\r\n\tContaminated water is not suitable for drinking, or use in recreation, agriculture, and industrial activities. These waters cause poisoning of drinking water, deterioration of river and lake ecosystems, decrease in biological diversity as a result of the death of aquatic life, and various environmental problems.
\r\n\r\n\tWater resources are limited however, the need for water is gradually increasing. Considering that water quality deteriorates increasingly, the importance of preserving existing water resources in terms of quantity and quality is increasing day by day. So, it is important to determine the sources of contamination correctly and to take the necessary precautions.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-010-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-009-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-062-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"74540b33c77cb2a431ca0a4965d0031b",bookSignature:"Prof. Sadik Dincer, Dr. Hatice Aysun Merci̇mek Takci and Associate Prof. Melis Sümengen Özdenefe",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11531.jpg",keywords:"Water Quality Criteria, Hydrocarbons, Pesticides, Nanomaterials, Toxins, Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses, Parasites, Surface Water, Drinking Water, Recreational Water",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher and Director of the Institute of Natural and Applied Science. Prof. Dincer received the Technology Development Award from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) in 2013 and a national study patent in 2019.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Researcher in the field of Microbiology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, Microbial Genetics, and Bacteriology. Dr. Mercimek Takci has 47 manuscripts published in national and international journals and is a winner of the TÜBİTAK Incentive Award.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Associate Professor at Near East University in Northern Cyprus whose teaching interests include industrial microbiology, bacteriology, biotechnology, enzymology, and environmental microbiology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188141/images/system/188141.jpeg",biography:"For the past 35 years, Prof. Sadık Dincer has been involved in teaching, research, and academic work in numerous distinguished universities in Turkey. Currently, he is working at Cukurova University, Biology and Biotechnology Departments, Adana, Turkey. 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Her teaching interests contain Microbiology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, Microbial Genetics and Bacteriology. She has 47 manuscripts published in national and international journals and her works has been cited 245 times. Her research interests focus on multiple antibiotic and heavy metal resistance in bacteria, production and characterization of bacterial enzymes, bioremediation by bacteria, microbial quality (fecal contamination, bacterial diversity and microbial load) of aquatic environments. 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During her MSc, she was at Anhalt University, Germany for six months as an international exchange student and a researcher from 2010 to 2011. She has been working in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Near East University in Northern Cyprus since 2014. Her teaching interests include Industrial Microbiology, Bacteriology, Biotechnology, Enzymology, and Environmental Microbiology. Her research areas involve enzymes and biosurfactant which are produced from various bacteria and fungi for industrial applications, the production and characterization of bacterial enzymes and bacteriocins, the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of various plant structures, and multiple antibiotic resistance and heavy metal resistance of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from the aquatic environment. 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The field is promising and innovative with several avenues as far as research and development, pioneering new technologies and trailblazing concepts are concerned.
The basic requirements of thermo physiological as well psychological comfort, dexterity, agility to wearer, breathability, moisture management, light weight, antimicrobial and anti-odor properties can be incorporated into sportswear by correct selection of fibers, yarns and fabric variables for sportswear. The sports clothing is no longer restricted to sportsperson involved in performance sports or strenuous physical activities. However, there has been a surge for sports apparels and accessories among health conscious, fitness freak and gym enthusiasts. Accordingly, the sportswear industry has witnessed revolutionary advancements in development of different sportswear categories like active wear, leisurewear and athleisure to fulfill the requirements of sportsperson as well as health-conscious millennials. Apart from functional requirements, a lot of emphasis is being laid on esthetic aspects as well considering increasing number of females involved in yoga, gyming and other sporting activities who give precedence to silhouette, colors and other design details of sportswear. Accordingly, the technological as well as ergonomic advancements in sportswear design and development have opened new avenues for researchers to explore the field further.
The sportswear can be categorized based on a number of factors such as:
Sportsperson’s level of physical activity and fatigue
Stress involved during strenuous activity
Duration for which the sportsperson doffs the clothing
Ambient conditions.
The sportswear can be classified into active and leisure wear based on the sportsperson’s level of physical activity.
Active wear also referred to as professional sportswear encompasses the sportswear attire that are usually worn by sportspersons for short time duration when indulging in rigorous, high level of physical activities such as skiing, long jump, high jump and other such adventure sports etc. All such sports demand active, stressful and maximum physical performance thereby resulting in profuse sweating (sensible perspiration) experienced by the sportsperson. The designing of active wear is not as challenging a task as the design considerations for leisure wear because sportsperson during the entire duration of active sport is exposed to constant ambient conditions within the boundaries of the playing ground irrespective of indoor or outdoor conditions Moreover, the factors like sportsperson’s age, gender and frequency of doffing the clothing is predetermined which can serve as quick guide for designers while designing active wear.
Leisure wear comprises sportswear worn during sports activities like cricket, hockey and golf. The aforesaid sports activity demands intermittent performance with alternating active and rest phases by sportsperson and with prolonged exposure to varying ambient conditions. Leisure sportswear are worn by players belonging to varying age and gender groups and those indulging in low to moderate physical activity. Moreover, the duration and frequency of wearing and ambient conditions are all variable during the course of the activity. Consequently, the designing of leisure wear is a challenging task for designers as they need to consider the varying ambient conditions and extended durations on the field to which wearer would be subjected. The wearer is expected to don the clothing the entire day or several hours at stretch in changing environmental conditions. Thus, the designing of leisurewear needs special consideration of wearer’s physiological requirements and changing environmental conditions to which sportsperson will be exposed while indulging in sports activity. Furthermore, casual and exercise wear, parkas, hoodies, pants, and crew neck fleece sweaters that provide a combination of esthetic, style, comfort, and functionality in a less competitive mode can also be included in category of leisurewear.
The sportswear can also be classified based on specific requirement of sports. Different sports involve different level of physical exertion and are performed in varying ambient conditions. Consequently, the clothing worn for a particular sport like cycling may not be suitable for another sport such as under water sports, mountaineering etc. performed in contrastingly different environment. The sportswear can be classified into dry, damp and wet fast action sportswear based on sports specific requirements.
Dry fast action sportswear are worn during sports activities such as football, rugby, tennis and track games that demand optimum moisture management properties enabling quick sweat absorption and dissipation thereby providing cooling effect to wearer.
Damp-fast action sportswear is suitable for sports where rapid sweat evaporation from the skin surface is a prerequisite. Apart from rapid transfer of liquid perspiration, the sportswear should ensure good water vapor permeability, water proofing and protection from cold along with high degree of stretch ability.
Wet-fast action sportswear is specially designed for sporting activities like swimming and other under water sports activities which require a high degree of stretch and form fitting. The clothing plays a vital role in enhancing the athlete’s performance by reducing drag and fatigue.
The weather conditions to which sportsperson are exposed during the activity also dictates the classification of sportswear. Accordingly, the sportswear may be classified as cold, moderate and hot weather sportswear. The material selection and design aspects for three categories will vary drastically owing to different set of properties required for each clothing type.
Cold weather sportswear is generally worn during ice skating, mountaineering and any such winter outdoor activity where the wearer is at risk of heat loss and thus hypothermia. The cold weather sportswear should be able to trap the body heat and provide protection against cold and humid conditions. Consequently, the clothing is designed in such a manner that it exhibits high thermal insulation for entrapment of body heat and breathable for moisture vapor sweat to easily escape out but prevent the ingress of liquid from external sources through clothing.
Moderate weather sportswear is preferred by sports enthusiasts when ambient conditions are conducive with moderate temperature and humidity. Accordingly, sportswear worn in moderate climate should be breathable, permeable to air and heat passage to ensure dry and comfortable feel to wearer.
Hot weather sportswear are generally preferred when the ambient temperature is high and the wearer may be at risk of hyperthermia as he experience profuse sweating (sensible perspiration) and elevated body temperature as a synergistic effect of his own metabolic heat generation and the hot weather. The clothing should thus be light weight, quick drying, and wick able to push the liquid moisture away without sweat absorption in next to skin layer and should exhibit high thermal conductivity for rapid heat dissipation thereby ensuring dry and cool feel next to skin [1, 2, 3].
The requirements and key design aspects of sportswear will be discussed elaborately in the next sections of the chapter.
The categorization of sportswear discussed in previous section highlighted that sportswear are categorized based on level of wearer’s physical activity, specific sports and ambient conditions. The requirements for each sportswear category will be drastically different as the clothing is worn in altogether different ambient conditions, for varying durations and frequency. Sportswear designed as active wear for outdoor applications should provide protection to wearer against external elements and environmental extremities such as wind, sunlight, rain and snow. Moreover, the clothing should possess optimum thermal and moisture management properties in order to maintain the heat balance between the metabolic heat produced as a result of physical activity and the outside environment. Perspiration both in vapor (insensible) and liquid (sensible) form should be readily dissipated to the outside environment to provide dry microclimate next to skin for the wearer. This requirement can be met by designing the sportswear that exhibit low resistance to heat transfer and evaporative heat loss. Sportswear should ensure rapid liquid transfer by means of wicking and should have good drying ability to prevent condensation of liquid sweat near skin. However, a high level of thermal insulation is prerequisite for cold weather sports clothing so as to prevent body heat to escape to outside environment. Contrastingly, low thermal insulation is desirable for sportswear intended for warmer climates. The concept of “Onion-skin” principle encompassing clothing system with several layers and consisting of several clothing items is applied in sportswear to achieve variable thermal insulation as per the capricious ambient conditions. The clothing can thus be adapted to the changing environment by donning or doffing individual clothing items for effective protection against the external elements [1, 2, 3, 4].
Furthermore, the requirements for sportswear can be as categorized into functional and esthetic requirements, both of which play a crucial role in determining the performance and consumers acceptability for the clothing. Functional attributes of sportswear pertain to light weight, low fluid resistance, high tenacity, strechablility, thermal regulation, UV protection, vapor permeability, and sweat absorption and release while esthetics requirements entail softness, surface texture, handle, luster and color of the sportswear.
In general, the most common characteristics sought in sportswear can be enlisted as follows:
Optimum thermal and moisture regulation
Good air and water vapor permeability
Rapid moisture absorption and wicking property
Absence of dampness & dry feel next to skin
Rapid Drying ability
Low water absorption of next to skin layer clothing
Dimensionally stable even when wet
Durable, easy care and lightweight
Soft and pleasant touch
Effective protection against external elements such as extreme cold, sunlight, wind, rain etc.
Stretch ability, form fitting and shape retention
Antimicrobial & antistatic properties.
The type of sport, ambient conditions and level of physical activity as discussed in the previous section dictates the functional requirements and performance characteristics of sportswear.
Sportsperson involved in high active sports such as tennis and soccer usually experience heat stress owing to high amount of metabolic heat generation and profuse sweating. Therefore, the thermo-physiological comfort aspect of sportswear is of utmost importance for such sports to ensure well-being of sports person without any hindrance to their performance and efficiency. Dry microclimate for wearer involved in intensive physical activity and in hot, humid conditions is ensued by engineering fabrics exhibiting effective moisture vapor and liquid moisture transmission through fabric. The effective heat and moisture dissipation through fabrics intended for active wear requires special consideration of geometry, packing density and structure of the constituent fibers in yarn and fabric construction.
