (ii) unsupervised; (iii) semi-supervised; and (iv) by reinforcement [11]. In the context of this chapter, the literature review focused on the search for the most recent research on unsupervised machine learning or clustering algorithms applied to the legal area using NLP.
The investigation revealed that there are not many works dealing with the highlighted topic, which proves its complexity. Thus, we sought to expand the research by removing the restriction to the legal area bringing light to other publications. In [12], we discussed the content recommendation system approaches based on grouping for similar articles that used TF-IDF to perform vector transformation of the document contents and, through cosine similarity, applied k-means [13] for clustering them. In [14], the authors automatically summarized texts using TF-IDF and k-means to determine the document’s textual groups used to create the abstract. Then, TF-IDF is considered the primary technique for vectorizing textual content and k-means the most used algorithm for unsupervised machine learning.
Therefore, we can assume that choosing the best technique of generating word embeddings requires investigation, experimentation, and comparison of models. Several recent pieces of research have demonstrated the feasibility of using word embeddings to improve the quality of AI algorithm results for pattern detection, classification, among other uses.
In 2013, Mikolov et al. [6] proposed two new architectures to calculate vector representations of words calling them Word2Vec, which was considered, at the time, as a reference in the subject. Subsequently, techniques of word embeddings based on the use of the long short-term memory network (LSTM) [15] became widely used for speech recognition, language modeling, sentiment analysis, and text prediction, and that, unlike the recurrent neural network (RNN) they can forget, remember and update the information thus taking a step forward from the RNNs [16]. Therefore, LSTM-based libraries, such as Embeddings from Language Models (Elmo) [17], Flair [18], and context2vec [19] created a different word embedding for each occurrence of the word, related to the context, that allowed to capture the meaning of the word.
In more recent years, new techniques of word embeddings have emerged, with emphasis on (i) Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) [9], context-sensitive model with architecture based on a transformer model [20]; (ii) Sentence BERT (SBERT) [21], a “Siamese” BERT model that was proposed to improve BERT’s performance when seeking to obtain the similarity of sentences; and (iii) Text-to-Text Transfer Transformer (T5) [22], a framework for treating NLP issues as a text-to-text problem, that is, input to the template as text and template output as text.
From this analysis, it was possible to advance in the current state of the art in the area of NLP applied to the legal sector, by conducting a comparative study and application of the techniques TF-IDF, Word2Vec CBoW, and Word2Vec Skip-gram to perform the grouping of labor legal processes in Brazil using the k-means algorithm and the cosine similarity.
This section presents each step necessary to achieve the results and to make it possible to analyze them comparatively. To perform all the implementations of the routines necessary for this study, the Python programming language (version 3.6.9) was used and, among other libraries, (i) Numpy (version 1.19.2) was used; (ii) Pandas (version 1.1.3); (iii) Sklearn (version 0.21.3); (iv) Spacy (version 2.3.2); and (v) Nltk (version 3.5).
Every processing flow (pipeline) consists of the phases: (i) data extraction; (ii) data cleansing; (iii) generation of word-embedding templates; (iv) calculation of the vector representation of the document; (v) unsupervised learning; and (vi) calculation of the similarity measure, as detailed in the following subsections.
The dataset used for these studies belongs to the Regional Labour Court of the 5th Region (acronym in Portuguese for “Tribunal Regional do Trabalho da 5ª Região”—TRT5). There are approximately 210 (two hundred and ten) thousand documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed type, incorporated into the Electronic Judicial Process (PJe) system, originally added to the PJe in portable document format (PDF) or hypertext markup language (HTML). As the PJe has a tool for extracting and storing the contents of documents, there was no need for further processing in obtaining the text of such files.
In addition to the content of the documents, the following information was extracted: (i) the name of the parts of the proceedings to which such documents belonged; (ii) the list of labor justice issues from the Unified Procedural Table2 (acronym in Portuguese for “
Preprocessing is a fundamental step for the application of artificial intelligence techniques and involves the following: (i) data standardization (when there is a large discrepancy between the values presented to the technique); (ii) the withdrawal of null values; and (iii) the reorganization and adequacy of the structure of the dataset. In this case, it is usually necessary for experts to conduct an exploratory analysis of the data used in advance to determine the direction of preprocessing.
