LALINET operational stations and their characteristics [7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
\r\n\t
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The industrialization process and technological advances have simplified the physical work of human beings and changed the lifestyle of the last generations. Not that long ago, most of the jobs required physical activity and some energy expenditure. Nowadays the percentage of work sectors demanding high levels of physical activity has reduced drastically. This new reality derives in many people forced to spend at more than 8 h/day sitting and having difficulties to reach the physical activity recommendations [1]. Sedentary lifestyles have become a significant public health issue spreading worldwide, although there is evidence of being linked to a range of chronic health conditions [2]. Extended periods of inactivity can produce metabolic dysfunction and impair blood sugar regulation [3], elevate blood pressure [4], and make it difficult to use fat as a metabolic substrate, as well as increase the risk of early death regardless of physical activity levels [5]. Therefore, it seems crucial to find strategies that can be applied in all life domains to be able to reduce sedentary behavior, as well as to increase physical activity. Including regular and well-structured sedentary breaks during long sitting periods could help reduce the negative effects of a sedentary lifestyle.
This chapter aimed, firstly, to provide scientific evidence of the need to reduce sedentary behaviors as well as to include regularly sedentary breaks. Secondly, to show some possibilities and examples of how to break sedentarism in daily life. We believe that introducing these practices in workspaces, schools, leisure time, and in the daily activities of older adults might help control the negative effects derived from sedentary lifestyles.
Historically, exercise physiologists have studied sedentary lifestyle as the opposite of physical activity. The terms that have been used for research in this area have been confusing, which makes it difficult to compare clinical trials. Already in the 1950s, Morris et al. [6] concluded that sedentary work increased cardiovascular risk compared to those who worked more physically active. That study, among others, resulted in a strong area of research focused, for over 60 years, on quantifying the level of physical activity necessary to reduce morbidity and mortality [6]. These investigations provided recommendations on physical activity and the implementation of public policies to promote physical activity practice.
Despite the efforts, a high percentage of the population (mostly from countries that suffered rapid urbanization and industrialization) do no reach the physical activity recommendations and the tendency is that this number increases [1] Office works, school, screen games, technology, passive transportation and sedentary leisure time have had a strong impact on reducing the opportunities to perform physical activity at the same time that promote opportunities for sedentary behavior in all the life domains.
For the past two decades, the number of studies focused on sedentary behavior has grown exponentially, and physical activity and sedentary behavior can be considered as an independent research field. The term sedentary behavior comes from Latin “sedere” which means “to sit”. But not only the “position” determines what is currently conceived as sedentary behavior. Sedentary behavior is defined as any waking behavior characterized by the expenditure of 1.5 metabolic equivalents of task (MET)s or less of energy while in a sitting, reclining, or lying posture [7]. Sedentary behavior, like physical activity, can be found in all life domains (work, study, transport, and free time). Although research in this field has increased notably in the last decade, there is still confusion in the terminology and the scientific community has not reached a consensus in some terms and concepts yet. Many definitions of sedentary behavior can be found in the literature but some common concepts are repeated, such as low energy expenditure, mostly under 1.5 METs, activities performed in sitting, lying or reclining position and while the person is awake [7]. Besides, some other concepts associated with sedentary behavior have aroused the interest of the scientific community. Sedentary bouts, breaks of sitting, sedentarism, sedentary lifestyle vs. inactivity, among others, are related terms that could help deeply understand this problem.
Sedentary Behavior Concept has suffer an evolution over the years. Although the distinction between sedentarism and physical inactivity (not meeting worldwide recommendations for physical activity) has already been settled [7], it is still common to find some confusion in terms such as sedentary time, sitting time, screen time and stationary time; which, although in some cases are overlapping concepts, refer to different behaviors [7]. Because they refer to different aspects of behavior (position, movement, effort and the use of digital implements), these traits can be blended in different ways, so that some criteria are met but others are not. For example, one can be seated but doing physical activity (cycloergometer), so it’s not a sedentary behavior; one could be stationary, but not sitting (e.g., waiting in line); one may be in sedentary behavior, but not sitting (instead lying down watching TV), which in turn is independent of screen usage (reading a book); among other examples.
Studies on bed rest [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13] provided useful information on the consequences of inactivity and low energy expenditure for long periods. Thanks to these studies, a lot is known about the effects of prolonged inactivity in metabolism and organ systems. Different studies focused on the effects of bed rest on metabolic function, found peripheral insulin resistance in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, hepatic insulin resistance and a dyslipidemia [10], as well as a decline in function, muscle mass, and muscle strength [12] and a reduction in cardiorespiratory capacity after one-week bed rest [13]. In regards to the musculoskeletal structure, inactivity produces loss of strength and endurance, contractures, changes in soft tissues, disuse osteoporosis, sarcopenia, and degenerative joint disease [8]. At the cardiovascular level, the consequences can be postural hypotension, cardiac dysfunction, and thrombotic events [13]. Additionally, bed rest can lead to impaired respiratory, renal, gastrointestinal, and nervous system levels [9]. Outside hospitalization or illness, free-living healthy adults rarely spend these amounts of bed rest. Nevertheless, technological and social factors have made prolonged sitting time a common practice in all life domains (work, domestic life, and leisure time).
Measuring physical activity and sitting time is complex. Research has been aimed at improving the quality of the data through the objective measurement of sedentary behavior using accelerometry, observing that the self-report measurement underestimates the daily time of sedentary behavior concerning the objective measurement.
Researchers have focused on developing devices to be able to objectively quantify physical activity. In the past decades, many studies using accelerometers have been carried out. A multi-country study (USA, Brazil, UK, Denmark, the Czech Republic, and Hong Kong) using accelerometry found that the average sedentary time per day was 513 min/day, or 8.55 h/day [14]. Sedentary time was estimated to be responsible for 3.8% of all-cause mortality in adults according to a meta-analysis pooling data across 54 countries [15]. The United States Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee (PAGAC) [16] recently comprehensively reviewed the scientific evidence, linking sedentary behavior with specific physical health indicators in adults and older adults, including mortality, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, cancer, and obesity. Moreover, high levels of sedentary behavior are also negative associated with cognitive function, depression, function and disability, physical activity levels, and health-related quality of life [17]. In contrast, little evidence has demonstrated the relationship between sedentary behavior and musculoskeletal pain, accidents or injuries, fatigue, sleep, or work productivity [18]. Ku et al. [19] published in 2018 a meta-regression analysis involving more than 1 million participants in which the cut-off points of daily sedentary time that were related to all-cause mortality in adults were established for data measured objectively and self-reported [19]. According to the results of the study, the method of measuring sitting time significantly moderated the association between daily sitting time and mortality risk. The cut-off of daily sitting time in studies with self-report data was 7 h/day in comparison with 9 h/day for those with data measured by devices.
It is accepted that exercise is an effective strategy for reducing key cardiovascular risks [20]. Nevertheless, it is unclear if the benefits can be modified by a sedentary lifestyle. Therefore, it is important to clearly define different concepts such as physical activity/inactivity or sedentary behavior, as their physiological consequences on health are different. While physical activity/inactivity is referred to whether or not a person reaches the physical activity recommendations, a person is considered as sedentary if he/she spends long periods of the day in sedentary behavior. While for the first one (cut-off points for being physically active) there is enough evidence to determine the recommendations (150 minutes of moderate physical activity or 75 minutes of vigorous physical activity or an equivalent metabolic combination between both, plus 2–3 days/week of resistance training) [21], for the second one (cut-off points for being sedentary) there are still no recommendations, since studies have found inconclusive results.
That means that a person can meet the physical activity guidelines and still be considered sedentary. Sedentary behavior might produce harmful effects on health independently of physical activity level, but when both are combined, the results seem to change (combined joint association). In other words, high levels of sedentary behavior combined with low levels of physical activity increase the risk of death by 46% [18]. On the contrary, some studies have shown that high levels of physical activity can counteract or reduce the risk of death caused by prolonged sedentary behavior [22]. Similar results were obtained in cancer patients, where in the most active patients no relationship was observed between sedentary behavior and cancer mortality, while for those less active the risk of death increased [23].
Using the concepts of sedentary and/or physically active person, we can describe four possible combinations:
Figure 1 represents graphically these possibilities.
Person’s classification according to sedentary behavior and physical activity practice. (A) Sedentary inactive, (B) non-sedentay inactive, (C) sedentary active, (D) non-sedentary active.
The health implication for possibilities A and D are clear. Classification A has a negative influence on health and is negatively associated with all-cause mortality and D is positively associated with better health markers. What is not fully clear yet, are the implications of classifications B and C. Can one the variables counteract the negative effect of too much of the other one? Or, are the positive effects of one variable suppressed by the other one?
As mentioned before, some studies found that high levels of physical activity might attenuate the increased risk of some illness or death associated with high sitting times [22]. Notwithstanding, there is still some uncertainty in the characteristics of the specific dose–response curves, which makes it difficult to determine specific quantitative public health recommendations [24]. As sedentary lifestyle in western societies does not tend to reduce, new strategies might be the solution. Some degree of sedentary lifestyle might be beneficial for health so that it helps to rest and recover. On the contrary, excessive sitting time may become a risk factor. Scientific evidence has not found an increase in the risk of death from any cause in people with a total sitting time between 4–8 hours/day when compared to those who remain seated for less than 4 hours. Nevertheless, the risk increases by 15% when sitting time rises to 8–11 hours/day, and by 40% with sitting times higher than 11 hours/day [25]. Contrary, some other studies found a dose–response relationship for every 1-hour increase in sitting time in intervals between 0–3, >3–7, and > 7 h/day total sitting and all-cause mortality. This model estimated a 34% higher mortality risk for adults sitting 10 h/day, after taking physical activity into account, although the risk increased staggered [26], similar to other studies that observed statistically significantly higher risk of death with sedentary times of 9.5 h/day or more [23].