Thermo-physiological comfort properties of sportswear are influenced by multitude of fiber, yarn and fabric variables that influence inter yarn spaces, capillary geometry and in turn the moisture vapor and liquid moisture transmission through textile structures.
Sportswear engineered with specialized fibers, yarns and fabric structures exhibit excellent moisture management properties. Accordingly, sportswear designers experiment with variable fiber cross-sectional shape, shape factor and specific surface area of fiber, yarn variables like twist, linear density, structure and packing coefficient and fabric variables like loop length and porosity, varying knit structures like plated, elastene fabrics and those designed with bio mimic concepts to design sportswear intended for performance sports to keep the wearer comfortable with dry sensation next to skin.
Undoubtedly, the role of fibers, yarns and fabric structure in engineering textile structures suitable for sportswear cannot be undermined. The following section will discuss the role of fibers, yarns and fabric variables and their selection criteria for sportswear design and development.
A combination of natural and synthetic fibers is an optimal solution when designing clothing for next to skin and sportswear applications. However no single fiber or different fiber blends can ensure ideal clothing suitable for varied applications. The right type of fiber needs to be in the right place according to the fabric’s end use. Any wrong selection of fiber combinations may lead to thermal and wetness discomfort to the wearer if water absorption and liquid transfer properties of the selected fibers are not according to level of sweat generated.
The primary requirements of effective liquid transmission, better wick ability and faster drying in sportswear can be achieved by incorporation of varying fiber profiles like tetra channel, hexa channel, five-leaf, trilobal and triangular cross-sections that offer enlarged surface area for transmission of liquid sweat compared to their circular counterparts (Figure 1a and b).
(a) Different fibers for sportswear, (b) fibers of varying cross sections.
Coolmax is modified polyester fiber developed by Dupont. The fiber resembles double scallop with four channels having 20% more surface area than conventional polyester fiber therefore offering better wicking, moisture vapor permeability and water spreading over greater area in fabric.
4 DG fiber is speciality fiber with eight-legged cross section made of polyester and other polymers and large surface area/volume and bulk compared to round fibers. The fiber is capable of moving, storing and trapping the fluids owing to the unique grooved shape. Accordingly, fibers of varying cross sections are finding applications in sportswear owing to their effectiveness in heat, moisture and liquid transmission through fabrics.
Incorporation of non-circular fiber profile are characterized by increase in fiber’s shape factor which influences the fiber capillary spaces, inter yarn pore spaces, packing density, specific surface area and in turn the thermo-physiological properties of fabrics.
Fibers with greater specific surface area possess good moisture absorption and release properties. The micro grooves present on fiber surface enhance capillary absorbency, cause siphoning of moisture which can thus be dissipated by spreading over fiber surface. Figure 1b shows the different fiber cross-sections generally used in sportswear.
Moisture transmission properties of individual components can be drastically improved by blending two or more fibers into single yarns. Polyester and cotton fibers in blended form are increasingly being used for specialized yarn production to achieve good wicking and low absorbency.
Wicking and thermal resistance can further be improved by creation of hollow and microporous yarn core by combination of different fibers such as cotton and PVA fibers (Figure 2a).
(a) Core hollow yarn composed of cotton & PVA fibers. (b) Micro loops on surface of Naiva Fabric.
Welkey is fiber with hollow core and body of fiber has proliferation of small holes. Thermal resistance increases as a result of increased number of air spaces inside fibers. Wicking of sweat next to skin is possible by capillary action caused by small holes forming proliferations in fiber body. The fiber can thus be effectively utilized for designing winter wear sportswear to obtain efficient moisture management along with rapid sweat dissipation.
Bicomponent fiber is classified based on fiber cross-section into side- by side, sheath core, islands in the sea, segmented pie cross-section. Matrix of one polymer contains another polymer and micro denier fibers can be generated by this type of bi component structure. Polyester, polypropylene, nylon forms the island in the structure.
Bi-component filament yarn,
Eval, one of the components of bi component yarn is the copolymer resin of ethylene vinyl-alcohol [1, 2, 3].
Several researchers have explored the possibilities of combining different commodity and speciality fibers to engineer a textile structure suitable for sportswear with desirable thermal and moisture management properties.
Gurudatt et al. [5] studied the absorption and drying behavior of textile using cotton, polyester of regular cross section, polyethylene glycol modified polyester and scalloped oval cross-section fiber. It was suggested that absorption capacity of polyester enhances by cross-section and polymer modification. Knitted fabrics using scalloped oval cross section had higher absorption rate compared to regular polyester fiber.
Das et al. [6] studied the effect of fiber cross-sectional shape on moisture transmission properties of the fabrics and suggested that wicking rate through fabrics increased while water vapor permeability reduced as the fiber shape factor increased.
Matsudaira and Kondo [7] reported that more water could be absorbed by polyester fibers by making grooved or non-grooved hollow in fiber due to increase in space ratio and surface area of fiber in their studies on moisture transport properties of fabrics having different ratio of space to polymer in fiber cross-section.
Su et al. [8] developed composite knitted fabrics by blending profiled polyester fibers and cotton fibers. Fabrics with decreasing cotton content showed higher diffusion rate and drying rate. Worst water absorption ability was shown by fabrics made of profiled polyester alone. They suggested that moisture absorption and release of fabrics could be improved by making fabrics from core and cover yarns of polyester profile filament, profile polyester spun and cotton in different blend ratios.
Troynikov and Wardiningsih [9] suggested that blending wool fiber with polyester and regenerated bamboo fiber, produced fabrics with better moisture management properties than fabrics without blending.
Fangueiro et al. [10] studied the wicking and drying ability of knitted fabrics produced from blends of wool- coolmax and wool- fine cool. It was reported that fabrics with coolmax fibers could transport perspiration quickly from the skin to environment and showed the best capillarity performance, fine cool fabrics had higher drying rates whereas wool fiber-based fabrics showed low water absorption but good drying rate.
Oner et al. [11] observed higher overall moisture management capacity values for polyester fabrics compared to cellulose based fabrics and suggested that cotton fabrics caused wetness to be felt more than other fabrics.
Long [12] stated that liquid water transfer from the back to the face layer depends upon the water absorption of the fiber materials of the two layers and to a greater extent their difference.
Adams and Rebenfeld [13] observed that polyester fabrics showed better liquid water diffusion due to fast capillary action as the contact angle of polyester and water is small compared to wool. Highly hygroscopic fibers like wool took longer to reach equilibrium during process of water diffusion compared to less hygroscopic fibers like polyester.
Supuren et al. [14] investigated the moisture management properties of the double face fabrics and suggested that polypropylene (back) and cotton (face) fabric had better moisture management property.
Mehrtens & Mcalister [15] reported low wick ability for nylon fabrics when compared to cotton and orlon fabrics and suggested combination of lower fabric weight and thickness led to better comfort in their studies on knitted sport shirts for hot and humid conditions.
Ozturk et al. [16] studied the influence of fiber type on wicking properties of cotton- acrylic yarns and fabrics and suggested that wicking ability of yarns and fabrics increased with the increase in acrylic content in the blends.
The exhaustive reported research emphasizes that the fiber types owing to difference in their chemical nature and surface geometry have strong influence on heat, moisture, liquid transfer and moisture management properties of textiles.
The yarn variables namely twist level, linear density, spinning system and yarn types play a crucial role in influencing the moisture vapor and liquid moisture transmission and in turn the thermo-physiological comfort aspects of sports textiles. The variation in any of these yarn variables influence the yarn structure which in turn depends on fiber geometry. Distribution of fibers in yarn dictates thermal as well as moisture transfer properties of fabrics.
Yarn structure is not rigid and capillary flow may produce lateral stress, which affects capillary sizes during liquid rise. Disruption of the continuity, length and orientation of the capillaries occurs due to changing packing density throughout yarn structure. Heterogeneity of pore size, shape and orientation affects the penetration of liquid into the yarn structure and hence its liquid retention properties. Likewise, number of filaments, yarn tension and twist significantly affect the yarn wicking performance by influencing the way in which individual filaments can pack in the yarn thus determining the amount of void spaces between filaments.
Moisture transfer is affected by degree of yarn twist, higher twist yarns improve capillary effect in moisture transfer as they are compact and provide less air volume. Lower twist generally results in reduced water transport through fabrics due to reduction in number and continuity of inter fiber capillaries. Twist in the yarn also affects the size of capillaries due to helical path of fibers in the yarn. More liquid on surface of twisted yarn is retained due to rough surface profile of these yarns compared to filament yarns.
Awadesh Kumar and Ramratan [17] studied the moisture management properties of different knit structures composed of micro polyester, texturized polyester and polyester –spandex blend and concluded that micro polyester fiber fabrics exhibited better liquid transmission properties compared to their counterparts owing to more capillary channels.
Linear density of constituent yarns affects the radial spread of water in fabrics. Fast liquid flow through inter yarn spaces in fine yarns is possible due to reduced capillary radius and low water retention of finer count yarns.
The yarns produced on different spinning system play a crucial role in dictating thermo-physiological properties of textiles intended for varied applications. The difference in the yarn structure and packing density of yarns produced on different spinning systems account for different thermal, moisture and liquid transfer properties of fabrics made from these yarns. Physical features of yarns and fabrics produced from these yarns are influenced by the type of yarn production (ring-spun, compact, open end) and in turn affect the performance properties of fabric.
A variety of yarns like ring, rotor, friction, vortex and compact spun yarns are used for varied applications in sports textiles. Dimensions and structure of inter yarn and intra yarn pores, pore size and their distribution along fabrics are influenced by density and structure of yarn.
Ring and rotor spun yarns vary widely in their structure which contributes to the entirely different properties of the two yarns. Ring-spun yarn has an ideal cylindrical helical structure with same number of turns per unit length in each helix, uniform specific volume and maximum packing density in the outermost zone of the yarn cross-section. Rotor spun yarn has a bipartite structure with an inner core which forms the bulk of the yarn and an outer zone of wrapper fibers occurring irregularly along the core length. Rotor yarn shows maximum packing density in first zone from core. Core part of rotor yarn is relatively dense structure; sheath part is less dense structure with belly-bands (Figure 3).
SEM images of ring & rotor spun yarns.
Yarn types can significantly influence the performance properties of textiles by affecting the fabric’s bulk properties. Yarn hairiness and roughness can bring about changes in thermal properties of fabrics by entrapment of still air layer. Likewise, the moisture and liquid transfer properties of textiles are significantly affected by yarn types owing to difference in yarn roughness and arrangement of fibers in yarns. Increase in yarn roughness results in reduced rate of water transport through fabrics due to increase in effective advancing contact angle of water on yarn. Yarns with more random fiber arrangement can retard the liquid transfer by wicking as a result of disruption in continuity of capillaries formed by fibers. Wicking of yarns and fabrics is affected by difference in yarn surface roughness. Rough yarns are formed by wool fibers with high apparent contact angle owing to random distribution of fibers in the yarns and the natural crimp. Yarns made of synthetic fibers have smooth surfaces and are well aligned.
Water transfer by capillary process is thus affected by two factors:
Increase in yarn roughness causes an increase in effective advancing contact angle of water on yarn
Random fiber arrangement decreases the continuity of capillaries formed by fibers in yarn
The following section reviews the studies undertaken and reported to determine the effect of various yarn variables on thermo-physiological aspects of textiles.