For this phase, this study uses two forms of preprocessing: (i) detection of the subjects of the Unified Procedural Table (contained in the extracted documents) and (ii) cleaning the contents of the documents.
For the detection of the subjects of the TPU present in the extracted documents, regular expression matching was used as the search technique to measure the occurrences of these words in the files marking them with “tags” referring to the subject found.
For cleaning the contents of documents, usually using a regular expression, the steps were as follows:
HTML tags: removed the html tags found in the document, such as <script>, <body>, <style> etc.;
TPU subjects: replaced the subject text with a subject tag, for example, “
Related Persons: replaced the name of the individuals linked to the legal cases of the documents, such as the name of the author(s) and defendant(s), by the “tag” “
Judicial process number: replaced the number of the judicial process (according to the standard formatting defined nationally by the CNJ, NNNNNNN-NN.NNNN.N.NN.NNNN where N is a numeral) by the "tag" “
Standardization of abbreviations: replacement of abbreviations (acronyms) by the full translation as drawn STF list as reported in Section 3.1, for example, CLT was transformed into “
Addresses: replaced the addresses contained in the document with the “tag” “
Links: removed Internet links contained in the text;
Date and Time: replacement of date and time content with “
Time: replacement of the time content with the “
Days of the week: removed the days of the week found in the document;
Document ids: replacement of PJe document ids referenced in the document with “tag” “
Unit of measure: replaced the units of measurements and their values by the “tag” “
Numbers: replaced the numbers in full, ordinal numbers, and numerical sequences by the “tag” “
Judging bodies: replaced the judging bodies (e.g., “
Months of the year: removed the months of the year found in the document;
Judicial Stopwords: only when the technique employed is TF-IDF. The common words were removed in all texts of the judiciary, such as (i) “
Stopwords:
TF-IDF: removed all stopwords from the Portuguese language, such as “
Other techniques: removed only the non-adverbs of the Portuguese language, for example, the words “
Line breaks: replaced line breaks by space;
Punctuation marks:
TF-IDF: removed all the punctuation marks contained in the documents;
Other techniques: removed the punctuation marks except dot (.), comma (,), exclamation (!), and interrogation (?);
Lemmatization:
TF-IDF: applied the technique to replace words with its root, for example, words such as “
Other techniques: lemmatization has not been applied;
In addition to the preprocessing detailed above, when the technique used was TF-IDF, the tags inserted in the text during this phase were removed.
An essential technique in solving machine learning problems, involving NLP, is the use of vector representation of words, in which numerical values indicate some correlation of words in the text. This chapter uses word embeddings generated and shared for the Portuguese language, such as Word2Vec CBoW and Word2Vec template with Skip-gram. These templates were created based on more than 1 billion and 300,000 tokens, with results published in the article “Portuguese Word Embeddings: Evaluating on Word Analogies and Natural Language Tasks” presented at the Symposium in Information and Human Language Technology - STIL 2017 [23].
Different from the TF-IDF technique, which has the vector representation of the document based on the statistical measurement of each term of the document in relation to all known corpus, and whose vector dimension is equal to the size of the vocabulary of the corpus, the other techniques (i) Word2Vec CBoW ptBR and (ii) Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR need to go through a change to calculate the vector representation of the document (document embeddings). This happens because for these techniques what you can get is the vector representation of the word (word embeddings).
Thus, to calculate the vector representation for the documents some alternatives are suggested, such as (i) average of the word embeddings of the words of the document; (ii) sum of the word embeddings of the words in the document by pondering them with the TF-IDF and then dividing by the sum of the TF-IDF of the words of the document; and (iii) weighted average with the TF-IDF of the word embeddings of the words of the document, the latter being the technique chosen for presenting the best result.
The use of unsupervised learning techniques is relevant when the intention is to detect patterns among court documents. The k-means algorithm, whose basic concepts were proposed by MacQueen [13], is the technique adopted in this study. In general, this technique seeks to recognize patterns from the random choice of K initial focal points (centroid), where K is the number of groups that one wishes to obtain and, iteratively, position the elements whose Euclidean distance is the minimum possible concerning the centroid of the group.