This situation has put the focus on the double challenge of increasing levels of physical activity and reducing sedentary behavior. Many countries have developed strategies to promote changes in the population. As an example, the Canadian government created the Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for Adults (https://csepguidelines.ca/). It recommends that adults between 18–64 years must limit sedentary time to 8 hours/day or less, including no more than 3 hours/day of recreation screen time and breaking long periods of sitting as often as possible.
As it has been mentioned before, modern lifestyles predispose a high percentage of the population to spend long periods in sedentary behaviors. As too much sitting time is related to different chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases, or some types of cancer, it seems crucial to clearly understand the mechanism and strategies to reduce the negative effects of a sedentary lifestyle. Generalizing, we get up, use the elevator to go to the car, drive to work, take the escalator to go work, spend 8 hours at least working with minimum movement, drive back home, eat, have some hours of recreational time, watch TV and go to bed. Fortunately, different lifestyles and personal situations (occupational situation and leisure-time preferences) as well as inherent individual differences, result in different accumulations of sedentary time. Due to the strong available evidence on the deleterious effects of a sedentary lifestyle on health, it is necessary to better understand the metabolic mechanisms and how it is accumulated. Researchers have observed that reducing or breaking up sedentary time may result in beneficial changes in body composition and acute improvements in markers of cardiometabolic risk.
Sedentary behavior might be considered as a multifactorial concept, where four different aspects influencing it should be taken into account:
It has been proposed that breaks in sedentary time could help counteract the negative effect of prolonged periods of whole-body inactivity. A break in sedentary time can be defined as a period of non-sedentary activity, such as standing or walking in between two sedentary bouts [7]. Experimental studies have demonstrated that interrupting sedentary time with short frequent breaks reduces daily glucose, postprandial glucose, and insulin resistance [3, 26, 27]. In a study carried out by Healy et al. [28] in 2008, the authors found, that interruptions of sedentary behavior were negatively associated with obesity and cardiometabolic health. These results highlighted, already at that time, the fact that not only total sitting matters but also how it is distributed in a period of time. The characteristic of the sedentary breaks in the study from Healy et al. showed that the breaks reported by the participants were shorter than 5 min on average, and they were performed at a light intensity. Results from this study also found lower waist circumference, BMI, triglycerides, and 2-h plasma glucose in the participants with higher sedentary break bouts, independent of total sedentary time or moderate-to-vigorous intensity activity time. Since this pioneering study was published, the scientific community have had an increased interest in analyzing the effects of sedentary breaks, to be able to deeply understand the effects of prolonged sitting on metabolism, as well as to establish clear and specific guidelines of intervention. Different types of sedentary breaks have been studied trying to analyze if shorter bouts of sitting time, are less metabolic disrupting even when the total amount of daily or weekly sitting times are similar.
Brief bouts of light-intensity-activity sedentary breaks could reduce the negative effects of long periods sitting on lower limb vascular function in healthy and overweight/obese adults [29]. Experimental studies [30, 31, 32] have seen that combining exercise with breaks in sitting resulted in additional reductions in postprandial insulin-glucose dynamics and triglycerides when comparing exercise and uninterrupted sitting. This effect, although useful in any case, seems to be more effective in those with high basal insulin resistance.
As many studies focused on analyzing the effects of sedentary breaks to counteract the metabolic problems associated with prolonged sitting time have found positive interactions, the question that remains unanswered is not if we should break sitting regularly, what already has a positive answer. The unanswered question is, which is the best structure for a sedentary break?
As it has been mentioned before, the lack of enough specific interventional studies complicates for experts to concrete the most optimal structure for sedentary breaks. A recent study by Wheeler et al. [30] investigated the effects of 3 different sitting strategies in overweight and obese: i) uninterrupted sitting for 8 h, ii) sitting for 1 h, moderate-intensity walking for 30-min and uninterrupted sitting for 6.5 h and iii) sitting for 1 h, moderate-intensity walking for 30 min and sitting for 6.5 h interrupting sitting every 30 min with 3 min of light-intensity walking. They found reductions in postprandial insulin-glucose dynamics and triglycerides by combining exercise with breaks in sitting. This study not only proposes a way to help reach the physical activity recommendation by breaking sedentary time for 30 min/day but also demonstrates that regular sedentary breaks help control the metabolic deleterious effect of prolonged sitting.
A well-controlled meta-analysis conducted by Loh et al. in 2020 [33] found that the use of sitting breaks moderately attenuated post-prandial glucose, insulin, and triacylglycerol. The authors also found that the glycemic attenuation was greater in people with a higher body mass index. An interesting result was that for attenuating glucose levels, a statistically significant small advantage for sitting breaks was found over continuous exercise when exercise matched energy. That could mean that for glucose regulation, it might be more interesting short regular breaks along the day, than one continuous bout of exercise.
The skeletal muscle might also play a key role in glycaemia control, which is even more important in overweight. Bergouignan et al. [34] performed an analysis from randomized clinical trials comparing one or three days uninterrupted sitting with sitting interrupted with light-intensity or moderate-intensity walking every 20-min in the modulation of contraction- and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake pathways in muscle. They found that both sitting break interventions reduced postprandial glucose concentration as well as a transition to modulation of the insulin-signaling pathway and increased capacity for glucose transport. The moderate-intensity intervention resulted in a greater capacity for glycogen synthesis and ATP production. These results might through some light in preventive strategy for metabolic diseases.
Published literature [35] might tend to propose that the best option to reduce the negative effects of sedentary behavior on metabolic functions could be to combine regular activity breaks of several minutes every 30 min of sitting with 30 min of continuous walking whether at the beginning or the end of the long sitting period.
Therefore, breaking sedentary time should be a good way to reduce the negative effects of long periods of sitting, for both metabolic and muscle function. These breaks are even more interesting for patients with initial high blood sugar, insulin resistance, or overweight-obesity. The general recommendation would be to make an active 2–3 min-break every 30 min of sitting time. If the activity made during these breaks is of moderate-high intensity, such as climbing stairs, the metabolic benefits might be greater.
The workplace is considered an important environment for the promotion and protection of health [36]. According to a report from the World Health Organization (WHO) together with the World Economic Forum, 65% of the world’s adult population is part of the workforce [37]. In 2007, about 3.1 billion people were part of the economically active population and it was estimated that by 2021 this number would exceed 3.6 billion [38]. Taking into account that this working adult population spends around a third of the day at work, workers´ health must be seen as a priority action.
Encouraging the reduction of sedentary behavior and promoting the practice of physical activity in the workplace is a strategy that helps maintain the health of the working population and affects their close environment. In 2018, the WHO presented the Global Action Plan for Physical Activity [39], with two mean challenges: reducing sedentary behavior by 2030 as well as the percentage of inactive population by 15% to the reported values of 2016. This plan encourages the population to take advantage of the many opportunities that arise in daily living to integrate physical activity, including the workplace (as a fundamental environment to practice physical activity programs as well as its promotion).
The activities where sedentary behavior predominates have increased lately and the workplace is a clear example. The machines have replaced human physical work at the same time that there has been a notable increase in office jobs, where the employee spends most of the working day in front of a computer. Although the negative consequences for cardiometabolic and musculoskeletal health of sedentary behavior have been widely demonstrated and office work represents for many workers a third of their day sitting, few have been made to improve this situation and reduce sitting time at workplaces, with the associated health risk.
The Healthy Work Environment model, proposed by the WHO [38] proposes intervention programs to reduce and break sedentary behavior in the workplace as a health promotion model and protection strategy. This model proposes four scenarios of action or “avenues of influence”, which are not isolated, but rather overlap each other:
The physical environment of the work, which refers to the structure, air, machinery, furniture.
The psychosocial work environment, which includes the organization of work and institutional culture, attitudes, values, beliefs that can affect the mental and physical well-being of workers.
Personal health resources in the workplace, that consist in an environment that promotes health, health services, information, resources, opportunities, and the flexibility that the companies offer to workers to support the efforts to improve or maintain healthy lifestyles, as well as to monitor and support your physical and mental health.
The physical participation of the institution in the community, which includes the activities that the company carries out to improve the safety, well-being, and quality of life of workers and their families.
To successfully establish health promotion programs in the workplace, certain conditions must be considered:
Raising awareness among managers and chiefs of the importance of these interventions, facilitating employees to carry them out. Companies’ leaders must understand that these strategies are not only not time wasted but will also result in increased productivity.
A previous evaluation of the workplace and the type of tasks that are developed, that help design an optimal plan.
Execution of the plan with the support of all interested parts (managers, middle managers, bosses, CEO, etc.) and commitment by workers.
Re-evaluation and adaptation of the proposal.
With different adaptations, similar models can be recommended with more or less the same stages.
Experts have suggested different strategies to reduce or interrupt sedentary behavior in the workplace, which could be grouped into the following categories [40].
Physical/environmental changes in workplace design
Desks with adjustable height that allow lifting them to work standing up.
Raised desks with a treadmill.
Rooms with high tables for standing meetings.
Modify the layout of the workplace, for example, by placing printers, trashcans, or water dispensers away from desks, which will force employees to stand up and walk a few steps when they need to use these items.
Provide bicycle racks, lockers, and services to wash up to encourage active transportation to work.
Eliminate architectural barriers to allow employees to move around the workplace, creating unobstructed corridors and spaces that invite walking.
Changes in workplace policy to incentivize and encourage reduction and disruption of sitting time
Promote the holding of standing or walking meetings.
Propose active breaks during working hours (short breaks in which you can do joint mobility exercises, put on a musical theme and dance, or any activity that allows interrupting the sedentary behavior through light physical activity)
Offer group physical activity practice.
Encourage the use of breaks for short walks.
Encourage employees to communicate with their colleagues by approaching their desks rather than by phone or messages.
Propose to take advantage of telephone communications to do them standing or walking (obviously, spaces that do not interfere with the work of others should be considered).
Encourage the use of the stairs instead of the elevator or escalator.