Y Jhanji et al. [18] studied the moisture management properties of polyester-cotton plated fabrics of ring vis a vis rotor yarns. They observed that ring yarn fabrics exhibited higher moisture vapor transmission rate, trans planar wicking, lower wetting time and higher one-way transport capacity as compared to rotor yarn fabrics, making the former suitable where body needs to dissipate sweat both in vapor and liquid forms, with respect to fabrics using combination of rotor-spun cotton yarns, which show higher absorbent capacity and would be slow drying with poor one way transport capacity. They concluded that yarn spinning system plays an important role in influencing moisture management properties of fabrics intended for next to skin applications.
Ansary [19] studied the influence of number of filaments on air permeability of polyester woven fabrics and reported a decrease in air permeability with increase in the number of filaments in the cross section of filling yarns.
Li and Joo [20] compared nano-scale filament, micro filament and normal filament knitted fabrics for their liquid transfer properties and concluded that nano-scale filament fabrics showed low porosity, high aerial density and increased absorption capacity and absorption rate. Better water absorption ability of nano scale filament fabrics compared to micro filament fabrics was attributed to smaller pore size of nano scale filaments compared to micro filaments.
Das et al. [21] varied the denier per filament for polypropylene knitted fabric to assess its influence on thermo-physiological comfort properties and observed that water uptake and wicking increases with increase in the number of filaments.
Behera et al. [22] compared the comfort properties of ring, rotor and friction spun yarn fabrics and suggested that ring and rotor spun yarns were comparable in thermal comfort aspects, friction spun yarn being the most suitable. They pointed out that in the normal wear conditions and in the absence of perspiration, rotor spun yarn would be superior to ring-spun yarns.
Kumar et al. [23] compared ring, rotor and vortex yarn knitted fabrics and observed that ring yarn knitted fabrics showed good knitting performance and smooth feel, however abrasion resistance of rotor and vortex spun yarn fabrics were higher than ring spun yarn fabrics.
Erdumlu and Saricam [24] studied the wicking and drying properties of vortex spun yarns and knitted fabrics in comparison with ring-spun yarns and fabrics. They observed that yarn type significantly affected the yarn wicking, fabric wicking and water absorbency. Vortex spun yarn owing to crimped yarn axis and tight wrappings along yarn length had lower yarn and fabric wicking values than ring-spun yarn fabrics. Fabrics knitted from ring-spun yarns wicked and absorbed water more evenly than fabrics knitted from vortex spun yarns.
Singh and Nigam [25] compared carded, combed and compact spun yarn woven fabrics for their comfort performance and reported that carded weft yarn-based fabric samples showed higher resistance against air drag than combed and compact weft filled fabric samples. Compact weft yarn fabrics showed high water vapor permeability and were reported to be suitable for summer wear shirting. Carded yarn woven fabrics showed high thermal insulation and were.
Sengupta and Murthy [26] reported that open- end spun yarns showed lesser wicking time for any given vertical weight compared to ring- spun yarn fabrics. They observed that owing to dense core and less dense skin of open-end yarns it showed differential dyeing behavior in core and skin with dye wicking to greater height in the core than in surrounding sheath fibers.
Chattopadhyay and Chauhan [27] compared ring and compact yarns for their wicking performance and suggested that ring yarns showed faster wicking compared to compact yarns as evident from higher equilibrium heights for ring yarns. They explained the lower wicking of compact yarn due to less average capillary size of compact yarn compared to ring yarn owing to higher packing coefficient of compact yarn.
The thermo-physiological properties of textile materials particularly sportswear depend on constructional variables and bulk properties of fabrics. Fabric structure, thickness, cover factor, aerial density, bulk density, fabric porosity and finishing treatments affect the thermal and moisture management properties and hence determine the comfort properties of fabrics.
Woven and knitted fabrics are generally used for varied applications like inner wears, outerwear, work wear and sportswear. Knitted fabrics owing to lower cover factor have more pores in their structure and the porous structure ensures good air, moisture and heat transfer properties and show better liquid transmission properties than woven fabrics. The difference in basic structures of textile materials account for variation in amount of water absorbed by different fabric constructions. The structural differences are related to fiber arrangement in yarn thereby affecting yarn roughness factor Cos θ and size and continuity of capillaries. Random fiber arrangement leads to high contact angle; while lower contact angle associated with faster movement of water in yarns and fabrics is attributed to high degree of fiber alignment.
The different fabric structures used for sportswear vary in their bulk properties such as fabric tightness, porosity, aerial density and thickness that in turn dictate the heat, moisture and liquid transfer through the fabrics. Availability of inter yarn spaces for heat transmission, passage of air and moisture diffusion depend on the fabric’s tightness factor. Thus, the bulk properties of fabric structures are crucial for optimum air, heat and moisture transmission through sportswear.
Several researchers have attempted to engineer different knit structures and compared the structures in terms of their comfort and performance properties intended for sportswear and other functional textiles. Innovative knit structures like plated fabrics, moisture management fabrics with different combinations of yarns in alternating courses, multilayered fabrics and fabrics mimicking the biometrics of plant structure have been developed for providing effective thermal and moisture management properties and sense of well-being to the wearer.
Structured or engineered fabrics are used in application areas relevant to commercial interest. Class of structured fabrics is moisture management fabrics; utilizing two or more fiber types in layered structures rendering two sides of fabrics distinctly different in character. Each side of fabric has the ability to exhibit different performance characteristics and thermo-physiological properties. Light weight two sided fabrics finding applications in varied areas are produced by plated knitted technique.
Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic yarns can be fed to single set of knitting needles and two separate yarns thus pass through each single needle of the set appearing distinctly on face and back sides of fabrics. Careful control of feed and positioning of two yarns is important to position distinct yarns in the two layers.
Plated knit structure is a double layered construction characterized by distinct face and back layers. The two layers are composed of different materials and accordingly serve different roles in providing wearer comfort.
One layer of plated fabric is the inner layer which is in direct contact with skin and serves the role of quick removal and transportation of sweat from body in vapor and liquid form. This layer serves as a separation layer and is composed of conductive and diffusive yarns generally characterized by low water absorption properties.
Another layer of plated fabric is the outer layer which is not in direct contact with the skin and prevents humidity build up near skin and vaporizes it to environment. This layer serves as absorptive layer and is composed of hydrophilic fibers and governs the liquid spreading and drying ability of fabrics. Figure 4 shows the schematics of face and back layers of plated fabric.
Schematics of plated fabric (a) face and (b) back layer.
Selection of fiber and yarn combinations in the two layers can have a great bearing on the comfort properties, performance, esthetic appeal and end use of the knit structures.
Fibers of different chemical nature and thus different water absorbing properties can be used in different combinations to appear in face and back layers of plated fabrics.
Double layered knitted fabrics can be divided into following four types based on different fiber combinations and difference in water absorption properties of different fibers used in the two layers.
The fabric has hydrophobic fiber in both face and back layers as shown in Figure 5a.
Water transfer from skin to different fabric layers. (a) Hydophobic yarns in inner & outer layer, (b) Hydrophillic yarn in inner & hydrophobic yarn in outer layer, (c) Hydrophilic yarn in inner & outer layers, (d) Hydrophobic yarn in inner & hydrophilic yarn in outer layer.
Liquid sweat next to skin cannot be absorbed by inner layer owing to its hydrophobicity and the only means by which sweat can be removed from skin is water vapor diffusion through pores within fabric. The diffused water vapor will evaporate slowly from the face layer in turn causing thermal and wetness discomfort to the wearer.
The fabric has hydrophilic fiber in back/next to skin layer and hydrophobic fiber in face layer as shown in Figure 5b.
Liquid sweat next to skin can be absorbed by the back hydrophilic layer but the transfer of sweat to the face layer is restricted owing to hydrophobicity of the face layer. Thermal insulation of fabric decreases and fabric gives sensation of wetness and coolness as the pores in the inner layer are filled with water, removing the static air from the pores.
Figure 5c shows the fabric with hydrophilic fiber in face as well as back layers.
Sweat from skin is picked up by hydrophilic fibers of back layer resulting in moisture accumulation and poor transfer to face layer. Water remains in the back layer and evaporation rate will be small owing to smaller wet area. The fabric will feel cool and wet to the wearer.
Figure 5d shows the fabric with hydrophobic fiber in the back and hydrophilic fiber in the face layer. The back hydrophobic layer without absorbing the sweat itself transfers it to the face layer by means of capillary wicking. Face layer owing to hydrophilic fibers has good water absorption property and hence enables quick evaporation of sweat to environment by providing larger wet area.
Based on classification of double layered fabrics, Lord [28] indicated that that structure (d) with hydrophobic fiber in the back and hydrophilic fiber in the face layer would be most effective in maintaining dry skin micro climate by rapid liquid transfer to face layer. Additionally, several other researchers have unanimously recommended the use of hydrophobic fibers in next to skin and hydrophilic fibers in the face layer to achieve desirable moisture management and comfort properties in plated fabrics.
Plated fabrics designed with contrastingly different fiber and yarns exhibit the push- pull effect. Layer of hydrophobic fibers repel the perspiration next to skin and pushes or wicks it into outer layer of hydrophilic fibers which absorb or pulls away the moisture. Structured arrangement of hydrophobic and hydrophilic fibers in the two layers of plated fabrics and large difference in humidity between inner layer and ambient environment causes moisture movement from skin to outer atmosphere thus making the structures preferred choice for sportswear.
The structures are increasingly gaining popularity in apparels, next to skin applications, active wear and leisure sportswear owing to freedom in selection of contrastingly different constituents in the two layers. Therefore, the functional clothing intended for such applications are often specially engineered or structured such that the fabrics are normally two sided and are produced from a minimum of two yarns of different fiber content or characteristics.
Toda developed multi layered knitted structures composed of non-hygroscopic fibers. The structure was characterized by smaller inter fiber spaces in the face layer than in back layer by careful selection of fiber fineness, knitted structure and yarn type in face and back layers.
Yamini Jhanji et al. [29] investigated the effect of fiber type and yarn linear density on the thermal properties such as thermal resistance, thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity along with air permeability and moisture vapor transmission rate of single jersey plated fabrics. They suggested that plated fabrics with nylon in the next to skin layer seemed suitable choice for warm conditions as these fabrics would feel cooler on initial skin contact owing to high thermal absorptivity and were permeable to passage of air and moisture vapor. Fabrics knitted with yarns of high linear density were found to be unsuitable in warm conditions owing to higher value of thermal resistance and lower values of air permeability and moisture vapor transmission rate.
Jhanji et al. [30] compared the moisture management properties of plated fabrics with altering hydrophilic and hydrophobic fibers in top and bottom layers and different types of hydrophobic fibers in top layers. They concluded that fabrics knitted with hydrophobic fibers (polypropylene, polyester) in top layers were suitable for next-to-skin applications as they were classified as moisture management fabrics owing to high values of accumulative one-way transport index and bottom spreading speed. It was further suggested that fabric knitted with nylon in top layer was classified as water penetration fabric due to poor liquid transfer properties. Fabrics knitted with cotton in top layer irrespective of the hydrophobic fiber in bottom layer were poor in moisture management properties.