Since one does not have an ideal K to offer the algorithm, an approach usually used to support such a decision is to calculate the inertia, based on how well the dataset was grouped through k-means.
The inertia calculation is based on the sum of the square of the Euclidean distance from each point to its centroid and seeks to obtain the lowest K with the lowest inertia. However, the higher the K value reaches, the tendency is that inertia will be lower, and then, the elbow method was used to find the point where the reduction in inertia begins to decrease.
Hence, 31 values for K were used within the range from 30 to 61, considering an interval for each unit, selecting the K that generated the best grouping. In addition, the strategy of creating submodels, limited to two, was used for the documents of the groups whose average similarity rate did not reach a value greater than 0.5.
The similarity measure is an important tool for the measurement of the quality of inferred groups. In this study, the cosine similarity measure is adopted, which is a measure that calculates the cosine of the angle between two vectors projected in the multidimensional plane, the result of which is between 0 and 1, in which 1 represents that the two vectors are totally similar, and 0 represents that they are totally different. Given two vectors, X and Y, the cosine similarity is presented using a scalar product according to Eq. (1).
Consequently, to decide whether, after the clustering of the chief model, it was necessary to generate up to two more submodels, using the average cosine similarity among all elements of the group. Although the computational cost of calculating the similarity between all files in the group is relevant, we sought to reduce the distance between documents that were part of the same group, although they were located near the centroid. To assess the final efficiency of the technique, another form of calculation was adopted, computing for each group the average cosine similarity between the group elements and its centroid. Thus, as a measure of global similarity of each approach, we calculated the average of the average of the groups, so that the one that reached a value closer to 1 (one) was considered the best technique.
This research shows, as per the methodology presented in the previous sections, how machine learning algorithms associated with NLP techniques are important allies in optimizing the operational costs of the judicial process. It is evidenced from the result, for example, of document screenings and procedural distribution, which allows an expert to devote oneself to their chief activity optimizing working time.
While using the k-means unsupervised learning algorithm, it was necessary to choose the best K for each NLP technique studied. In this scenario, the elbow method was applied based on the calculated inertia of each of the 31 K tested, as shown in Figure 1, thus achieving a better result for each technique.
Inertia charts constructed by using the elbow method for determining the best number of clusters for each approach.
From the attainment of the best K, the k-means model was trained and, from the grouping performed by this technique, we could reach the average similarity between the documents of each group. Those groups that did not make the cutting line of at least 0.5 of average had the group files submitted for creating up to two submodels. As expected, only for TF-IDF technique groupings is there a need to generate submodels to improve performance.
Table 2 shows the average similarity of the groups obtained using the TF-IDF technique, as well as the result of the Word2Vec CBoW pt-BR technique. It achieved a little better measure of similarity than the Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR technique; however, the latter achieved its result with a smaller number of groups, which places it, in general, as the best technique.
Model | Submodel 1 | Submodel 2 | Final | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | Groups | Mean | Groups | Mean | Groups | Mean | Groups | Mean |
TF-IDF | 37 | 0.3696 | 43 | 0.4001 | 48 | 0.4002 | 48 | 0.4002 |
Word2Vec CBoW ptBR | 59 | 0.9060 | — | — | 59 | 0.9060 | ||
Word2Vec Skip-gram ptBR | 34 | 0.9044 | — | — |
Mean cosine similarity between all elements of the group. The best results are highlighted in bold.
After the groups were formed, the statistical data resulting from each approach were calculated, as shown in Table 3 and in the comparative graph of distributions between the techniques (Figure 2). The cosine similarity of the group elements to its centroid was used as a metric, showing the proximity of the results between the techniques with Word2Vec and highlighting the technique Word2Vec Skip-gram ptBR for the smaller amount of generated groups.
Type | Groups | Mean | Std. | Min. | 25% | 50% | 75% | Max. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TF-IDF | 49 | 0.6241 | 0.1718 | 0.2466 | 0.5021 | 0.5864 | 0.1639 | 0.9644 |
Word2Vec CBoW ptBR | 59 | 0.9475 | 0.0632 | 0.7640 | 0.9352 | 0.9790 | 0.991 | 0.9999 |
Word2Vec Skip-gram ptBR |
Statistics of the cosine similarity of the group elements to the centroids. The best results are highlighted in bold.