Information and advice to raise employee awareness and commitment by offering
Workshops, training courses and outreach programs on the importance of reducing sedentary behavior. Reporting on the health risks of sedentary behavior and the benefits of practicing physical activity could allow people to evaluate their behavioral choices.
Campaigns through various means, such as posters, signage, emails, WhatsApp messages, telephone calls or internal messages to motivate a change in behavior or.
Install reminder software every 30 minutes on employees’ mobile phones or personal computers, for example, to interrupt the sedentary behavior by standing up, dancing or doing some movements.
As mentioned so far, human bodies are adapted to maintain a physically active lifestyle. Proof of this is the health consequences of an insufficient level of physical activity. However, it is also true that neurobiologically we are adapted to “optimize” our energy expenditure, avoiding additional efforts when possible; In other words, sedentary behaviors are attractive for human beings, and willing power is required to counteract this attraction and opt for a behavior with higher associated energy expenditure [41]. It has been studied how the energy cost associated with a task affects, not only our decision to choose another more “economic” one, but directly to our perception of the initial task [42] and, therefore, to our future intention to undertake it.
A process as complex as human behavior cannot be reduced to just one component. Emotional/affective factors, as well as built habits, are also related to sedentary behavior and physical activity [43]. However, it is an interesting starting point if we seek an alternative approach to the one traditionally used. The assumption that human behaviors are decided by rational evaluations of the available information are underlying concepts in many current intervention strategies and, therefore, knowing the benefits of regular physical activity and the damages of prolonged sedentary behavior should be enough to solve the problem [44]. Nevertheless, in light of the sustained global pandemic of physical inactivity, it may be necessary to complement and enrich this approach with other perspectives.
Sedentary behaviors in free time are usually classified as screen-time (watching television, videos via streaming platform or physical medium, browsing the internet and social networks by both on a computer, tablet or cell phone and the use of video games) or not screen-time (sitting down to eat, participating in social gatherings, playing board games, recreational, attending cultural events such as cinema, theater, show music, sports competition, religious ceremony, doing artistic activities like writing or drawing or hobbies. The extensive list is testimony to the enormous offer of sedentary activities in free time. Recommendations on physical activity and sedentary behavior limit the amount of time in sedentary behaviors, but particularly those carried out in front of the screen [21].
Sedentary activities in front of the screen in free time, in addition to adverse effects on physical health, are related to adverse effects on mental health, mainly in minors [45]. Screen time during childhood is negatively correlated with brain connectivity, compared to time spent reading books, as well as being related to loss of imagery ability [46] or social–emotional functionality [47]. Interestingly, and in contrast to these studies, in the specific case of video games, there is evidence that indicates various cognitive benefits according to the type of game (action, strategy), and even positive socio-emotional impacts [48].
Of the large number of sedentary activities carried out in free time, although the impact on physical health is equivalent, it would be differential over other dimensions of the subject’s health. This leads to one of the perspectives mentioned in the literature as a strategy to address sedentary behavior: “harm reduction”. Assuming that certain socio-cultural (technological) changes are already part of daily life, priority is given to modifying those behaviors that present a greater health risk: replacing sedentary behaviors in front of the screen with sedentary behaviors without a screen, or by non-sedentary screen activities (for example, walking while using portable devices or replacing sedentary video games with active ones) [49].
Different classifications have been proposed for reducing sedentary behavior in the free time [50]: 1) environmental interventions such as devices that limit the time of television use), and 2) behavioral interventions like education campaigns about the harms of prolonged sedentary behavior; 3) multi-component interventions which include both types mentioned above.
Although studies on this fact do not have homogeneous methodologies, some findings can be pointed out. Studies that focus on the sedentary behavior of children in the home context have found a relationship between the existence of screen devices in the bedroom and greater sedentary behavior (with less reading time). Likewise, both the interventions that use devices that limit the use of television and those on family rules for screen use have been successful in reducing sedentary behavior. Furthermore, it was observed that in those cases in which the parents had more television time, or participated with their children in sedentary activities, the children presented higher levels of sedentary behavior. In some studies, the existence of adequate space or equipment for practicing physical activity at home is related to less sedentary behavior (although it does not present higher levels of physical activity at moderate or vigorous intensities) [51].
In the case of adults and the elderly, studies on free time are scarce and methodological imprecise. The absence of control in the domains makes it difficult to control the changes since the decrease of sedentary time in a domain does not imply its replacement by physical activity since it could simply shift to sedentary behavior in another domain. Those interventions aimed exclusively at reducing sedentary behavior have better results than those that also focused on increasing physical activity [50].
For children and adolescents, as well as for adults and the elderly, there is another alternative intervention strategy, which constitutes itself in an emerging field of research: exergaming, also known as active gaming or effort video game. These video games, unlike the traditional ones, are controlled with body movements (either full body or only certain segments); Thus, instead of being a sedentary activity, at least light-intensity physical activity is achieved (with the potential to become moderate intensity and even vigorous). In the US, it is estimated that 90% of children and adolescents play video games recreationally. In an increasing technophile society, and in which electronic entertainment is already part of our lives, exergaming stands as a strategy to address those to whom other physical activity proposals are not convincing. In addition, the commitment, immersion, and experience of “flow” that they can generate, make them a great resource for health-related purposes. Sustainability over the years of this type of activity has been investigated, finding greater adherence in women, and similar to that of team sports [52].
Results for studies analyzing experiences in exergaming as part of both school physical education and at-home context show a decrease in sedentary behavior with potential, according to the intensity at which the game is played, increase of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and good adherence to intervention programs. One of the challenges of exergaming is the “replay value” (once the game becomes monotonous and therefore the motivation to continue playing decreases), which maintain adherence. Multiplayer games (both face-to-face and remotely) show greater adherence. The eventual increase in the number of published games would compensate for this situation, allowing simply to change to a new one [53].
Particularly interesting is the research with older people, which improvements for both institutionalized and community-dwelling subjects, and not only in the physical dimensions but also in the cognitive one [54].
In all these cases, we refer mainly to consoles-home exergaming, but everyday mobile devices with augmented reality technology (Pokémon Go with geo-location system integrated into cell phones) are great opportunities to promote exergaming. Pokémon Go requires active movement of the player around their surroundings to play. This game mechanic has achieved a statistically significant change in the number of steps per day (thus decreasing sedentary behavior), although there is still not enough evidence on long-term adherence.
In the latter case, as in some home exergaming video games, there is no explicit intention in its design to promote health effects or to prescribe a systematic physical activity program. However, they have the potential to have a positive impact on the health and well-being of those who opt for this type of digital entertainment. Sedentary behavior in free time poses a great global challenge that requires, particularly for new generations, imagination and innovative approaches, in tune with contemporary technologies and paradigms.
It is well accepted that physical activity is beneficial to maintain and improve health and well-being across life [55]. In infants, toddlers, and preschoolers, high levels of physical activity have been seen to be related to better social and motor development improved metabolic health, and decreased adiposity, while a sedentary lifestyle is related to higher adiposity and poorer psychosocial health and cognitive development [54].
Children (preschoolers and scholars) spend more than 2 h/day of screen time, which is the maximal time recommended for this age group [56], plus eating time, school, passive transportation, homework, etc., which results in more than 8 h/day of sitting at this age. Moreover, studies found that screen time was associated with an increased risk of overweight/obese independent of physical activity [54]. Sex differences were also found. Boys are generally more involved in physical activity than girls, which normally spent more time on domestic tasks and homework. Children living in rural areas tend to use more active transportation than those who live in urban areas. Older children also tend to use more active transportation than the younger ones [57]. Taking into account that sedentary behavior in children is directly associated with classical cardiovascular risk factors like elevated blood glucose levels, insulin resistance, high blood pressure, obesity, and elevated blood lipids [58], strategies that help reduce total daily sitting time in children are crucial.
Nevertheless, although childhood should be a life stage where children should freely play, run and jump as part of their natural development, social rules, obligations, parent’s overprotection, new technologies, and urban environments, hinder the practice of physical activity for children with dramatic consequences. A qualitative study performed by Hidding et al. [59] aimed in determining the reasons for children to be sitting from the children or parents perspective, found that children most repeated reason was that they sit because is the norm and they have to and because they can play better that way. Other common answers were: I sit because seated activities are fun, I sit because I’m tired, I want to relax, I want to rest, I sit because of my health, I sit because there is nobody to play with, I sit because there is nothing to do, I sit because I’m not in the mood to do anything, I sit because of the weather. In regards to the answer “I sit because there is nobody to play with”, in families with more than one child, seems to be easy for children to perform physical activity [59].
All this information brings the experts ‘awareness of the necessity of reconsider children’s environments. The CSEP Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines [56] propose an Integration of physical activity (both light and moderate-to-vigorous), sedentary behavior, and sleep as the three principal parts of the day. All three must be right balanced to promote overall health, well-being, and quality of life. These guidelines use “the four S rule”:
SWEAT: Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity: An accumulation of at least 60 min/day.
STEP: Light physical activity: Several hours of a variety of structured and unstructured light physical activities (playing, walking)
SLEEP: Uninterrupted 9 to 11 h/night for those aged 5–13 years and 8 to 10 h/night for those aged 14–17 years, with consistent bed and wake-up times.
SIT: Sedentary behavior: No more than 2 h/day of recreational screen time and limited sitting for extended periods.
Figure 2 ilustrates de cited guidelines.
Canadian 24-hour movement guidelines for children and youth (5-17 years): an integration of physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep. Taken from CSEP website (
In addition, parents might consider changing indoor activities for outdoor ones, when possible, and including moderate to vigorous physical activity in exchange for light physical activity at some point of the day.
Findings from a recent meta-analysis [60] on the physical activity a sedentary behavior suggest that physical activity interventions can improve adolescents’ mental health.