Ghosh and Kaur [31] studied the effect of tightness factor on liquid transport properties of plain knitted fabrics and observed that with increase in tightness factor, fabrics showed higher wicking and lower water absorbency. They suggested that higher tightness factor resulted in less tortuosity thus providing less complicated path for liquid flow and offering less resistance to fluid flow compared to fabrics knitted with lower tightness factor.
Suganthi and Senthilkumar [32] studied moisture management properties of double layered fabrics varying the fiber types in inner and outer layers and observed that bi layered fabrics with micro fiber polyester in inner and modal in outer layer was the preferred choice for active sportswear owing to fabric’s better moisture management properties.
The published literature suggests that fabric structures engineered by strategic combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic fibers, speciality fibers and yarns exhibit variations in their bulk, physical and comfort characteristics thereby influencing thermal and mass transport properties of textiles. The fabric structure and in turn the fabric properties determine the suitability of textiles for sportswear applications. Having discussed, the significance of fiber, yarn and fabric variables on functional aspects of sportswear in the previous section, it becomes necessary to highlight the key trends and innovations in sportswear which serve to enhance the performance as well as esthetic attributes of the sportswear. The designing aspects and innovative approaches employed to render smart functionality to sportswear will be covered in details in the following sections of the chapter.
Key trends in sportswear design and development encompasses performance and esthetic evolution of sportswear from next to skin to exterior or outer wear.
The inception of new functional and high-performance fibers and waterproof and breathable materials like polypropylene, polyester, polyamide in micro fine denier and Goretex respectively led to innovations in first layer sportswear such as performance underwear. The functional properties like wicking, fast drying, anti-odor and UV blocking have been considerably enhanced by inclusion of new, innovative fibers. However, the raw material selection has not brought about radical changes in design aspects of the first layer.
The first layer garments have undergone a major transformation with more emphasis on design and development of all-in-one suits in competition swimming and running, winter sport wear and athletics.
Furthermore, sportswear manufacturers are exploring the avenues for creating garments offering multiple functionalities in a single layer as per specific requirements of wearer’s body parts.
The first layer sportswear is particularly popular among runners and top level athletes who seek comfort, unhindered bodily movement, light weight, fast drying and stretch ability in their attires. Apart from functional aspects, first layer sportswear have witnessed huge esthetic transformation with emergence of racier styles featuring attractive and variable designs, funky colors, quirky prints, patterns and strategic placement of trimming as means of surface ornamentation. The sportsperson and fitness freaks who once merely considered the performance aspects of their clothing, no longer follow a taciturn approach to doff a stylish, funky sportswear that can render psychological well-being to wearer and visual delight to viewers.
Accordingly, designers are fostered to include innovative design concepts such as elaborate patchwork, asymmetrical styling and unconventional placement of trimmings, notions and labels in their sportswear design collections with due consideration to the changing preferences of sportspersons and consumers.
The functional aspects of performance under wears are enhanced by incorporation of innovative technologies like application of moisture management, UV protective, bacteriostatic finishes, controlled release of chemicals and other auxiliaries via microencapsulation. Accordingly, the underwear exhibit exceptionally superior moisture management properties, thermal and UV protection, antimicrobial and antistatic properties. Apart from functional attributes, the performance underwear have evolved significantly with vibrant fabric colors, contrasting trimming and off-center patterns widely used in their designing.
Introduction of asymmetrical design concepts like placing the closures along the side seam serve both esthetic and functional aspects by rendering unorthodox fashion appeal, layering and enhanced wearer agility. The trendy styles are thus becoming asset for youth oriented sportswear.
The first and second skin sportswear segment once considered a dowdy category, has emerged as top notch sportswear segment bringing new dynamics to sportswear market with all the innovative design concepts enjoying consumer acceptance.
The classic example of all in one suit is the body-covering Speedo swimwear intended for competition swimming introduced during Olympics.
The swimwear design fostered the concept of bio mimetics in sportswear designed later as the former closely mimicked the sharkskin as far as design orientation was concerned.
The success story of all-in-one swim suits paved the way for designing athletic sportswear, speed skating and cross country skiing suits. Nike, a popular sportswear brand was trailblazer in designing an elaborate, paneled speed skating suits comprising of seven different fabric types for cyclists. The novel suit with patchwork was designed to enhance the cyclist’s performance, protection level and comfort in spite of the unfavorable ambient environment and excruciating conditions which cyclists generally encounter. The high tech suits are the state of the art suits offering multiple functionalities such as elasticity, compression, thermal insulation, protection against external elements and aerodynamics. The patch work design unique to high-end cycling sportswear has been adopted in second skin and first layer garment design as well.
Another design perspective in sportswear segment envisages the incorporation of smart features via sensors and other electronic components that are comparable to high tech trimmings. A microphone with its associated embroidered control buttons on a garment sleeve or collar renders graphic yet functional embellishment to the clothing. The elimination of wind and rain flaps by inclusion of water tight zippers for medium level performance outerwear, switching to leaner and pared styles of trims and notions like printed and embroidered labels and motifs, drawstrings, velcro, snap closures and mesh lining for pockets to offer storage and ventilation both are some approaches to enhance the functionality and esthetic appeal without adding any additional bulk to the sportswear.
The sportswear designers are thus fascinated by concept of stealth design that implies less detailing, fewer accessories yet not at tradeoff with functional and smart features.
Waterproofing and breathability becomes all the more crucial while designing sportswear intended for outdoor sports where sports person is doomed to be exposed to humid, rainy conditions.
The technologies generally employed for development of waterproof breathable sportswear include:
Development of high density fabric
Application of polymeric coating
Film lamination.
Development of High density fabric
Coated fabrics - Fabrics intended for sportswear can be imparted water proofing and breathability by application of polymeric coating either on one or both fabric surfaces. Polyurethane is the most commonly used coating for imparting water proofing to textiles. Micro-porous and hydrophilic membranes can be used for development of coated textiles. The micro-porous membrane features a coating containing very fine inter connected channels of the dimensions smaller than the finest raindrop. However, the size of channels is larger than that of water vapor molecules enabling water vapor passage through the air-permeable channels. Although, the hydrophilic membrane exhibit similar structure as that of micro-porous membrane, however, the mechanism of water vapor transmission in former is via adsorption-diffusion and de-sorption in contrast to passage of water vapor molecules through the air-permeable channels in the latter.
Lamination involves bonding a waterproof and breathable film to textile substrate. Thin polymeric membranes of maximum thickness up to 10 micron when bonded with base fabrics offer water proofing and breathability to textile substrate. Micro-porous membrane of poly-tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE), poly-vinyldene fluoride PVDF and hydrophilic membrane composed of poly ethylene oxide are utilized for development of laminated water proof textiles for sports applications.
The ingress of water through seams in a water proof garment needs to be prevented through seam sealing. Apart from waterproofing, the laminated garments should be lightweight, flexible and comfortable to wearer. Thus, thinner strips, elasticized tapes and improved glues are increasingly being used for designing bulk free laminated sportswear. The traditional three ply composite construction comprising of fabric, film and mesh lining have undergone major transformation by elimination of mesh linings and addition of silicone touch finish to films imparting cleaner finishing and convenient doffing of the clothing. The overall freedom of wearer movement is thus ensured as a result of reduced friction within garment layers.
The sportswear designers prefer to do away with seams as they are a major source of friction, added fabric layers and bulk. Thus, designers prefer seamless knitting or heat sealing for reduction and elimination of seams to achieve a clean, compact performance wear.
The three layer sportswear are generally preferred for outdoor activities like hiking and cycling owing to their ability to provide protection against external elements (extreme cold or humidity) along with basic sportswear requirement of being lightweight, breathable and comfortable.
Each layer of a three layered assembly is designed to serve a specific function. The first, next to skin layer is designed with hydrophobic fibers to wick away sweat from skin to the outer layers, thereby rendering dry feel next to skin. Additionally, the innermost layer offers thermal protection to wearer in cold ambient conditions.
Second layer garments generally composed of fleece, assist in keeping the wearer warm and dry by drawing sweat from skin to the outer layer. The modifications in second layer are targeted to achieve high warmth to weight ratio without compromising the thermal insulation of clothing. However, the traditional three layer protective clothing assemblies are being rapidly replaced by advanced composite textile structures referred to as soft shell clothing designed by bonding multiple knits and fleece layers together.
The latter offers agility to wearer, protection against adverse environmental conditions with an additional advantage of being light weight and compact.
The second layer is further improvised to impart multiple functionalities such as warmth retention and insulation, water resistance, elasticity and wind protection. Therefore, sportswear has been witnessing a transition from complete water proofing by hard shell to water resistance by soft shell.
There are three approaches to design soft shell with augmented thermal insulation and wind protection. The first approach involves the utilization of windproof shell as a separate clothing entity while the second involves bonding fleece to wind blocking membrane. The membrane laminated sportswear thus offer thermal insulation along with water proofing and breathability. A new range of laminates designed with wind defender type membranes namely Gore – Tex Windstopper, Symptex Windmaster underscore protection against wind over water proofing, are being specifically developed for windy climatic conditions (Figure 6).
Water proof & breathable sports wear.
Adequate warmth and wind protection can also be achieved by third approach wherein fleece is bonded to tightly woven fabric or knitted structure.
Moreover, the comfort level, warmth and protection to wearer can further be provided by four layer system comprising of four garments - first layer, fleece, soft shell and hard shell.
Soft shells comprising of fleece and treated with water repellant surface finish are ideal candidates for outdoor activities as they primarily focus on enhanced thermal insulation, elasticity and abrasion resistance. The jackets have evolved radically as far as design and style elements are concerned and are increasingly being designed devoid of multiple drawstrings, elasticized hems or double storm flaps thereby eliminating cumbersome and bulky garment features. A closer-fitting, bulk free silhouette for better mobility, warmth retention and comfort to wearer has thus become synonymous to performance outerwear. The designing of hard shell jacket is also not aloof of the close fitting approach and thus designers have been striving to design leaner, fitted hard shell attires taking design inspirations from soft shells.
Other approaches for designing outdoor, winter sportswear are based on fundamental concept of exploiting the good insulation properties of still air layer and thus engineering textile structures with an ability to trap large volumes of still air. The entrapped air layer being good thermal insulator can provide enhanced thermal insulation to clothing incorporating hollow fibers, three dimensional spacer fabrics and alveolar or nodular raised knit structures. Hollow fibers on account of their light weight and improved thermal regulation outshines conventional fibers and are considered ideal for all such applications where high thermal resistance is sought for.
Accordingly, knitted structures like pique, honeycomb or ribbed raised textures are generally used for designing sportswear intended for winters. The honeycomb knits in conjunction with raised fabric in next to skin layer offers effective thermal insulation and are suitable for cold weather clothing and sportswear. Likewise, the structure of fleece can be modified for enhanced warmth by trimming the piles and creation of three dimensional grid thereby increasing the air entrapment next to skin.
The high performance thermo regulation along with light weight and wearer comfort can be engineered into sports apparels and accessories via three dimensional knit structures, spacer fabrics.
Nature is a big source of inspiration for human beings and capturing nature’s beauty and functionality by biomimetic is a concept frequently explored in functional clothing particularly sportswear and protective clothing.