Boxplots showing the distributions of the clusters calculated by each technique. The more cohesive the boxes and the less number of outliers, the better.
When comparing the values presented in Tables 2 and 3, it is noteworthy that the results presented in Table 2 are worse in all cases. It is inferable from this observation that the similarity measure calculations shown in Table 2 can reduce the similarity rates since there may be elements in the group positioned on completely opposite sides. From Figure 2, it is also possible to verify that the groupings generated by the Word2Vec technique were more cohesive than those generated by the TF-IDF technique, especially the Word2Vec Skip-gram technique, which created fewer groupings in the range of outliers than Word2Vec CBoW, demonstrating its superiority by allowing fewer groups but maintaining consistent quality and cohesion.
Given the aforesaid, among all the techniques evaluated, the Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR technique presented itself as the best option for word embeddings for clustering legal documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed type. Although the Word2Vec CBoW pt-BR technique achieves slightly better rates, it stands out from the previous one for reaching a much smaller number of groups.
The result achieved by each approach can be visualized by projecting in two dimensions of the groups formed from the three techniques: (i) TF-IDF; (ii) Word2Vec CBoW pt-BR; and (iii) Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR, respectively, presented in Figures 3–5. It is evident in the figures that the groups formed from Word2Vec are much better defined, especially skip-gram, which confirms the findings previously explained in this work.
2D projection of the entire test dataset, showing for each document its corresponding group formed by TF-IDF.
2D projection of the entire test dataset, showing for each document its corresponding group formed by Word2Vec CBoW ptBR.
2D projection of the entire test dataset, showing for each document its corresponding group formed by Word2Vec skip-gram ptBR.
The use of AI as a standard detection tool based on documents from the judiciary has generally proved to be a viable and helpful solution in the scientific, technological, and practice of legal work. In this chapter, it was possible to present the results considered very promising due to the improvement in the average similarity rate. Thus, we demonstrate the possibility of using word-embedding generation techniques applied on clustering of Ordinary Appeal Interposed using AI algorithms.
Of all the techniques evaluated, the Word2Vec Skip-gram pt-BR technique presented itself as the best option for word embeddings for clustering legal documents of the Ordinary Appeal Interposed type.
We believe that specialized word embeddings have great potential in improving the results. Therefore, comes the suggestion for future study of Word2Vec specialized for the judiciary, in addition to evaluating whether the new embeddings generated provide an opportunity to improve the overall performance of clustering. In addition, using transformer-based techniques, such as BERT, can achieve promising results, using both the Portuguese language word-embedding model and training a specialized BERT model for the judiciary.
Moreover, new possibilities arise for using the techniques discussed in this chapter, such as the draft generation of decisions and classification of documents and processes.
The authors thank the Regional Labour Court of the 5th Region for making datasets available to the scientific community and contributing to research and technological development. The authors also thank the Artificial Intelligence Reference Centre and the Supercomputing Centre for Industrial Innovation, both from SENAI CIMATEC.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
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\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
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\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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Magnetic materials absorb greatly microwaves. The more magnetic, the more microwaves are absorbed. The aim of this chapter is to present the fundamental physics of the absorption of microwave power (energy per unit time) by ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic matter in the nano and micro size scale. The magnetic moments and their collective modes are the basic microscopic absorbers under in-resonance and out-of-resonance conditions. Experimental setups and measurement techniques are described. The profiles of microwave absorption are described and connected to the micromagnetic environment that elicits such absorption. Section by section and the overall microwave power absorption profiles are related to the micromagnetic structures. Emphasis is made on nano- and micromagnets. 