Worldwide, the population is aging, which results in higher economic and social costs, as well as increased numbers of people living with more health problems, as aging increases the risk of suffering from chronic diseases. Therefore, the concept of successful aging has become a priority to guarantee, not only that life expectancy is high, but also that the years lived are of the best quality possible, free or with minimum chronic diseases. Physical activity has been proven to help increase or maintain health throughout life. Due to physical activity tends to reduce with age, older adults must become a risk population. Disability, frailty, dysfunction, or sarcopenia are some of the problems that can affect older adults, which can compromise the independence level [61]. As physical activity decreases in this group, sedentary behavior increases, with fatal consequences. Maintaining physical activity levels and reducing sedentary time, should be a priority for the administrations. In this regard, there is evidence about the negative associations of sedentary behavior with frailty and how this relationship can differ by sitting bout length. Some studies [62] have found that prolonged sedentary bouts and total sedentary time were associated with higher mortality risk in frail individuals but not in robust. These results, including moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, reducing sedentary time in those frail older adults, as well as including sedentary breaks seem like a suitable strategy to prevent dependency and maintain health. As the total hours of a day are always 24, that means that when a person increases the time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, this person is reducing the time spent in another activity, that could be sitting or light physical activity. If sleeping time remains stable and a person substitutes 30 min/day of light physical activity for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity that includes resistance training, and at the same time changes 1 hour of sitting for light physical activity such as walking, the frailty status could be significantly reduced. Moreover, if this person would include a short sedentary break every 30 min - 1 hour of the total time this person is seated, the benefits would be even higher with only small changes.
Due to older adults are mostly retired, which releases them of office sitting time and have a lot of leisure time, political strategies must center on providing older adults with a safe environment where they can perform light physical activity, such as walking [63]. Pavements and sidewalks in good conditions, green areas, and safe cross-roads might help improve that older adults go more often outside to take a walk. At the same time, organized affordable exercise activities, specifically designed by experts for this population, could make that older adult reach the recommendation for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and resistance training. Moreover, these activities also promote social interaction, which improve wellbeing and might help reduce depression and anxiety, improving health-related quality of life, as well. These two actions would help to achieve physical activity recommendations at the same time that sedentary time would be reduced. To completely promote health in this group, clinicians, governments, and media should establish campaigns to make older adults understand the importance of breaking sedentary time. Things such as get up in the commercials when they watch TV, walking or standing while they are phoning, or get up to drink some water once each hour might be enough to break sitting time.
Lifestyle has dramatically changed in the last century. Industrialization and technology have reduced the physical requirements of many jobs, urbanization has changed population habits, force them to use passive transport instead of active ones, children play with digital devices since they are very young and older adult do not have to go outside because cities, family and environment easily provide all their needs. However, this sedentary lifestyle has disastrous consequences for health. Physical activity is necessary to maintain an optimal physiological function and prolonged sitting time interferes with the proper metabolic regulation. The combination of both, low physical activity levels and prolonged sitting time, maybe even more deleterious. That suggests a double challenge for developed countries; reducing and stopping prolonged sedentary behavior as well as increasing levels of physical activity. Although each of them separately has concrete effects on health, their interaction must be also taken into account. Sedentary behavior appears to be negative for health “per se”, as well as low physical activity levels, but how both are combined is what can make the difference. Scientific evidence says that high physical activity levels might help counteract the negative effects of sitting time and that this effect is progressive. That means, that the higher the physical activity intensity, the less negative effects of sitting time. At the same time, it seems that long continuous sitting bouts are more harmful than the same total sitting time but with breaks in between. Eight hours seated without any break might be a lot worse for metabolic regulation than the same 8 h of sitting but with breaks of 2–3 min every 30 min-1 h. With all these ideas in mind, the strategy to reduce sedentary behavior seems clear: practice enough physical activity, reduce free-time sitting and screen time, promote active transportation, and include sedentary breaks at sedentary jobs. The reason why these strategies are not working is complex and implies a compromise at different levels. First, governments must provide opportunities for affordable exercise practice and physical activity-friendly environments. Secondly, at workplaces, managers, CEOs, and bosses must be aware of the importance of promoting working places where employees have the opportunity of breaking sedentary time, and that it is seen as normal. Third, citizens should make efforts to include active activities in the free time as well as substitute classic videogames for exergaming, where at least, sitting time is exchanged for light physical activity. Last but not least, special populations (children and older adults) should not be forgotten. Parents and schools should reconsider the rules and norms and adapt them, when possible, to others more active versions, not forcing children to spend long periods seated promoting at the same time at least one hour of physical activity per day. Controlling screen time and giving good examples must be another priority for parents. In regards to older adults, societies should allow them to perform easy tasks that increase physical activity, encouraging them to used active transportations to carry them out, at the same time that exercise programs, specifical design for this population, are easily available in every neighborhood.
Currently, the world’s leading authority on global warming issues is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC is a scientific-political organization, created in 1988 by the United Nations (UN), and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 [1, 2]. Since its foundation, the IPCC has issued five reports (Assessment Reports), the first in 1990, the next ones in 1995, 2001, 2007, and 2014. The next report of IPCC is expected for the year 2022. The IPCC reports have reinforced, with growing evidence, that human influence on Earth’s climate is incontestable and that the terrestrial climate system’s warming is evident [2].
Aerosols, in particular, can alter the most diverse atmospheric processes, significantly affecting weather and climate. For example, they can absorb or scatter specific solar radiation wavelengths and radiation reflected by the Earth’s surface [3]. They can also modify the albedo (ability to reflect solar radiation on a given surface) and the lifetime of clouds [4]. A decrease in the albedo of clouds, for example, can lead to less reflection of radiation from the Sun, contributing to possible global warming effects. In this context, it is expected that the aerosol climatological behavior in the Earth’s atmosphere and its influence on climate change processes are of paramount importance.
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has encouraged the creation and expansion of networks aimed at atmospheric observations, and ground-based lidar networks have acquired great importance, both for atmospheric monitoring and research. Thus, regional lidar networks’ development to research the most diverse atmospheric configurations is strategic. The main fields where ground-based lidar measurements can be applied include [5, 6] atmospheric aerosol optical properties, urban aerosols and pollution, dust and biomass burning transportation, and cloud impacts on climate, planetary boundary layer dynamics, and processes of satellite data validation.
In terms of atmospheric structure, ground base lidars cover from the mesosphere down to the troposphere, through the stratosphere, and inspect each atmospheric layer in question. Under this perspective, laser radars’ operation began in the early ‘70s by observing stratospheric aerosols in Brazil and continued with sodium atoms (Na) concentration in the mesosphere. The stratospheric aerosols and ozone studies followed some years later in Argentina [7] and the late ‘80s in Cuba. By the late ‘90s and early 2000, the introduction of the lidar for tropospheric studies began.
We intend to summarize the most significant scientific achievements and developments related to ground-based Lidar remote sensing in South America in the next sections. LALINET’s most recent efforts in establishing standard protocols of system configurations, quality assurance, measurements, and data processing also will be approached [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. The chapter organization should first follow the studies performed in the mesosphere, followed by the work devoted to the stratosphere, and then we should show the studies related to the troposphere. These sections will be distributed over many specific studies regarding the scientific drives and methodologies employed.
The South American continent, encompassing 42% of the Americas, is a region that shelters the most remarkable ecosystems. Among these, we can cite the Amazon Rainforest, which is the largest tropical forest in the world, the Pantanal (or Chaco), one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites [12], and the Andes, the most extensive mountain chain in the world, and which hold a plethora of active and inactive volcanoes, extending from Venezuela to Patagonia, crossing all the continent from north to south. Patagonia, the continent’s southern region, presents many plants and wildlife, mostly endemic. It also houses another UNESCO World Heritage Site: The National Park Los Glaciares, in Santa Cruz, Argentina [12].
Developing a regional ground-based lidar network in Latin and South America is of strategic importance: The knowledge rendered by the high-resolution profiles allows the knowledge of a wide variety of atmospheric phenomena to complement satellite observations and other retrievals by diverse ground-based instruments. Unfortunately, the available infrastructure of lidar stations in Latin America is limited in certain aspects. For example, only a few stations operate regularly (contrasted to Europe and North America), stations have different instrument designs, radiosonde launchings are not occurring nearby all stations, and only a reduced number of sun photometers is distributed across the continent [7, 11]. To get around such limitations and consolidate standard protocols of measurements, data acquisition, quality control, and assurance routines, and data analysis, the Latin America Lidar Network, LALINET, was established in 2001, during the First Workshop on Lidar Measurements in Latin America, held in Camagüey, Cuba, in March 2001 [7, 11, 13]. It was recognized as being part of the GAW (Global Atmospheric Watch) Aerosol Lidar Observation Network (GALION) in 2013 [7, 11, 13]. Figure 1 shows the location of the LALINET stations [14].
Schematic representation for the location of the LALINET stations in South America. Argentina (AR): 1-) SMN Headquarters (Buenos Aires), 2-) CEILAP Headquarters (Buenos Aires), 3-) Comodoro Rivadavia (Chubut), 4-) Neuquén (Neuquén), 5-) Pilar (Cordoba), 6-) Río Gallegos airport (Santa Cruz), 7-) OAPA Río Gallegos (Santa Cruz), 8-) San Carlos de Bariloche (Río Negro), 9-) San Miguel de Tucumán (Tucumán). Bolivia (BO): 10-) La Paz (La Paz). Brazil (BR): 11-) Manaus (Amazonas), 12-) São Paulo (São Paulo), 13-) Cubatão (São Paulo), 14-) Natal (Rio Grande do Norte). Chile (CH): 15-) Punta Arenas (Magallanes), 16-) Temuco (Cautín). Colombia (CO): 17-) UNAL Medellín (Antioquia), 18-) SIATA Medellín (Antioquia), 19-) Cali (Valle del Cauca). Edited using Google my maps [
The next sections of this chapter will present information about mesospheric, stratospheric, and tropospheric monitoring by LALINET stations and teams around South America and Cuba, plus some significant results. Table 1 below shows the operational stations and their characteristics. A detailed description of LALINET origin and its evolution is given in Ref. [7]. The Letter of Agreement between LALINET and GAW can be found in Ref. [15].