Speedo, a sportswear manufacturing company developed one of its own kinds of Fast skin biomimetic swimsuit taking inspiration from shark skin (Figure 7). The denticles of shark’s skin were imitated on the fabric to impart super stretch property and thus the performance of swimmer donning the swimsuit could be considerably enhanced by shape retention, muscle compression and reduced drag coefficient.
Biomimetic principles for sportswear designing.
Inotek® fabric based on “Pine cone effect” is quite popular among sportswear designers and manufacturers owing to exceptionally excellent thermal regulation and moisture management properties exhibited by the fabric. Pine cones comprises of two layers of stiff fibers that are oriented in different directions (Figure 7). The cones tend to close as the humidity increases to prevent moisture from getting in while they open up releasing their seeds and falling to the ground as a response to decreasing humidity. Likewise, the Pine Cone Effect based on reaction of plants to humidity is explored for designing fabrics that can respond to changing humidity conditions. The textiles based on biomimetic concept are composed of layer of thin wool spikes that open up on encountering increased humidity as a result of sweating by wearer. However, as the sweat evaporates and humidity drops down, the spikes on the fabric closes again in response to changing humidity.
The designers of long jump suit named SKYNFEEL exclusively designed for professional athletes might have been enticed by the salient characteristics of fauna to exhibit unhindered flights with their wings. The suit is designed with laterally positioned flaps much like the wings of dragonfly. The dragon fly wing inspired flaps feature geometric lased cut panels that enhance the athlete’s elevation during jumping via closing and opening up as per athlete’s movement. The flaps remain closed during run-up however they open up as the wearer is preparing for jump. The opening of panels leads to creation of air pockets thereby resulting in aerodynamic effect. Consequently, the jumper’s performance is enhanced due to his ability to suspend in air for longer duration and gaining distance while jumping.
Stomatex®, another smart fabric designed using the biomimetic principles finds application in compression athletic wear for enhanced performance and recovery. The salient feature of fabric is dome and pore mimicking the stomata (tiny pores) on the plant’s leaves responsible for respiration and gaseous exchange in plants (Figure 7). The phenomenon of opening of stomata in daylight and closure at night is attempted to be recreated by the way of opening and closing of pores present on domes embossed in the outer knitted layer of fabric. The sportswear utilizing aforesaid fabric is generally designed in close-fitting silhouette to be able to react to wearer’s bodily movements. During static conditions, the energy consumption by sports person is reduced and thus wearer comfort is ensured by release of excess heat and moisture rising into the domes and ultimately released via the pore. As the wearer is actively involved in some physical activity, the flexing and movement of domes (and pores) enables passage of cooler air into clothing and escape of heat and moisture to outer environment.
The sportswear industry is taken by storm by path breaking innovations as far as procurement of raw materials like high performance and specialty fibers, yarns and engineering of fabric structures like double layered, elastane and breathable fabrics are concerned. Furthermore, smart functionalities like antimicrobial, antistatic, anti-odor properties, monitoring sportsperson’s physiological parameters, incorporation of smart materials like phase change materials and shape memory polymers, wearable sensors, tracking performance record of sportsperson and incorporation of smart technologies like smart coatings, nano technology and wearable electronics are engineered into sportswear (Figures 8 and 9).
Phase change materials & shape memory polymers for sportswear.
Nano technology for antimicrobial sportswear.
The fibers suitable for sportswear have already been discussed in the previous section. However, the innovations in sportswear cannot be conscripted without the mention of high performance fibers and their role in improving the moisture transmission properties of sportswear. The utilization of high performance fibers such as Coolmax®, Thermolite®, Thermocool® in performance and active wear results in increased surface area, better wicking and moisture management and in turn dry, cooler microclimate to wearer. Thermolite® is particularly suitable for cold weather sportswear due to fabric’s exceptionally high thermal insulation and moisture transmission properties. Winter sportswear comprising hollow core fibers possess the ability to trap higher volumes of static air and thus provide enhanced warmth and wearer comfort without any additional weight or bulk unlike conventional fleece fabrics. The clothing is thus gaining popularity among sports persons indulging in outdoor, winter sports like ice skating, mountaineering etc.
Dryarn, an innovative sustainable fiber from Aquafil is recyclable polypropylene microfiber and a preferred choice for developing sportswear fabrics that are sustainable, soft, anti-bacterial, light weight, quick drying, comfortable and exhibits high thermoregulatory capacity.
Sportwool®, a two layered moisture management fabric featuring wool on the inner side and synthetic fiber on the outer side and Field sensor TM® with brushed inner side are other options for winter sportswear.
Field Sensor, high performance fabric from Toray is a multilayered structure suitable for varied sports applications. The excellent moisture management properties and wick ability for rapid liquid transmission from next to skin to outer layer can be attributed to the fabric’s specially engineered structure with distinct inner and outer layers composed of coarser denier yarn and fine denier hydrophobic polyester yarn in a mesh construction respectively.
Additionally, thermo regulating materials like phase change or latent heat storage materials capable of sensing varying ambient conditions and responding by changing their phase are increasingly finding application in sportswear where sportsperson is exposed to prolonged, drastic environmental conditions. Outlast technology is involved in development of microencapsulated PCM coated fabric intended for sportswear and other smart textile applications. The sportswear developed with PCM treated fabrics provides thermal balance and maintain constant body temperature to wearer by absorbing excess body heat at elevated temperatures due to metabolic heat production and releasing it as the temperature drops down during cooling.
The potential of shape memory polymers to obtain effective thermal and moisture management properties was first explored in sailor suit designed for Swedish sailors. The suit based on membrane technology employed waterproof, windproof and breathable Diaplex membrane. The smart membrane can sense the changing ambient conditions and respond by changing its shape, memorizing the original shape and returning to the orginal, memorized shape accordingly. The membrane undergoes Micro-Brownian motion as it senses elevated temperature thereby creating micro-pores for heat and moisture transmission through the membrane (Figure 8).
The concept of sportswear design and development has been drastically changing with sportsperson anticipating technological features in their attire apart from basic requirements of functionality and comfort. It thus becomes mandate for sportswear designers and manufacturers to conform to the expectations of their consumers and come up with technology laced sportswear that can serve best of both worlds by offering comfort, protection and other functional attributes along with serving as a personal trainer, activity tracker and can monitor physiological parameters of the sports persons (Figure 10). The new generation of sportswear exhibits such smart features which would be considered fantasy a decade ago. The myriad of innovations in sportswear as far as incorporation of smart features are concerned will be discussed in detail in this section of the chapter. Figure 10 show the technology laced smart sportswear for performance & health monitoring. An innovation in athletic wear is development of Skin® 400 compression athletic wear series. The athletic wear is composed of elastane warp knitted fabric that can foster oxygen delivery to athlete’s active muscles via dynamic gradient compression.
Technology laced smart sportswear for performance & health monitoring.
Smart sportswear like fitness pants feature built-in haptic vibrations and signal the wearer to be agile or hold position as per pulse generated at the stress prone zones like hips, knees and ankles. The smart pants can be synched to wearer’s phone via bluetooth and provides additional feedback through the companion app.
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Boltt, a sports tech-brand pioneer in design and development of consumer-centric health and fitness clothing and smart shoes laced with stride sensors and activity tracker. The real-time audio feedback and customized workout suggestions generated by the brand’s advanced artificial intelligence (AI) ecosystem can provide customized health and fitness coaching to wearers.
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Wearable X, pioneer in bringing design and technology together, launched smart yoga wear incorporating haptic feedback. Posture monitoring and vibrational reaction by smart garment assists in guided yoga.
Vitali smart bra is another state-of-the-art smart sport wear designed for fitness freak females. The bra is equipped with sensors to track heart and breathing rates. The stress levels of women can be monitored via data collected from sensors thereby sending reminder to wearer to take deep breath on detection of high stress levels.
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It can thus be recapitulated that the future belongs to smart sportwear spanning from ethical, to technology laced wearable electronics to camouflage clothing to convertible, modular sports ensembles which not merely serves as clothing for wearer but can be multifunctional entities with an ability to be transformed into a travel bag or a sleeping bag as per the sportsperson’s convenience and requirements.
Subaerial and submarine volcanic landforms originate by primary constructive processes when magma erupts onto the Earth’s surface. After the volcanic activity ceases, these volcanic landforms are affected by erosion and weathering, which progressively modify their original morphology. Volcanoes that erupt in environments of relatively high subsidence and low erosion rates can be buried and preserved within sedimentary strata, providing us with an opportunity to investigate the diverse types of volcanic landforms that were formed in the past [1, 2, 3, 4].
Volcanic morphologies provide information about the primary and secondary processes that formed them [5, 6, 7], and can be used as analogues for understanding buried igneous systems [8, 9]. Our ability to identify buried volcanoes and igneous intrusions emplaced in the shallow (<10 km) layers of the crust has developed immensely over the past four decades in parallel with improvements in the quality and quantity of seismic reflection data. Today, interpretation of seismic reflection datasets indicates that buried volcanoes are characteristic elements of many sedimentary basins globally (e.g. [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]).
Seismic interpretation of buried volcanoes benefits from innovations made in the field of sedimentology, in which seismic datasets have been used to analyse in detail the architecture and stratigraphic signature of terrestrial and marine sedimentary systems [18, 19, 20]. As noted in [21]
Modern seismic reflection datasets allow us to observe the entire architecture of volcanic systems, from the intrusive to the extrusive realms, with resolutions down to tens of metres [25, 26, 27]. In particular, new 3D visualisation methods of igneous seismic geomorphology and analysis of volcanic architectural elements have become valuable tools for interpreting buried volcanoes and their impact on the formation and evolution of the host sedimentary basins. The application of 3D visualisation methods leads for direct comparison of the geomorphic aspects of buried volcanoes with modern and ancient outcropping analogues, allowing us to interpret these buried igneous system in great detail [28, 29]. However, the wide variety of volcanic landforms well-documented in volcanic terrains are still not fully assessed in buried volcanic systems.
This chapter highlights the potential for using seismic geomorphology to improve the interpretation of volcanoes buried in sedimentary basins (Figure 1). Here, we compare the morphologies of outcropping and buried volcanoes from key localities worldwide. Examples shown in this chapter include description and interpretation of small (<1 km3) craters and cones, large (>5 km3) composite, shield and caldera volcanoes, voluminous (>10,000 km3) lava fields, and subvolcanic sheet-like intrusions. The perceived correlation between the morphology of outcropping and buried volcanoes assist the construction of realistic models from subsurface seismic data, laying the foundations for a new discipline of seismic-reflection volcanology. The information presented in this chapter may have value to geoscientists investigating the impacts of igneous activity on sedimentary basins formation and evolution, and on the processes that control the large-scale (>102 m) architecture of volcanic systems on Earth and related planets.
Seismic reflection visualisation of a small cone-shaped volcano buried in the Taranaki Basin, New Zealand. (a) Shows an amplitude display of a seismic reflection profile across the volcano, coupled with time-slice RMS amplitude display of its plumbing system. (b) 3D opacity-rendered perspective view of the volcano shown in (a) and its shallow (<200 m) plumbing system, in which the low-amplitudes are set as transparent. Note the spatial relationship between the saucer-shaped intrusion and the central vent of the volcano. PrES is the pre-eruptive surface and PoES is the post-eruptive surface.