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The radiofrequency electromagnetic waves (RFW) emitted by different smart phones was measured by using a TriField meter. Chick fertilized eggs were placed in an egg incubator, divided into control and exposed groups. In the exposed group, a mobile phone was placed inside an incubator in call receiving mode, while in the control group, the mobile phone was not used. Studies were conducted at low and high exposure (dose) of RFW. Chick embryos were sacrificed at day 10 and day 15, and embryos were examined for mortality, gross malformation, weight, and length. Histology, electron microscopy, and Hsp 70 of liver were done for the high dose group. No mortality was observed in the low dose group; however, in the high dose group, the mortality was 14%, and deformities of the limbs and skin abnormalities were observed. Weight and length in the exposed groups were significantly lower than the control at higher dose. Histology and ultrastructure of liver revealed fatty infiltration, increase number of mitochondria, deformation, and disappearance of its cristae. Hsp 70 and mRNA levels were elevated in the exposed groups for high dose group.",book:{id:"7617",slug:"electromagnetic-fields-and-waves",title:"Electromagnetic Fields and Waves",fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Fields and Waves"},signatures:"Najam Siddiqi and Nasser Al Nazwani",authors:[{id:"278673",title:"Dr.",name:"Najam",middleName:null,surname:"Siddiqi",slug:"najam-siddiqi",fullName:"Najam Siddiqi"},{id:"291777",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:null,surname:"Al Nazwani",slug:"nasser-al-nazwani",fullName:"Nasser Al Nazwani"}]},{id:"16084",title:"Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Thin Dielectric and Metallic Films",slug:"propagation-of-electromagnetic-waves-in-thin-dielectric-and-metallic-films",totalDownloads:5912,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:null,book:{id:"166",slug:"electromagnetic-waves",title:"Electromagnetic Waves",fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Waves"},signatures:"Luc Levesque",authors:[{id:"26483",title:"Dr.",name:"Luc",middleName:"Joseph",surname:"Lévesque",slug:"luc-levesque",fullName:"Luc Lévesque"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"737",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81875",title:"Terahertz Conductivity of Nanoscale Materials and Systems",slug:"terahertz-conductivity-of-nanoscale-materials-and-systems",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104797",abstract:"The history of RF technology can provide human beings a powerful lesson that the infrastructure of modern-day wireless communication depends on the complexity and configurability of silicon-based solid-state devices and integrated circuits. The field of THz technology is undergoing a developmental revolution which is at an inflection point and will bridge the ‘technology’ and ‘application’ gap in meaningful ways. This quantitative progress is a result of continuous and concerted efforts in a wide range of areas including solid-state devices, 2D materials, heterogeneous integration, nanofabrication and system packaging. In this chapter, the innovative theoretical approaches that have enabled significant advancement in the field of system-level THz technology are discussed. The focus is kept on the formulation of terahertz conductivity which plays a critical role in the modeling of devices that integrate technologies across electronics and photonics. Further, the findings build on coupling a probe pulse of terahertz illumination into the photoexcited region of amorphous silicon are presented and discussed in detail. Terahertz light has a higher penetration depth for opaque semiconductor materials which provides an accurate method to measure the conductivity of novel materials for the construction of efficient solar cells. This paves the way for the possibility to develop energy systems can address the need for reconfigurability, adaptability and scalability beyond the classical metrics.",book:{id:"10206",title:"Terahertz Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10206.jpg"},signatures:"Rahul Goyal and Akash Tiwari"},{id:"80442",title:"Interdigitated Photoconductive Antenna for Efficient Terahertz Generation and Detection",slug:"interdigitated-photoconductive-antenna-for-efficient-terahertz-generation-and-detection",totalDownloads:86,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102379",abstract:"THz signals can be generated commonly from Photoconductive Antenna (PCA) but the efficiency is low for the conventional PCA. This work improves the optical to terahertz conversion efficiency of the terahertz radiation by changing the conventional PCA structure to Interdigitated PCA (IPCA). The efficiency of PCA is dependent on the current pulse generated in the antenna structure when the laser pulse is incident on it. This paper targets to achieve high photo-current, as well as THz electric field from the IPCAs which are simulated using FEM and FDTD techniques. Also, the effect of various parameters such as current, gain, frequency bandwidth, optical to terahertz conversion efficiency, etc. are studied to study the importance of IPCAs.",book:{id:"10206",title:"Terahertz Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10206.jpg"},signatures:"Shyamal Mondal, Nisha Flora Boby Edwin and Vaisshale Rathinasamy"},{id:"80114",title:"Terahertz Sensing Based on Photonic Crystal Fibers",slug:"terahertz-sensing-based-on-photonic-crystal-fibers",totalDownloads:112,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101732",abstract:"Photonic-crystal-fiber (PCF) based sensors in the terahertz spectrum have been immensely studied and implemented due to their unique advantages and high sensitivity. At an early stage, conventional and hybrid structured porous core PCF-based sensors were proposed, but the sensitivity was not so high. With the advancement of PCF fabrication technology, hybrid structured hollow-core PCFs have been reported and offer superior sensing characteristics than the previous types. In this chapter, both porous core and hollow-core PCF-based THz sensors are analyzed and the propagation characteristics are explained using terahertz spectrum. Finally, some promising terahertz sensors are studied and compared at the end of this chapter.",book:{id:"10206",title:"Terahertz Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10206.