Country, City, Location Coordinates, Altitude (a.s.l.) | System configuration | ||
---|---|---|---|
Instrument | Emits (nm) | Detects (nm) | |
AR, Buenos Aires, SMN 34.5641 S, 58.4171 W, 10 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Buenos Aires, CEILAP 34.5553 S, 58.5062 W, 26 m | HSRL | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 607, (HSRL, ∥, ⊥), 408, 387, 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Rivadavia, CRD Airport 45.7922 S, 67.4629 W, 48 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Neuquén, NQN Airport 38.9521 S, 68.1368 W, 266 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Pilar, OMGP 31.6755 S, 63.8730 W, 332 m | HSRL | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 607, 532 (HSRL, ∥, ⊥), 408, 387, 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, R. Gallegos, RGL Airport 51.6117 S, 69.3072 W, 17 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
AR, Río Gallegos, OAPA 51.6004 S, 69.3194 W, 19 m | DIAL | 355 (Nd:YAG), 308 (Xe:Cl) | 387, 355, 347, 332, 308 |
AR, Bariloche, BRC Airport 41.1473 S, 71.1640 W, 837 m | Raman | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532, 408, 387, 355 |
AR, S. M. de Tuc., TMO 26.7871 S, 65.2068 W, 485 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
BO, La Paz, UMSA 16.5381 S, 68.0686 W, 3420 m | Scanning Elastic | 532 | 532 |
BR, Manaus, Embrapa 2.8906 S, 59.9698 W, 80 m | Raman | 355 | 408, 387 |
BR, São Paulo, IPEN 23.5607 S, 46.7398 W, 764 m | Raman | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532, 530, 408, 387, 355 |
BR, Cubatão, CEPEMA 23.8865 S, 46.4370 W, 8 m | Mobile Raman | 532 | 532, 607 |
BR, Natal, UFRN 5.8431 S, 35.2043 W, 20 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 |
CH, Punta Arenas, UMAG 53.1344 S, 70.8802 W, 10 m | Raman Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064, 607, 532 (∥, ⊥), 408, 387, 355 (∥, ⊥) |
CH, Temuco, UFRO 38.7459 S, 72.6156 W, 108 m | Elastic | 532 | 532 |
CO, Medellín, UNAL 6.2619 N, 75.5760 W, 1538 m | Elastic | 1064, 532 | 1064, 532 |
CO, Medellín, SIATA 6.2017 N, 75.5784 W, 1502 m | Elastic Polarized | 355 | 355 (∥, ⊥) |
CO, Cali, CIBioFi-UniValle 3.3770 N 76.5337 W, 982 m | Elastic Polarized | 1064, 532, 355 | 1064 (∥, ⊥), 532 (∥, ⊥), 355 (∥, ⊥) |
Details about the contributing teams, measurement protocols, reports, and equipment can be found on the web page http://www.lalinet.org. Detection of polarized light in the parallel (∥) and perpendicular (⊥) directions are indicated.
Meteors enter in the upper atmosphere at very high velocities (15–70 km s−1), and the collisions with the atmospheric constituents cause flash heating until the particles melt and their chemical elements vaporize. This ablation process is responsible for the layers of metal atoms as Na, K, Fe, Mg, Ca, Si, among others, which occur globally in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT). This cosmic dust’s primary sources are the sublimation of comets as they approach the Sun on their orbits through the solar system and the collisions between asteroids.
Lidar use for the upper stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere investigations started in São José dos Campos, Brazil, in 1969 with a ruby laser operated at 694.3 nm. Clemesha and Rodrigues obtained the first aerosol profile using lidar in South America in 1971 [16]. The height range of measurement was 5 to 35 km due to the use of an 8 x 10″ receiver mirror. Later were obtained profiles up to 90 km in height using a 48″ mirror. In this work, high concentrations of aerosols were observed in the troposphere, a minimum just below the tropopause, around 15 km height, and higher concentrations in the lower stratosphere.
In 1972, when a new “handmade” dye laser became operational (see a Photo of this equipment in Figure 2), it was possible to start measurements of the Na layer in the MLT region, using Fabry-Perot interferometers and tuning the laser in the Na D2 line, 5890 Å, with a precision of 0.02 Å [17]. This system enabled the measurement of the mesospheric Na from 75 to 105 km of height [18]. The system continued to be operated regularly for long years obtaining the Na concentration at MLT region with different time and height resolutions, the stratospheric aerosol by Mie Scattering, and the atmospheric density and temperature from 30 to 65 km by Rayleigh scattering. In April 1975, 6 months after the eruption of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala, a massive increase in aerosol loads was observed in São José dos Campos, which remained in the atmosphere for almost two years [19].
The handmade dye laser for Na probing (it operates from 1972 to 1992). See also in the picture Dr. Barclay R. Clemesha (in memoriam), the project’s head.
Through Na profiles between 82 and 99 km obtained with the laser beam directed alternately in three positions in the sky, it was possible to estimate the wind’s speed in the mesosphere [20, 21]. The velocities vary with height in an oscillatory manner, with the amplitude increasing with height. These wave-like formations vary slowly with time and might be produced by propagating tides in the atmosphere. These structures’ common feature is their downward motion with time, consistent with the upward propagation of gravity wave energy. The more extended periods of oscillations are attributed to tides [22, 23]. Lidar measurements of the stratospheric aerosols enabled the observation of the eruption of El Chichón in México, eight months after in São José dos Campos, Brazil [24]. The transport of aerosols of the Pinatubo eruption was much more rapid and could be seen just 45 days after the eruption [25].
Research involving Na has included the first detection of the so-called Sporadic Sodium Layers [26]. The events occurred more frequently through periods of more significant meteor showers, especially in August. It is common to have sporadic E layers coincident with Na enhancement, which suggests that enhanced layers are generated by the wind shear distortion of Na clouds originated from meteor ablation. A significant result was that the long-lived sporadic layers appear to have a different nature from the short-lived ones. The difference is manifested in the more extensive duration and broader thickness and how the events are correlated with sporadic E layers [27].
In 1992, analyses of the vertical distribution of atmospheric Na layer with lidar showed a long-term trend of the centroid height, which decayed by approximately 700 meters between 1972 and 1987 [28]. However, from 1972 to 2001, the trend was 93 meters per decade. This new result appears dramatically diminishes the possibility of long-term cooling of the upper atmosphere [29].
In 1997 a new technique was developed to measure the Doppler temperature of the atmospheric Na layer by using a two-element birefringent filter together with a 0.2 nm free spectral range Fabry-Perot interferometer to produce a linewidth of about 20 pm. It produced a multi-line signal of the laser, with the lines spacing precisely equal to the separation of D2a and D2b transition of Na. With this assembly, it was possible to obtain the mesosphere’s temperature with a 5 K precision, a height resolution of 1 km, and a time resolution of 6 minutes [30, 31]. Lately, in 2004 the lidar was equipped with a new laser, which permitted more precise measurements of the mesopause temperature (see the assembly in Figure 3) [32, 33]. Gravity wave’s effects on the temperature in the mesopause were also studied [34, 35].
Photo presenting the continuum narrowband tunable laser for Na concentration and Mesopause temperatures. It operated at São José dos Campos measuring mesopause temperature from 2007 to 2009 and Na concentration from 2006 to 2016. This photo was taken by Barclay R. Clemesha (in memoriam).
Several mesospheric dynamics studies involving other instruments like photometers, meteor radar, and onboard rocket instruments have been made [23, 36, 37, 38, 39]. A mobile lidar has been developed to measure the Na concentration simultaneously with the volume emission profile for the NaD line of airglow in rocket campaigns in the Brazilian equatorial region of Alcântara (2.3728 S, 44.3965 W). An illustrative photo of this system is shown in Figure 4. This experiment allowed calculating the branching ratio of the reaction involved in the Na airglow [40].
Photo illustrating the INPE mobile lidar used during rocket campaigns in the Brazilian equatorial region of Alcântara, on 31 may 1992.
Along the time, the São José dos Campos lidar underwent many modifications and upgrades. In 1993, the transmitter laser was upgraded with a commercial laser (see its illustration in Figure 5). With this upgrade, it was possible to use the Rayleigh signal from the clean atmosphere from 30 to 75 km (below the resonant Na signal) to measure the relative atmospheric density and the absolute temperature. These measurements have been used to study mesospheric temperature general behavior and the effects of atmospheric waves [41]. The long series of measurements have enabled long-term studies of the mesospheric Na, aerosols, and temperatures associated with global change [29, 42, 43]. A dual-beam Na/K lidar was assembled in São José dos Campos, Brazil, to extend the Na layer studies and improve the knowledge about metal layers in the MLT region. This system was installed owing to a cooperative agreement between the National Space Science Center (China) and the National Institute for Space Research (Brazil) in November of 2016.
Photos showing the candela laser system assembled at INPE São José dos Campos in 1993. This system operated between 1993 and 2006—Photos taken by B. R. Clemesha (in memoriam).
The lidar uses two laser beams of 589 nm and 770 nm to simultaneously measure Na and K concentrations by the resonant scattering at MLT. The signal-to-noise ratio response allows 3 min time resolution and 96 m of height resolution in the profiles [44]. Figure 6 shows the Na/K lidar during operation.
Picture showing the dual-beam Na/K lidar located at São José dos Campos, Brazil. The vertical orange beam is at 589 nm for Na scattering and the infrared one at 770 nm for K scattering. This last is not visible in the photo, but the red star indicates the beam position. Liu Zhengkuan took the original photo.