The seismic reflection method is a geophysical technique designed to observe the Earth’s subsurface indirectly. This method is based on the recording of artificially generated seismic waves that travel into the Earth’s geological formations. At the interface of rock bodies with different physical properties, the waves reflect and refract, producing seismic events with wave amplitudes proportional to the contrast in density and velocity of the rocks that bound the interface [30, 31]. Motion- or pressure-sensitive geophones and hydrophones receivers capture the reflected wavefield from the seismic source. A systematic arrangement of the seismic sources and receivers enables the construction of cross-sections that display images of the Earth’s subsurface, with better quality at depths of <10 km [32].
Igneous rocks buried in sedimentary basins are often identified by the presence of anomalously high-amplitude reflections within seismic datasets (Figures 1 and 2). Characteristically, dense lavas of basaltic composition and mafic intrusions have compressional (P-wave) velocities >5000 ms−1, contrasting with softer sedimentary rocks which commonly have velocities <3000 ms−1 [4, 33, 34]. Despite the straight-forward concept underpinning the identification of igneous rocks based on their high-amplitude reflections, seismic techniques have limitations which leads to uncertainties in the interpretations. Such interpretations are dependent on the quality and resolution of seismic data, which are controlled by geophysical parameters such as wavefield scattering due to changes in rock densities and strata geometries, increasing energy attenuation with depth, and the size of the igneous bodies relative to the wavelength of the seismic signal [35, 36].
(a) 2D seismic section across the flank of a polygenetic volcano buried offshore Canterbury Basin, New Zealand. The highest-amplitude seismic reflector in this image marks the interface between the top of the volcanic structure and its overlying sedimentary rocks. (b) Cross-section across an outcropping sequence of lava flows of the Mangahouhounui Fm, Tongariro compound volcano, New Zealand, exposed by erosion. Note that in both seismic and outcropping examples, the relationship between the strata defines a succession of volcanic events bounded by unconformities, across which younger rocks are deposited at the top of the sequence.
Distinguishing buried volcanoes from sedimentary strata can be problematic when the igneous rocks have similar physical properties and geometries as the enclosing host rocks. For example, it may be challenging to differentiate volcanoes from carbonate mounds, or sequences of bedded volcaniclastic and siliciclastic rocks [37, 38]. Secondary alteration processes including mineral changes induced by metasomatism and weathering, cementation, compaction during progressive burial, substitution of interstitial pore fluids, and fracturing can also lower the impedance contrast between igneous and sedimentary rocks [39, 40]. In addition, steeply inclined bodies such as dykes and highly heterogeneous subvolcanic zones are often poorly resolved in seismic reflection datasets. These zones can contain numerous intrusive bodies emplaced with variable geometries and spatial relationships to their host strata, leading to loss of reflection coherency [41].
In light of these limitations, seismic interpretation of buried volcanoes can benefit from a fully integrated approach that includes information from drillhole data analysis and insights from modern volcano analogues [42, 43]. In recent years, particular attention has been given to the interpretation of 3D seismic volumes from which cross-sections can be displayed in any given orientation, allowing the visualisation of complex volcanic forms in great detail [44, 45]. This new integrated seismic method, from 2D regional scale to detailed 3D analysis and correlation with drillhole data and analogues, can provide robust interpretations of volcanoes buried within sedimentary basins.
Interpretation of buried volcanic systems requires a multidisciplinary approach that combines insights from complementary disciplines such as sedimentology, stratigraphy, structural geology, and volcanology into a unified framework. During the last 40 years, our knowledge about the formation and evolution of sedimentary basins has improved mainly due to advances in the fields of seismic and sequence stratigraphy [46, 47, 48]. More recently, these stratigraphic approaches have been successfully applied to interpret the processes and products of igneous activity within sedimentary basins [1, 4].
Seismic-reflection volcanology is here defined as the study of buried volcanoes from seismic reflection datasets. This method is typically applied to investigate the nature and evolution of volcanic and igneous plumbing systems buried in sedimentary strata. Sedimentary basins that contain a significant amount of igneous rocks are informally referred to as “volcanic basins” [49, 50, 51]. The interpretation of volcanic basins usually begins by mapping the top and base of seismic units (sequences) that are potentially of volcanic origin using 2D regional lines. Mappable seismic facies units are then identified by their distinct aspects in, for example, reflection configuration, continuity, geometry, and interval velocity. A volcanological interpretation is then performed to determine the igneous facies and their intrusive and extrusive enclosing environments. If available, 3D datasets are subsequently interpreted to provide detailed images of the past volcanic surfaces and landforms now buried in the host basin, which is further analysed using the method of igneous seismic geomorphology [29] and volcanic architectural elements [52, 53]. Finally, a more accurate volcanological characterisation of buried igneous rocks can be achieved by correlating the seismic units with data from drillholes and outcrop analogues [26].
The methods used to characterise volcanic basins vary between interpreters and are dependent on the available dataset, scale, and purpose of the study. The following sections summarise these methods focusing on the interpretation of the spatio-temporal expression of buried volcanoes and reconstruction of the scenarios in which volcanic events occurred synchronously with basin sedimentation and erosion.
Magma that reaches the Earth’s surface can produce a variety of subaerial and subaqueous volcanic landforms. This diversity of volcanic landforms reflects a range of physical factors such as magma composition, discharge rate of effusion, degree of material fragmentation and dispersion, and tectonic and environment settings, in particular, the presence or absence of water where the eruptions occurred [54, 55, 56, 57]. In detail, the volcanic landforms are likely the product of many competing processes such as steady versus dynamic mechanisms of fragmentation, fixed versus variable location of the eruptive centre, and single versus multiple eruption phases. Multiple variables can complicate the interpretation of the processes that shaped the geomorphic aspects of volcanoes [6], which is especially true for the characterisation of volcanoes buried in sedimentary strata. In addition to volcanic complexity and limitations of subsurface interpretation, the morphology of buried volcanoes is likely influenced by superimposed post-eruptive processes such as erosion, alteration, compaction, and faulting.
To understand the geological processes that shaped ancient volcanic landforms now buried in sedimentary strata, critical parameters such as the interval acoustic velocity, and the amount of degradation and compaction of the buried igneous rocks have to be addressed [25]. The height of buried volcanoes is initially inferred from their present-day morphology (i.e. after erosion and compaction during burial) by multiplying the transit time of seismic waves within the volcano by an estimated acoustic velocity of the volcanic interval [58]. The degree of compaction can be estimated by seismic analysis that indicates differential compaction between the volcanic and hosts rocks [59]. Erosional features such as gullies and canyons are typically visible in seismic imagery and can help to evaluate the degree of preservation of the buried volcanic structure [27]. After determining these variables, the morphology of each buried volcanic edifice is approximated as a 3D geometric shape such as a cone, or a spherical cap to roughly estimate their volume. These estimations are “best-fit” approximations which do not affect the first-order (i.e. dimensions of >102–104 meters) interpretations of volcanic morphologies [60].
To make sense of this seismic morphological information, the interpreter of volcanic basins typically construct volcanostratigraphic frameworks that help to explain the succession of igneous and sedimentary events occurred during the evolution of the basin (Figure 3). The age of the volcanic rocks in the subsurface is commonly determined by correlating seismic isochron horizons with biostratigraphic markers and radiometric dating of rocks penetrated by nearby drillholes. This approach gives time resolution in the order of 0.1 to 5 Myr, assuming that the seismic reflections provide a proxy of timelines [48, 61]. Interpretation of the environment in which the buried volcanoes erupted can be determined by seismic stratigraphic analysis calibrated with paleoenvironmental data obtained from microfossils from drillholes across the studied areas or correlative outcrops [62]. As standard procedure in the analysis of seismic datasets, 2D sections and 3D perspective views are often displayed with vertical exaggeration to enhance the stratal relationship of seismic reflections, which modify the visual geometric aspect of the buried volcanic landforms.
Amplitude display of seismic reflection profiles across the Vøring volcanic rifted margin, offshore Norway (a) and the Romney volcanic field, offshore New Zealand (b). Note that the internal and external configuration of seismic reflections determines the spatial relationship of distinctive seismic units, providing information about the succession of events that have formed these units. Data courtesy of TGS (a) and NZPAM (b).
Seismic volcanostratigraphy is a subset of the seismic stratigraphic method developed to analyse the geological evolution and environments of emplacement of igneous extrusive rocks using seismic reflection datasets [4]. This method consists of two main steps: (1) mapping of the top and base of volcanic sequences, and (2) seismic facies analysis, including characterisation of volcanic and enclosing sedimentary seismic facies units and their volcanological interpretation (Figure 3).
The application of seismic volcanostratigraphy relies on the identification of changes in basin depositional trends, placing stratigraphic boundaries at the contacts between volcanic units that are genetically related [1, 29, 63]. In non-volcanic basins, such trends represent the dispersal and accommodation of material in specific stacking patterns of progradation, retrogradation and aggradation. These depositional trends reflect oscillations of the base level that result in erosion and accumulation of sediments within the basin, which is typically controlled by the balance between variables such as tectonics, eustasy, and climate [64, 65].
Igneous activity can strongly impact the depositional trends of sedimentary basins, which requires adaption when using conventional stratigraphic concepts and nomenclature for stratigraphic interpretation of volcanic sequences (Figure 4). For example, the stratal trends of non-volcanic basins are typically described according to variations in the position of the shoreline through time [66]; while in volcanic systems, the focal point for discussing stratal trends is the eruptive centre [8, 52]. This is because the addition of material sourced by eruptions and isostatic adjustments of the crust caused by magma emplaced in the subsurface can overprint normal basin processes such as sediment supply and the available accommodation space [67, 68]. As a consequence, igneous activity can have a major control on the basis stratal trends, possibly impacting the architecture and evolution of the basin over thousands of square kilometres and for millions of years (Figures 3 and 5).
Simplified representation of the main stratal patterns, volcanic architecture, and depositional settings of cone-shaped volcanoes buried in sedimentary strata. The arrows indicate the patterns of material dispersal in specific stacking patterns of progradation, retrogradation and aggradation. The geometric configuration of strata reflects the interplay between volcanic and sedimentary processes experienced during the evolution of the basin. Note that the eruptive centre is the focal point that determines the spatial relationships between proximal to ultradistal depositional settings, which can be used as a model to predict how volcanic and sedimentary lithofacies may be distributed within and around the volcano. SIS: syn-intrusive surface. PrES: pre-eruptive surface. PoES: post-eruptive surface. PoDS: post-degradational surface. PoBs: post-burial surface. See [
Processes that control the stratigraphic signature and architecture of sedimentary basins impacted by igneous activity. The interplay of competing autogenic (i.e. from within the system) and allogenic (i.e. from outside of the system) mechanisms defines the depositional trends of volcanic basins. Adapted from [
Volcanic activity often causes sudden changes in basin stratal patterns, which make it relatively straight-forward to identify the large-scale unconformities that mark the boundaries of entire volcanic sequences [45]. A typical volcanic sequence initiates with a progradational or aggradational trend marked by truncations and downlaps onto the pre-eruptive surface, and it ends with a retrogradation trend visible by onlap terminations on the top of the post-eruptive surface [4, 52]. Internal unconformities and trends within the volcanic sequence are more subtle than large regional unconformities, and may only be identified in high-quality 3D datasets (Figure 2). The identification of volcanic stratal patterns can be complicated due to rapid and in some cases cyclical switches from constructional to degradational stages of polygenetic volcanoes, making it challenging to map the lateral extension of volcanic unconformities [69, 70].