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Ahasan Habib, Md. Shamim Anower and Md. 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Here we introduce the optical heterodyne measurement (nonlinear frequency up-conversion detection) of terahertz wave using parametric wavelength conversion in a nonlinear crystal; this has better sensitivity than many commonly used thermal detectors such as pyroelectric detectors. Additionally, optical heterodyne techniques allow the beams of terahertz wave to be visualized and their frequency and intensity determined directly as visible light. These are very promising for extending applied researches into the terahertz region, and we expect that these will open new research fields such as wireless information communications or non-destructive inspection in the terahertz region.",book:{id:"10206",title:"Terahertz Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10206.jpg"},signatures:"Shin’ichiro Hayashi and Norihiko Sekine"},{id:"77432",title:"A Novel Approach for Room-Temperature Intersubband Transition in GaN HEMT for Terahertz Applications",slug:"a-novel-approach-for-room-temperature-intersubband-transition-in-gan-hemt-for-terahertz-applications",totalDownloads:154,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98435",abstract:"Terahertz (THz) technology has attracted tremendous attention recently due to its promising applications in various domains such as medical, biological, industrial imaging, broadband, safety, communication, radar, space science, and so on. Due to non-availability of powerful sources and highly sensitive and efficient detectors, the so-called THz gap remains largely unfilled. Despite seamless efforts from electronics and photonics technology researchers, the desired level of technology development to fill the THz gap still remains a challenge. GaN-based HEMT structures have been investigated as potential THz sources and detectors by a number of researchers. This chapter presents a very new and versatile mechanism for electrical tuning of intersubband transitions (ISBT) GaN high electron mobility transition (HEMT) devices. ISBT phenomena are usually demonstrated in photonic devices like a quantum cascade laser (QCL). Here we explore ISBT in an electronic GaN HEMT device. Conventional photonic devices like a QCL are operated at cryogenic temperature to minimize thermal effect. Tuning the conduction band through external gate bias is an advantage of an HEMT device for room temperature (RT) THz applications. This chapter demonstrates the theoretical and experimental novel ISBT phenomenon in GaN HEMT is for potential ambient applications in the THz range.",book:{id:"10206",title:"Terahertz Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10206.jpg"},signatures:"Rakesh Kaneriya, Gunjan Rastogi, Palash Basu, Rajesh Upadhyay and Apurba Bhattacharya"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:9},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. 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He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. 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He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. 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She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. 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Reasoning in a sustainable way entails, first and foremost, managing the available resources efficiently and strategically, whether they are natural, financial, human or relational. In this way, value is generated by contributing to the growth, improvement and socio-economic development of the communities and of all the players that make up its value chain. In the coming decades, we will need to be able to transition from a society in which economic well-being and health are measured by the growth of production and material consumption, to a society in which we live better while consuming less. In this context, digitization has the potential to disrupt processes, with significant implications for the environment and sustainable development. There are numerous challenges associated with sustainability and digitization, the need to consider new business models capable of extracting value, data ownership and sharing and integration, as well as collaboration across the entire supply chain of a product. In order to generate value, effectively developing a complex system based on sustainability principles is a challenge that requires a deep commitment to both technological factors, such as data and platforms, and human dimensions, such as trust and collaboration. Regular study, research and implementation must be part of the road to sustainable solutions. Consequently, this topic will analyze growth models and techniques aimed at achieving intergenerational equity in terms of economic, social and environmental well-being. It will also cover various subjects, including risk assessment in the context of sustainable economy and a just society.
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