It is essential to point out that, up to the present time, this is the unique K lidar system operating in the Southern Hemisphere (SH). For the first time, it was presented the nocturnal and seasonal behavior of K and Na concentrations measured simultaneously at SH [44]. The seasonal variation of these two metals was determined, and it is interesting to note their different behavior even though both are alkali metals and come from meteor ablation. Semiannual variation is observed in both metal concentrations with different maxima: K shows its maxima around the solstices more pronounced around June, and Na concentration shows a maximum around May and a broad one centered in September [44]. A plausible interpretation of the different seasonal changes between Na and K concentrations is presented in Ref. [45]. This analysis is based on two points: 1) the neutralization of K+ ions is particularly favored at low temperatures through summer (North Hemisphere), and 2) cycling between K and its primary neutral reservoir KHCO3 is substantially temperature independent [44]. Unfortunately, the first argument is not significant for this latitude, where the mesopause temperature has not a great summer to winter variation [33].
The first lidar measurements concerning stratospheric aerosols in Latin America were performed in Kingston, Jamaica, between 1964 and 1979 [46]. The lidar system held for these measurements was managed by the University of the West Indies and supported by the US Air Force [47]. Its primary purpose was to investigate the atmospheric profile, measuring molecular scattering. Moreover, the system proved valuable for measurements of stratospheric aerosol layers at wavelength 694 nm [48]. These lidar measurements from Jamaica represented a pioneering role, concomitantly with different research teams, developing lidars’ capacities to measure aerosols in the lower stratosphere [49]. Those measurements were also an essential contribution to the stratosphere’s early studies in the tropics [50].
In 1969, a new lidar instrument was designed and developed at INPE by Prof. Barclay Clemesha (see Section 3 for details). This equipment’s primary objective was to investigate the mesosphere dynamics; besides, stratospheric aerosol measurements were also performed. The first measurements were carried in 1970 at wavelength 694 nm [16], and regular measurements began in 1972 [51]. This project was responsible for collecting the longest stratospheric aerosol profile measurements in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere’s tropical zone, extending from 1971 to 2016. It includes stratospheric aerosols profiles from the two more significant volcanic eruptions of the XX century second half: the first happened in Mexico on 04 April 1982 (El Chichón), and the second in the Philippines on 14 June 1991 (Mount Pinatubo) [51, 52]. Measurements conducted at INPE between 1972 and 2016 proved the value and the importance of the stratospheric aerosols’ long-term monitoring. They have rendered information to understand the stratospheric aerosols layer evolution in the Southern Hemisphere’s tropics since the ‘50s [53].
A Cuban-Soviet scientific cooperation agreement supported the deployment in 1988 of a lidar system designed for stratospheric aerosols measurements at the Camagüey Meteorologic Center in Cuba [54]. The instrument operated intermittently between 1988 and 1997, providing stratospheric aerosols measurements from the Mount Pinatubo eruption in 1991. The 1988–1990 lidar aerosol profiles, at 532 nm, combined with satellite measurements, have been used to study background stratospheric aerosols in the Caribbean [55]. Camagüey Lidar Station (CLS) stratospheric aerosols profiles from Mount Pinatubo also contributed to the study of the radiative impacts of the eruption at regional [56] and global [57] scales. Moreover, the Camagüey lidar database was also used to validate the stratospheric aerosol SAGE II satellite measurements from Mount Pinatubo eruption [58, 59]. Furthermore, it was used to generate an extinction climatology in the UV for correcting Brewer ozone measurements [60].
By 1994 the Laser and Applications Research Center (CEILAP - UNIDEF) in Buenos Aires, Argentina, developed various lidar systems for atmospheric research [7]. One of these devices was designed to measure the atmospheric boundary layer, cirrus clouds, and tropospheric aerosols, operating at wavelength 532 nm [61]. A collaborative study between CEILAP and CLS evaluated how this lidar system could also be used for the higher troposphere and lower stratospheric aerosols research. Upon analyzing two tropospheric aerosols profiles extending into the lower stratosphere, encouraging results were found [62]. In June 2005, another lidar system was designed and installed by CEILAP in Río Gallegos, Patagonia. This instrument’s primary goal was performing measurements of stratospheric ozone, tropospheric and stratospheric aerosols, and water vapor. In particular, stratospheric aerosol profiles are used to correct the stratospheric ozone [63].
Western South America is bordered by the Andes, which divides the continent into two distinct regions. In South America, the vast majority of active volcanoes are located in the eastern part of the continent, and ash eruptions are routinely reported throughout the region. The volcanic activity includes periods of ash eruptions and cycling eruptions that spread out over months or even years [64, 65]. Great active volcanoes in South America are Nevado del Ruíz, in Colombia; Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, and Reventador, in Ecuador; Villarrica, Llaima, Nilahue, Lascar, Chaitén, and Calbuco, in Chile; El Misti, Ubinas and Sabancaya, in Peru; Aracar, Copahue, and Planchón-Peteroa in Argentina. There are no reported active volcanoes in Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and Brazil [64, 65].
On 22 April 2015, in Chile, the Calbuco volcano erupted and injected a significant amount of ashes and aerosols into the atmosphere [66].
The volcanic aerosol profiles in both the upper troposphere and the lower stratosphere, which originated from the Calbuco volcano eruption in Chile on 22 April 2015, were measured by different lidar stations in South America [7]. It was the first time that LALINET lidar stations, distributed across the continent, could analyze aerosol profiles together during an event. Lidar stations located in Buenos Aires, Comodoro Rivadavia, San Carlos de Bariloche, Neuquén, and Rio Gallegos (all five in Argentina), Concepción (Chile), and São Paulo (Brazil) observed the aerosols profiles [7, 67]. LALINET stations’ capabilities to operate in a coordinated way in case of a volcanic eruption were challenged, highlighting the coordination among LALINET teams.
On 23 April 2015 (one day after the eruption), the lidar system at the University of Concepción measured the aerosols profiles between 5 and 9 km, showing a multilayer structure. Both layers merged at around 7 km, decreasing its intensity and narrowing. The following day 24 April 2015, the two layers registered in the day before at Concepción were detected in the nighttime by the lidar system placed in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in heights varying between 5 and 7 km showing a drowning leaning. The aerosol’s multilayer formation was present at both lidar sites when identified for the first time. Lidar measurements conducted at IPEN in São Paulo on 27 April 2015 (five days after the eruption) exhibited aerosols found at an altitude of about 19 km in the stratosphere (Figure 7) [66]. Those lidar extinction profiles were confronted with those measured by the Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite Limb Profiler (OMPS/LP) instrument, revealing promising results [7].
Quick-look of the RCS at 532 nm measured at SPU Lidar Station on 27 April 2015. The SPU Lidar Station is installed at the Center for Lasers and Applications of the nuclear and energy research institute (CELAP/IPEN) in São Paulo. The signal between 18 km and 20 km shows aerosols originating from the Calbuco volcano eruption on 22 April 2015, in Chile.
The behavior of trace constituents in the Earth’s upper atmosphere, dictated by diverse physical processes, is of particular interest for the balance of stratosphere and mesosphere. Expressly, ozone has a principal function by absorbing the short-wavelength UV radiation (which might damage life) and keep the radiative budget stable [68]. For those reasons, ozone has been at the focus of the middle atmosphere research effort [69, 70].
Researchers’ interest in performing lidar measurements from the southern region of the southern hemisphere dates back to 1995. Researchers from CEILAP, together with Prof. Gérard Mégie (who was then head of the
The instrument became operational in 1997 in Villa Martelli, Buenos Aires, where the headquarters of CEILAP is located. The initial version had only one telescope, which was 50 cm in diameter. It operated successfully until 2002. Later, the number of telescopes was increased to four, and a spectrometer was added. The apparatus was fine-tuned at the Villa Martelli headquarters.
The
The campaign’s feasibility study was conducted, considering the nocturnal cloud cover over four towns in Argentine Patagonia. The data were compared with those corresponding to days when the Antarctic polar vortex crosses over these towns.
Different tracers were also considered, such as the total ozone column values measured by total ozone mapping spectrometry, the equivalent latitude method, and the potential vorticity maps calculated for the mid-stratosphere, according to studies carried out in collaboration with the Service d’Aeronomie in France and the National Institute for Environmental Studies in Japan.
The city of Río Gallegos region met the necessary conditions for the measurements. It is located at 2612 km from Buenos Aires, on the River Gallegos estuary banks, and has 140,000 inhabitants. Like other cities in southern Argentina and Chile, Río Gallegos is reached by the ozone hole’s edge during the austral spring. However, compared with its counterparts, it has a more significant number of clear nights or nights with less than one-eighth cloud cover, which means more opportunities for making measurements with the ozone DIAL. Río Gallegos also hosts the National University of Southern Patagonia, whose staff could participate in the campaign, and is near to Punta Arenas, Chile, where another research group has used a Brewer instrument to make ozone measurements, in cooperation with Brazilian researchers. On 10 June 2005, the team set off overland for Río Gallegos in two trucks that traveled 2612 km from Buenos Aires to the Military Air Base in Río Gallegos, where a mobile laboratory was set up. The base is located 18 km from the center of the town [72, 73].
A Xe:Cl excimer laser emission at 308 nm is employed for the absorbed wavelength in the DIAL technique, and an Nd:YAG laser at 355 nm third harmonic line is employed as the reference wavelength. Six channels are used for signal acquisition [72]. Four of them detect the emitted wavelengths’ elastically backscattered signal (high energy mode for the higher altitude ranges, attenuated energy for the lower ranges), and two correspond to the Raman wavelengths [72]. The CEILAP’s DIAL instrument setup is shown in Figure 8, and its full description can be found in Ref. [10].
Experimental setup of differential absorption lidar (DIAL) developed at CEILAP.
The CEILAP Lidar Division, in cooperation with other national and international institutions, has organized the SOLAR (Stratospheric Ozone Lidar of ARgentina) Campaign as a part of environmental investigations in the Southern Hemisphere [72]. This campaign’s objective was to monitor different atmospheric constituents using remote sensing techniques, mainly related to lidar, in Argentina’s southern part. The most critical and complex instrument involved in this campaign is a differential absorption lidar capable of producing precise and accurate stratospheric ozone profiles [72, 73].