In some circumstances, the reduced seismic quality below thick volcanic sequences can difficult the identification of the pre-eruptive surface [35]. Similarly, the post-eruptive surface is not always marked by onlap of overlying strata onto a volcanic structure, which depends on the interplay between the rate of material sourced by eruptions versus the rate at which the volcano has been buried by sediments sourced from other parts of the basin [52]. In other words, onlap onto an active volcanic edifice can occur if the rate of burial overcomes the rate and volume of erupted material, which may be expected during the later stages of long-lived volcanoes, especially if the eruptions do not form layers thick enough to be resolved in seismic data (Figures 4 and 5). Additional stratigraphic markers such as the syn-intrusive, post-degradational and post-burial surfaces help to constrain the impacts of igneous activity in the host basin into a spatio-temporal framework [53].
Buried volcanic systems often show distinctive seismic facies units that result from the interaction of igneous activity and its surrounding sedimentary host rocks and environments. Seismic facies analysis consists of mapping of 3D units and 2D profiles whose seismic parameters differ from those of adjacent units [71], followed by a volcanological interpretation of the mapped seismic facies units [3]. Discrete seismic reflection packages often correspond to depositional units that are genetically related and bounded by seismic discontinuities (Figure 2). Variations in igneous seismic facies represent changes in the volcanic processes and environments that enclose the buried volcanoes (Figure 6). These seismic facies units can be interpreted in terms of volcanic eruptions, magma emplacement mechanisms, and sedimentation patterns developed during the evolution of the host sedimentary basin [4, 22, 73].
(a) Amplitude display of a seismic reflection profile across Vulcan composite volcano, offshore Deepwater Taranaki Basin, New Zealand, illustrating a variety of intrusive, extrusive and sedimentary seismic facies. The age and lithofacies and their correspondent seismic facies are calibrated with information from the Romney-1 petroleum exploration well, located 50 km north of Vulcan volcano. Approximate ages of the chronostratigraphic surfaces are shown in the back circles. Note how igneous and limestone rocks tend to form the highest amplitude events in this cross-section. The low reflectivity seismic facies below the volcanic edifice are often present in subvolcanic zones. (b) Pseudo-relief and amplitude displays (c and d) seismic profiles across Vulcan volcano. These seismic attributes highlight the differences between igneous and sedimentary rocks. The increase in the frequency of the seismic signal (10–30 Hz) highlights the internal structure of the volcano. (e) Spectral-decomposition display of a seismic reflection profile across Vulcan volcano illustrating the idealised facies architecture of large polygenetic volcanoes. The schematic facies diagram is adapted from [
Seismic attribute analysis such as coherency, amplitude, frequency, and attenuation (or a combination of these) can be used to enhance the contrasts between variations in the physical properties of the buried igneous rocks units and their enclosing sedimentary strata (Figure 7) [30]. More recently, the use of machine learning techniques and artificial neural networks have been applied to delineate igneous seismic facies [74]. Description of igneous seismic units can be used to interpret volcanic landforms and different parts of volcanic systems. For example, cone-type volcanoes such as cinder cones and stratovolcanoes typically display a pair of inward- and outward-dipping reflections that mark the location of a central crater and peripheral flanks. Optimal characterisation of buried volcanoes can be obtained by analysing the igneous seismic facies as part of a genetically related network in different scales of observation, which consist in mapping intrusive and extrusive igneous seismic units into a unified interpretation framework [29, 52, 73].
Examples of techniques used to recognise igneous rocks buried in sedimentary basis. (a) Amplitude seismic section displaying typical saucer-shape sill and related vents located above the termination of the sill, Bight Basin, southern Australia. From Reynolds et al. [
Seismic geomorphology is the application of analytical techniques to study ancient buried sedimentary systems imaged by 3D seismic data [18, 20, 75]. Similarly, igneous seismic geomorphology analyses the 3D characteristics of buried volcanoes and shallow crustal intrusions from a geomorphological perspective [29]. This technique is based on the extraction of horizons and slices from the seismic volume at scales and geometries comparable to modern volcanic morphologies (Figures 1 and 6). A variety of analytical techniques, such as opacity rendering, spectral decomposition, iso-proportional slicing, and mapping of geobodies can be applied to image the geometric aspects, spatio-temporal distribution and relationship of seismic units [76].
When integrated with seismic and sequence stratigraphy, seismic geomorphology provides background information to interpret the morphology and architecture of buried volcanoes (Figure 7). In outcrop, the morphological characteristics of volcanoes provide insights into past eruptive styles, edifice growth mechanisms, and cone degradation experienced during their complete history [21, 77]. Correlating the morphological aspects of buried and outcropping volcanoes can assist in developing the best possible model for the volcanic emplacement in its surrounding environments, including prediction of lithologies, stratigraphic architecture, and geological processes occurred during their evolution (Figures 6 and 7).
The concept of architectural elements was introduced to sedimentary geology during the 1980s’ and 1990s’ to document the fundamental building blocks of fluvial and deep-water systems [20, 78, 79]. The systematic documentation of the variety and arrangement of architectural elements such as channels, levees, and accretionary bars are critical for the interpretation of buried sedimentary environments, with particular relevance to the 3D interpretation of seismic reflection datasets [80].
An architectural element is defined as a three-dimensional genetically related rock unit characterised by its geometry, facies, composition, scale, and bounding-surfaces, and is the product of a particular process or suite of processes occurring within a depositional system [81]. The architectural elements approach investigates the internal arrangement and external bounding-surfaces that delimit co-genetic lithofacies and seismic units [47]. These elements are typically described at a scale of macroforms (i.e. bedforms with lengths of 102–104 meters), using [82] terminology.
Volcanic landforms including their small-scale variants such as basaltic monogenetic cinder cones and maar-diatreme volcanoes also comprise a combination of particular building blocks with scales comparable to those of sedimentary macroforms. For example, cinder cones typically display a central crater with marginal tephra flanks, while a maar volcano characteristically has a diatreme circled by a tephra ring [6, 83]. Each of these fundamental volcanic building blocks (i.e. architectural elements) are often >100 m in horizontal and vertical dimensions [72], therefore, they may be recognisable in seismic reflection datasets (Figures 6 and 7).
Facies models of modern and ancient outcropping volcanoes show a systematic variation of macroforms and lithofacies, which are typically spatially distributed according to their distance from eruptive centres [21, 67, 84]. Comparing the variety and arrangement of buried architectural elements with volcanic facies models available in the literature helps us to predict the three-dimensional patterns of igneous and sedimentary lithofacies within buried volcanic systems (Figures 4,6 and 7). This information can then be used to assist the interpretation of the geological processes that formed the volcanoes now buried in the subsurface [52, 53].
The majority of melt generated by igneous activity likely fails to reach the Earth’s surface [85]. Within sedimentary basins, magma often forms widespread plumbing networks that can extend laterally for tens of kilometres before it erupts [43]. The movement of magma through the shallow layers of the crust and its interaction with heterogeneous host rocks and faults are primary parameters that constrain the geometries of intrusive bodies and the location of eruptive centres [86, 87, 88].
Volcanic plumbing systems emplaced in sedimentary strata comprise numerous intrusive bodies of various shapes and sizes. These bodies are broadly classified into sheet-like intrusions such as dykes, sills and cone sheets, and more massive equidimensional forms, including laccoliths, plugs, and plutons [24, 89, 90]. Sheet-like intrusions prevail in sedimentary basins because magma tends to propagate through and along with weakness plans of the host strata and faults. Dykes are understood to be the main vertical pathways for magma feeding eruptive centres [91], while sills mostly distribute melts laterally across the basin [92]. This is because, by definition, sills are dominantly parallel with the usual sub-horizontal basin strata (including layers of lava or sedimentary rocks), whilst dykes dominantly cross-cut layering in basin host rocks.
However, magmatic intrusions may extend for tens to hundreds of kilometres [93, 94, 95], limiting our ability to observe their complete geometry exclusively from outcrops. Seismic reflection profiles can provide large scale images (tens to hundreds of km’s) of entire intrusive bodies, allowing us to describe their geometric aspects, lateral and vertical dimension, and interconnectivity in detail (Figure 8). Interpretation of seismic data from volcanic basins has revealed that sills can locally display geometries that are discordant with the host rocks. These discordant sills are described in terms of their geometry in relation to the orientation of the host strata, comprising morphologies such as transgressive, step-wise, and saucer- and v-shaped sills [59, 96]. This improved understanding of the migration of magma through interconnected intrusions demonstrated the critical role of sills in transferring magma from depths to upper layers of the crust, which has been reinforced by observations from laboratory experiments [89, 97].
Seismic examples and outcrop analogues of tabular sills and dykes. (a) Amplitude seismic display across small vents and shallow correlative intrusions of the Maahunui volcanic field, offshore New Zealand [
Numerous sills in sedimentary basins have a saucer-shaped geometry consisting of a flat-lying inner sill connected to outer inclined sheets (Figure 9). Saucer-shaped sills are usually (but not always) identified in 2D seismic lines by a concave-upward high-amplitude reflection located below an anticlinal fold, suggesting that emplacement of the sill uplifted the overlying strata [98]. Reflections displaying onlap terminations on the top of these folds typically indicate the timing of intrusion emplacement [99]. The upper termination of the inclined sheets is often associated with small craters and cones that erupted at the paleosurface, suggesting a relationship between saucer-sills and vent complexes (Figure 6a). The vent complexes can be of both hydrothermal (phreatic) and magmatic origin [58, 59, 60].
Seismic and outcrop examples showing the typical geometry of saucer-shaped intrusions. (a) Envelope display across a saucer-intrusion of Eocene age emplaced in Cretaceous to Paleocene strata of the Deepwater Taranaki Basin, New Zealand. (b) Saucer-intrusion emplaced in sedimentary strata of the Karoo Basin, South Africa. Cross-section (c) and in plain view (d) amplitude display of the intrusion shown in (a). (e) Composite 3D perspective display of an amplitude cross-section and a time-slice of a spectrally decomposed seismic cube across the intrusion in (a). (f) Same view as (e) extracting the seismic geobody that corresponds to the 3D geometry of the intrusion. This hybrid intrusion comprises an inner sill parallel to the sedimentary strata, and peripheral inclined sheets cross-cutting the host strata.
Dykes and other thin (<50 m) sub-vertical intrusions (i.e. conduits) can be inferred using principles from fault interpretation, by the presence of narrow and sub-vertical bright discontinuities associated with disrupted enclosing reflections [52, 100]. The application of this disrupted-reflector criteria for dyke identification is more likely to be accurate if the sub-vertical discontinuities are located below a vent zone or related to flat-lying intrusions. Dike swarms have been interpreted by steeply inclined high-to-moderate amplitude reflections cross-cutting sedimentary strata in offshore Norway [101] and New Zealand (Figure 8a).