The most substantial decrease of the ozone column over Río Gallegos through the 2005 spring was observed on 8 October, with a total ozone column of 196 DU estimated from integrating an ozone profile based on the lidar measurement and the US Standard 1976. This value expresses a decrease of 45% in the total ozone column concerning the mean total ozone value outside the ozone hole for this month (about 350 DU). Figure 9 shows the measured lidar profile on this day (dashed line), together with the ozone profile measured on 17 October (dotted line), which corresponds to standard ozone conditions outside the ozone hole (about 357 DU). The figure also shows the climatologic profile (black line) from the SAGE II measurements, which corresponds to the mean of the ozone measurements outside the ozone hole for the 1995–2004 period.
Lidar ozone profile inside (dashed line) and outside (gray dotted line) ozone hole in Río Gallegos. Climatologic profile for October from SAGE II data (black line) [
From the full set of lidar measurements, were selected 37 lidar profiles that match the HRLS profiles. The monthly mean lidar profiles were confronted with similar profiles measured by the High-Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder (HIRDLS) device onboard the NASA-Aura satellite. The collocation criteria for selecting satellite data were set using a distance of up to 500 km from site measurement and a temporal selection of about twelve hours for the measurement time. The mean stratospheric ozone lidar profile for October in Río Gallegos is shown in Figure 10. For comparison, the same quantity from satellite data is included.
Mean lidar profile (black line - error bar corresponds to ±1 std) and mean HIRDLS (white line) ±1 std. (shadow area) for October.
In general, good agreement between lidar and satellite data was found (inside the statistical error bar, with a relative difference of around 10%). The maximum disagreement between lidar and satellite data was observed in August mean profiles around 30 km. For October, the agreement was better than 10% above the ozone peak concentration. In general, it was observed that the variability of lidar profile concentrations is higher around the ozone peak, decreasing with height.
Differential Absorption lidar techniques have been demonstrated to be a reliable remote sensing technique to retrieve the stratosphere’s ozone profile [73]. Argentina has used DIAL techniques since 1999. In 2005, with French and Japanese researchers’ collaboration, the Lidar Division of CEILAP established a new site in Southern Patagonia, the South Patagonia Atmospheric Observatory (OAPA). This device has been part of Network Data for Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC) since 2008, and the research using its measurements allows the study of ozone hole overpass from South America [75] and the satellite validation in the South Hemisphere. After the SOLAR Campaign, several initiatives were carried out related to stratospheric ozone monitoring in Argentina. For example, the UVO3-Patagonia (2008–2010) and SAVER-Net projects (2013–2018) were the research activities made in collaboration with JICA, and Japanese and Chilean Researchers went more in-depth the observation of ozone in vertical profiles and total ozone column [76].
Part I of this chapter offered the opportunity to give a scientific overview of current and past lidar observation activities conducted in South America, with Cuba’s participation. This overview spans over almost 50 years of activities and grants how this part of the world is concerned with laser remote sensing of the atmosphere in almost its whole structure: Mesosphere and Stratosphere. This top-down approach also followed a chronological delivery of results, with the first results coming from the region in the highest portion of the atmosphere (mesosphere), and going downwards to stratospheric, and finally at the tropospheric studies. If, in the first years, these activities started as individual initiatives at different countries and research groups levels, the creation of a federative lidar network, namely LALINET, helped somehow to have more coordinated measurements. Moreover, the implementation of SAVERNET in Argentina and Chile improved how these joint measurements are conducted. The studies conducted in the mesosphere account for one of the most extended time series of lidar data, being of great importance in the Southern Hemisphere. Also, significant results about Na and K concentrations and their variability over almost three decades are available. The studies of ozone concentration in the stratosphere also provided relevant results, unprecedented for this portion of the globe. Part II of this chapter will be dedicated to tropospheric lidar observations.
The authors are thankful to the Brazilian Agencies National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA), and National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA) LBA Central Office in Manaus. The authors also thank the NASA/AERONET teams, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Argentine Agencies National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), National Agency for the Promotion of Research, Technological Development and Innovation (ANPCyT), the Argentine National Defense University (UNDEF), UNDEFI and PID-UTN Projects, the Ministry of Defense of Argentina, and the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS). Also, to all NASA’s technical personnel, the Argentine Institute of Scientific and Technical Research for Defense (CITEDEF), and the Argentine National Meteorological Service (SMN), who have kept the solar photometers in operation, and especially to Raúl D’Elia. The authors wish to acknowledge the entire NASA CALIPSO and MODIS (AQUA/TERRA) teams, the NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, for providing the HYSPLIT transport and dispersion model and the READY website, ESA/EOM projects teams, the Suomi NPP (National Polar-orbiting Partnership) Mission teams, and the Sentinel 5-P TROPOMI team. The authors also acknowledge the financial support from CIBioFi, the Colombian Science, Technology, and Innovation Fund-General Royalties System (Fondo CTeI-Sistema General de Regalías), and Gobernación del Valle del Cauca. The authors acknowledge the China-Brazil Joint Laboratory for Space Weather (CBJLSW) for Supporting this Book Chapter. Vania F. Andrioli would like to thank the CBJLSW and the National Space Science Center (NSSC) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) for supporting her postdoctoral fellowship. The authors from the Universidad de Magallanes would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) / Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Science and Technology Research Association for Sustainable Development (SATREPS) through the SAVERNet project; and the Program FONDECYT of the Chilean National Agency for Research and Development (ANID) through Project FONDECYT 11181335.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Many of the antibiotics administered to animals are identical to or closely drugs used in human. All animal species in general and food-producing animals, in particular, are commonly exposed to antibiotics to treat and prevent infectious diseases or to promote growth. Antibiotics would not be necessary if animals were raised differently under good veterinary and husbandry practices that were less crowded and more sanitary. The proper and responsible use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine mandate an active cooperation between all the interested parties involved in livestock production cycles. All parties are invited to act together to ensure the ultimate goals of maintaining the efficacy and safety of veterinary antibiotics and complying the established maximum residue limits (MRLs) of the products of animal origin intended for human consumption. Antibiotics as hazardous substances should be applied and directed during the different steps starting from prescription until ensuring the withdrawal period under the supervision of professionals and veterinarians. Practices indicated that there is a need to improve sensitivity testing services and facilities before prescribing the proper antibiotic.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Magdy Moheb El-Dein Saad and Mohamed Bedair M. Ahmed",authors:[{id:"207381",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohamed Bedair M.",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mohamed-bedair-m.-ahmed",fullName:"Mohamed Bedair M. Ahmed"},{id:"208838",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdy",middleName:"Moheb El-Dein",surname:"Saad",slug:"magdy-saad",fullName:"Magdy Saad"}]},{id:"57653",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71623",title:"Antibiotic-Treated SPF Mice as a Gnotobiotic Model",slug:"antibiotic-treated-spf-mice-as-a-gnotobiotic-model",totalDownloads:1298,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Decontamination of specific pathogen-free (SPF) mice of BALB/c line was accomplished by administration of amoxicillin per os potentiated with potassium clavulanate at a dose of 387.11 mg/kg body weight and ciprofloxacin administered s.c. at a dose of 18.87 mg/kg body weight every 12 h for 5 days. This resulted in a decreased viability of microorganisms in feces and the cecal content of mice and decreased counts of cultivable microorganisms in the feces, which by day 3 of study declined below the recovery level and to the reduction of animal microbiota to two detected cultivable species, namely Escherichia coli (GenBank KX086704) and Enterococcus sp. (GenBank KX086705). Convalescence of decontaminated animals under gnotobiotic conditions for 10 days prevented restoration of species diversity of mice microbiota and sufficed to return the metabolic, hematological and morphological values to the physiological range. It also restored the fermentative activity of the intestine to the level similar to that observed before antibiotic treatment. Animals subjected to this procedure can be used in further studies. As a result, we created a mouse gnoto model with reduced and controlled microbiota without alteration of the overall health status of the respective animals.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Soňa Gancarčíková, Miroslav Popper, Gabriela Hrčková, Marián\nMaďar, Dagmar Mudroňová, Drahomíra Sopková and Radomíra\nNemcová",authors:[{id:"210335",title:"Dr.",name:"Soňa",middleName:null,surname:"Gancarčíková",slug:"sona-gancarcikova",fullName:"Soňa Gancarčíková"},{id:"210430",title:"Dr.",name:"Marián",middleName:null,surname:"Maďar",slug:"marian-madar",fullName:"Marián Maďar"},{id:"210815",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Popper",slug:"miroslav-popper",fullName:"Miroslav Popper"},{id:"210816",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Hrčková",slug:"gabriela-hrckova",fullName:"Gabriela Hrčková"},{id:"210817",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Mudroňová",slug:"dagmar-mudronova",fullName:"Dagmar Mudroňová"},{id:"210818",title:"Dr.",name:"Drahomíra",middleName:null,surname:"Sopková",slug:"drahomira-sopkova",fullName:"Drahomíra Sopková"},{id:"214659",title:"Dr.",name:"Radomíra",middleName:null,surname:"Nemcová",slug:"radomira-nemcova",fullName:"Radomíra Nemcová"}]},{id:"57774",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71870",title:"Heavy Metal Pollutome and Microbial Resistome Reciprocal Interaction and Its Impact on Human and Animal Matrices",slug:"heavy-metal-pollutome-and-microbial-resistome-reciprocal-interaction-and-its-impact-on-human-and-ani",totalDownloads:1303,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The chapter aims to reveal the complex relationships between antibiotic resistance in bacteria and heavy metal pollution at the human/animal interface. The antibiotic resistance is a continuously growing threat for both people and animals. Animals could represent a source for zoonotic microbial contamination of humans as subject for consumption and also as contacts (companion, sports, zoo animals, etc.). Antimicrobial treatments in animals, if uncontrolled or injudicious, could raise antibiotic-resistant strains to be transferred to humans where they can cause even more severe diseases. Moreover, the environment has its own microbiome, including some nonpathogenic but antibiotic-resistant species. Human industrial activities are carried out in certain environments, with particular microbiomes and also where animals bearing antibiotic-resistant bacteria are present. Thus, the degree of pollution with heavy metals, as part of the global pollutants to the environment, could impact on the bacteria and their resistome with severe consequences for inhabitants of the area.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Marina Spînu, Anca Elena Gurzău, Carmen Dana Șandru, Gabriel\nGati and Mihaela Niculae",authors:[{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu"},{id:"210997",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Gurzau",slug:"anca-elena-gurzau",fullName:"Anca Elena Gurzau"},{id:"210998",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen Dana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandru",slug:"carmen-dana-sandru",fullName:"Carmen Dana Sandru"},{id:"211000",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Niculae",slug:"mihaela-niculae",fullName:"Mihaela Niculae"},{id:"222995",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Gati",slug:"gabriel-gati",fullName:"Gabriel Gati"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57341",title:"Probiotic Bacteria as an Healthy Alternative for Fish Aquaculture",slug:"probiotic-bacteria-as-an-healthy-alternative-for-fish-aquaculture",totalDownloads:4356,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"One of the problems of the aquaculture industry is the presence of pathogenic microorganisms whose proliferation is enhanced when the healthy quality of the culture systems do not meet comply with physical-chemical-biological parameters. In order to improve these problems, less aggressive alternatives to the environment have been sought. This is why probiotic bacteria are proposed as an alternative to the same systems where they will be applied, since they generate greater interest in not presenting a threat to the ecosystem, favor survival, improve the immune system of organisms and have antibacterial properties against pathogenic bacteria. This chapter reviews current research related to the search for marine probiotics for application in the aquaculture industry. Additionally, we deliver results from our work related to the research and application of probiotics. The reported studies demonstrate the positive effects of marine bacteria for their aquaculture application. The evidences found in our work allow us to conclude that larval survival is favored by the application of probiotics in the use of vectors such as rotifers, artemia and biofilms. However, depending on the species of interest, it is necessary to study the market for the biotechnological application of probiotics, to evaluate the feasibility of its production on a larger scale and its commercial feasibility.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Camila Sayes, Yanett Leyton and Carlos Riquelme",authors:[{id:"208614",title:"Mrs.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Sayes",slug:"camila-sayes",fullName:"Camila Sayes"},{id:"208939",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanett",middleName:null,surname:"Leyton",slug:"yanett-leyton",fullName:"Yanett Leyton"},{id:"208940",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Riquelme",slug:"carlos-riquelme",fullName:"Carlos Riquelme"}]},{id:"57280",title:"Necessary Usage of Antibiotics in Animals",slug:"necessary-usage-of-antibiotics-in-animals",totalDownloads:2065,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Animals could become sick at any time of their lives, just like all people exposed. Many of the antibiotics administered to animals are identical to or closely drugs used in human. All animal species in general and food-producing animals, in particular, are commonly exposed to antibiotics to treat and prevent infectious diseases or to promote growth. Antibiotics would not be necessary if animals were raised differently under good veterinary and husbandry practices that were less crowded and more sanitary. The proper and responsible use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine mandate an active cooperation between all the interested parties involved in livestock production cycles. All parties are invited to act together to ensure the ultimate goals of maintaining the efficacy and safety of veterinary antibiotics and complying the established maximum residue limits (MRLs) of the products of animal origin intended for human consumption. Antibiotics as hazardous substances should be applied and directed during the different steps starting from prescription until ensuring the withdrawal period under the supervision of professionals and veterinarians. Practices indicated that there is a need to improve sensitivity testing services and facilities before prescribing the proper antibiotic.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Magdy Moheb El-Dein Saad and Mohamed Bedair M. Ahmed",authors:[{id:"207381",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mohamed Bedair M.",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mohamed-bedair-m.-ahmed",fullName:"Mohamed Bedair M. Ahmed"},{id:"208838",title:"Prof.",name:"Magdy",middleName:"Moheb El-Dein",surname:"Saad",slug:"magdy-saad",fullName:"Magdy Saad"}]},{id:"57558",title:"Influence of Selected Per Orally Administered ATB on Microflora of GIT in Experimental Animals",slug:"influence-of-selected-per-orally-administered-atb-on-microflora-of-git-in-experimental-animals",totalDownloads:1276,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Composition of gastrointestinal (GIT) microbiota differs in individual parts of GIT. Only 40% of GIT bacteria are cultivable. Fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization (FISH) can detect non-cultivable bacteria. Perorally administered antibiotics (ATB) affect the composition of microbiota in GIT. The absorbed ATB, namely penicillins, tetracyclines, macrolides or fluorochinolons, have different influence in comparison with poorly absorbed oral ATB, such as aminoglycosides, aminocoumarines or polypeptides. This effect is due to retention of high concentration of non-absorbed ATB during passage through GIT and their longer influence on bacteria living in different parts of GIT. Study methods were based on scientific literature review from PubMed, Elsevier databases and Slovak scientific publications. We searched for publications between years 1980 and 2016, with keywords: ATB, influence, microbiota, FISH. The literature review focuses on peroral administration of ATB to humans and animals and its potential effect on composition of GIT microbiota. The relevant studies showed that per orally administered ATB produced many important changes in microbiota of GIT. FISH method was more frequently used for screening the normal composition of microbiota than for studying the effects of ATB although there were some studies dealing also with this issue.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Madar Marian, Telepjanová Tatiana and Gancarčíková Soňa",authors:[{id:"210335",title:"Dr.",name:"Soňa",middleName:null,surname:"Gancarčíková",slug:"sona-gancarcikova",fullName:"Soňa Gancarčíková"},{id:"210430",title:"Dr.",name:"Marián",middleName:null,surname:"Maďar",slug:"marian-madar",fullName:"Marián Maďar"},{id:"211223",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Telepjanová",slug:"tatiana-telepjanova",fullName:"Tatiana Telepjanová"}]},{id:"58700",title:"Introductory Chapter: Antibiotic Use in Animals Today",slug:"introductory-chapter-antibiotic-use-in-animals-today",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Sara Savić",authors:[{id:"239551",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}]},{id:"57645",title:"Antibiotics in Chilean Aquaculture: A Review",slug:"antibiotics-in-chilean-aquaculture-a-review",totalDownloads:1932,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Aquaculture in Chile has been practiced since the 1920s; however, it was not until the 1990s that aquaculture became an important sector here. Important species in Chilean aquaculture include salmonids, algae, mollusks, and turbot. Salmonids are the dominant species in Chilean aquaculture for both harvest volume and export value, their production reaching greater than 800-thousand tons in 2015. However, this growth has been accompanied by an increase in disease presence, requiring greater drug use to control. This increase in drug use is an environmental and public health concern for the authorities, the salmon industry itself, and the destination markets. In this chapter, we review the literature on drug use, antibiotic resistance, regulatory framework, and alternatives, with focus on Chile.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Ivonne Lozano, Nelson F. Díaz, Susana Muñoz and Carlos Riquelme",authors:[{id:"208847",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivonne",middleName:null,surname:"Lozano",slug:"ivonne-lozano",fullName:"Ivonne Lozano"},{id:"208895",title:"Dr.",name:"Nelson F.",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz",slug:"nelson-f.-diaz",fullName:"Nelson F. Díaz"},{id:"208897",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Riquelme",slug:"carlos-riquelme",fullName:"Carlos Riquelme"},{id:"208898",title:"MSc.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz",slug:"susana-munoz",fullName:"Susana Muñoz"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1387",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/23.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"280770",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine K.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavropoulos",slug:"katherine-k.m.-stavropoulos",fullName:"Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdFuQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-24T09:03:48.jpg",biography:"Katherine Stavropoulos received her BA in Psychology from Trinity College, in Connecticut, USA. Dr. Stavropoulos received her Ph.D. in Experimental Psychology from the University of California, San Diego. She completed her postdoctoral work at the Yale Child Study Center with Dr. James McPartland. Dr. Stavropoulos’ doctoral dissertation explored neural correlates of reward anticipation to social versus nonsocial stimuli in children with and without autism spectrum disorders (ASD). She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. She is the Assistant Director of the SEARCH Center at UCR and is a Faculty member in the Graduate Program in Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of California, Riverside",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"89",title:"Education",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/89.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:{id:"260066",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Kalogiannakis",slug:"michail-kalogiannakis",fullName:"Michail Kalogiannakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260066/images/system/260066.jpg",biography:"Michail Kalogiannakis is an Associate Professor of the Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, and an Associate Tutor at School of Humanities at the Hellenic Open University. He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. He has published over 120 articles in international conferences and journals and has served on the program committees of numerous international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:{id:"422488",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Ampartzaki",slug:"maria-ampartzaki",fullName:"Maria Ampartzaki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/422488/images/system/422488.jpg",biography:"Dr Maria Ampartzaki is an Assistant Professor in Early Childhood Education in the Department of Preschool Education at the University of Crete. Her research interests include ICT in education, science education in the early years, inquiry-based and art-based learning, teachers’ professional development, action research, and the Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, among others. She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. Ben-Soussan leads international studies on training and neuroplasticity from neurophysiological and psychobiological perspectives. As a neuroscientist and bio-psychologist, she has published numerous articles on neuroplasticity, movement and meditation. She acts as an editor and reviewer in several renowned journals and coordinates international conferences integrating theoretical, methodological and practical approaches on various topics, such as silence, logics and neuro-education. She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",signatures:"Anat Raviv",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82310",title:"Knowledge of Intergenerational Contact to Combat Ageism towards Older People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105592",signatures:"Alice Nga Lai Kwong",slug:"knowledge-of-intergenerational-contact-to-combat-ageism-towards-older-people",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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