Clusters of discrete, small-volume (i.e. <1 km3) craters and cones occur in most tectonic settings around the world. These clusters often contain tens to hundreds of volcanoes associated with rifting (e.g. Assab Volcanic Field, Ethiopia), intraplate volcanism (Newer Volcanic Province, Australia) and subduction zones (Pinacate Volcanic Field, Mexico). Typically, they comprise basaltic monogenetic volcanoes such as scoria cones, tuff rings, maars-diatremes, and hydrothermal vents, although some examples can also be of dacitic, phonolithic, trachytic, and rhyolitic composition [72, 102]. The basaltic fields are commonly derived from mantle melts with minor fractional crystallisation and little crustal assimilation, sourcing low-viscosity magmas that can feed widespread lava-flow fields adjacent to the craters and cones [103]. Clusters of dacitic to rhyolitic lava domes and explosive vents are rare and more commonly erupted as the final events of large silicic caldera-forming cycles, or from their associated fissures systems [104, 105].
The primary morphology of small craters and cones can display simple or complex geometries, which are determined by parameters such as the content of volatiles dissolved in the magma and water-melt interactions in the environment surrounding the eruption [83, 106]. Small mafic volcanoes dominated by a mound- or conical-shaped geometry (i.e. spatter, scoria, and tuff cones) are often constructed by accumulation of fragmental volcanic material (tephra) ejected by relatively low-energy pyroclastic eruptions such as fire-fountaining, Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptive styles (Figure 10a-d). Although each mound-shaped volcano presents characteristic morphometric forms, their simpler end-members all share a systematic distribution of macroforms in relation to the vent zone. This typical macroform distribution comprises of a proximal central crater circled by peripheral flanks that are enclosed by a distal tephra (or lava field) apron [6]. Average sizes of cone-shaped volcanoes are ca 300 m height and 1 km basal width, with spatter cones having the smallest dimensions and tuff cones the largest sizes [72]. By contrast, small volcanoes dominated by a crater-shaped geometry (i.e. tuff rings and maar-diatremes) typically result from phreatomagmatic eruptions (including Surtseyan styles) triggered by molten-fuel-coolant interactions of magma, water, CO2, and thermogenic gases [107, 108]. These volcanoes have craters up to 3 km in width and maximum depth up to 500 m. The distribution of macroforms in a tuff ring consists of a central crater circled by a peripheral ejecta ring and a debris apron [109], while Maar-diatremes display a root zone, a lower unbedded and upper bedded diatreme, an ejecta ring, and an associated debris apron (Figure 10e-h).
Illustrations of the architecture of small-volume cones and craters. (a) Schematic cross-section through a cinder cone adapted from Kereszturi and Németh [
The seismic expression of small craters and cones are comparable to geometries observed in outcropping volcanoes [9, 27]. In seismic cross-sections, mound-shaped volcanoes are inferred from mounds that built-up above a relatively flat pre-eruptive surface. Chaotic or inward-dipping reflections at the centre of the mounds suggest the location of the vent zone, while lateral inclined, parallel, continuous or disrupted outward-dipping reflections indicate the position of the flanks (Figure 10a-d). The mounds may or may not contain peripheral sub-horizontal continuous to discontinuous high-amplitude reflections that represent lava-flow fields and tephra aprons. In contrast, the crater-shaped volcanoes show V-shaped excavations into the pre-eruptive surface. These craters typically contain unbedded, disrupted and chaotic reflections at the base (i.e. lower diatreme), and discontinuous to bedded reflections at the top (upper diatreme). The crater-shaped volcanoes are often circled by moderate to high-amplitude reflections that likely represent material ejected by large pyroclastic eruptions [2, 53].
The deduction of mounds- and crater-shaped seismic anomalies being igneous in origin can be reinforced by the presence of artefacts such as pull-up of seismic velocities (Figure 6a), indicating that rocks within the anomalies have a much higher acoustic velocity than the surrounding strata [25, 35]. In addition, doming of reflectors overlying mound-shaped volcanoes (Figure 8a) is common where volcanic rocks are less compacted than surrounding sedimentary strata [59, 63]. Seismic interpretation shows that clusters of small craters and cones are often located above the tips of saucer-shaped intrusions or associated with high-amplitude reflections emplaced into pre-eruptive strata (Figures 6,8 and 10), which suggest that magma is likely to stall in numerous interconnected batches immediately below volcanic fields [43, 89]. Multiple craters and cones have been interpreted to form hydrothermal vent complexes where shallow intrusions were emplaced within sedimentary strata [59, 110]. If the magma intrudes into organic-rich sedimentary sequences, these vent complexes could release large amounts of greenhouse gases from metamorphic aureoles, potentially triggering global warming events such as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum; PETM [108, 111].
Large (i.e. >5 km3) composite, shield and caldera volcanoes are discrete landforms constructed over tens to millions of years by repeated eruptions at a relatively confined vent site [7]. The most distinctive large volcanoes are cone-shaped stratovolcanoes, overlapping compound edifices, low-profile shield volcanoes, and ring-shaped caldera depressions. Typically formed by polygenetic building mechanisms, these large volcanoes represent end-member variants with a broad spectrum of intermediary elements. The range of morphologies of polygenetic volcanoes can overlap with each other through time, complicating development of empirical models for interpreting the factors controlling their edifice growth mechanisms and evolution [112]. Each of these large volcanic landforms can be constructed from magmas of any known chemical composition and in all known tectonic settings [72].
Conversely, some particular morphologies are more likely to be developed in specific tectonic conditions and under the influence of certain magmas, allowing us to recognise generalities for each volcanic type. For example, andesitic-dacitic composite volcanoes are commonly derived from partial melting of the asthenosphere at subduction zones, often erupting along volcanic arcs such as the Andes in South America and the Cascades in western USA [5]. The viscosity of andesitic-dacitic magmas favours accumulation of lava and tephra near the eruptive site, building composite morphologies such as stratovolcanoes (e.g. Mt. Fuji, Japan) and compound volcanoes (e.g. Mt. Tongariro, New Zealand). Stratovolcanoes display large (ca 2 km high and 15 km wide) steep-sided (up to 30° slopes) flanks located next to a relatively stationary central vent (Figure 11). Whereas, compound volcanoes are formed by several overlapping edifices that together shape a distinctive massif of volcanic rocks separated from other adjacent volcanoes (Figure 12). Both strato- and compound volcanoes typically comprise accumulations of interbedded lava-flows, pyroclastic material and reworked volcanic debris [113]. Primary volcanic and epiclastic accumulations follow a proximal-distal facies pattern in which thick, amalgamated and coarser-grained layers are deposited close to the vent zone, while thin, tabular and fine-grained facies accumulate distally to the vent (Figure 7). The overall architecture of a composite volcano comprises a central vent zone and overlapping flanks circled by a radial ring-plain deposited around an individual edifice or a group of edifices. In addition, the flanks of composite volcanoes often contain small parasitic cinder cones and lava domes [114].
Seismic and outcrop examples of large (>5 km3) composite volcanos. This type of volcanic landform typically constitutes a single cone-shaped body with a central vent located at or near the summit of the volcano. (a and b) 3D perspective of a rendered amplitude seismic cube across the Kora volcano, New Zealand. (c and d) View of the north flank of the Taranaki volcano, New Zealand. Note the disrupted and channelised geometry of proximal deposits, while distal deposits typically are lobate and more continuous. In (b), the high-amplitude reflections (red) are discontinuous and disrupted, which likely reflect multiple depositional and erosional events, such as observed to form at the flanks of Taranaki volcano (d). (e) Oblique 3D view of the intrusive and extrusive parts of the Kora volcano. The edifice is highlighted by an opacity rendered amplitude cube, while the plumbing system was mapped as numerous interconnected geobodies. (f) Amplitude display of a seismic section across the Kora volcano.
Seismic and outcrop examples of large (>5 km3) compound volcanoes. Several overlapping vents which are typically randomly distributed characterise this type of volcanic landform. (a) An aerial view of the southern sector of the Tongariro compound volcano with the Ruapehu stratovolcano in the background. (b) Plain view over a rendered amplitude seismic cube showing the location of three main vents within the Parihaka compound volcano, New Zealand. (c) Amplitude display of a seismic section across the Parihaka volcanoes. Note the overlapping flanks of the main vents. (d) Photograph from the summit of the Ngauruhoe volcano showing a detailed view of the Red Crater, Blue Lake Crater and overlapping lavas of the Mangahouhounui Fm, Tongariro compound volcano. (e) Detail of the amplitude display of a seismic section shown in (c). Note the overlapping reflections on the flanks of the vents.
Shield volcanoes are typical products of low viscosity basaltic lavas erupted at intraplate hotspots, generally associated with extensional settings such as the Hawaiian volcanoes [115]. However, shield volcanoes are also commonly found along intracontinental rifts (e. g. Dama Ali, eastern Ethiopia) and subduction-related volcanic arcs (e.g. Payun Matru, Argentina). Basaltic shield volcanoes consist of a central summit vent (which may or may not include a caldera), enclosed by low-angle (<10° slopes) peripheral flanks, and a flat lava apron that can extend tens of km’s from the vent [116]. Parasitic vents commonly erupt on the flanks of shield volcanoes, often forming rows of spatter and scoria cones aligned with normal faults (Figure 13). In addition, oceanic and paralic shield volcanoes are likely to contain a hyaloclastite apron and associated lava-deltas, in which interaction between lava and seawater may trigger hydrovolcanic explosions that can produce large amounts of fragmented material [117].
Seismic and outcrop examples of shield volcanoes with a central caldera. (a) Photograph of the northern flank of the Payun Matru Volcano, Argentina. (b) Amplitude display of a seismic section across the Barque volcano, offshore Canterbury Basin, New Zealand (Modified from [
Large polygenetic volcanoes have been interpreted from seismic reflection datasets since the 1980s’ in many sedimentary basins globally. Similar to their smaller cone and crater equivalents (Section 4.2), the reflection configuration within and around large buried volcanoes may make it possible to interpret their broad architecture and genesis. Buried composite and shield volcanoes typically resemble small mound- and cone-shaped vents (Figures 10–13). Therefore, their architecture comprises chaotic and inward-dipping reflections at the vent zone, continuous to discontinuous reflections at the flanks, and a wide, almost flat ring plain evident by high-to-moderated amplitude reflections that pinch and fade with increasing distance from the main volcanic body [1, 63]. Parasitic and satellite vents are often described on the flanks of these large buried volcanoes, typically located above pre-existing structures of the basement or at radial normal faults [52]. Interpretation of seismic reflection datasets suggests that the shallow (<5 km) plumbing system of large polygenetic volcanoes comprises a myriad of interconnected intrusive bodies, mainly aligned with crustal structures, markedly contrasting with the classic “balloon-and-straw” model [24, 28, 118].
Caldera-forming volcanoes are commonly associated with subsidence and collapse of the roof of magma chambers due to partial withdrawal of magma during voluminous and short-lived eruptions [119]. Characteristic caldera volcanoes are silicic in composition and produced by ultra-Plinian eruptions, often developing in association with rifted arcs such as the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand [120, 121]. However, smaller pyroclastic and non-explosive calderas of more mafic compositions often form within the central vent zone of composite and shield volcanoes [122]. Caldera volcanoes have a variety of geometries and structures mainly defined by mechanisms of pyroclastic material dispersal, caldera collapse, and dome resurgence [123]. The general architecture of large silicic calderas comprises a central depression of 1–2 km depth surrounded by lateral by an ignimbrite plateau or steepen flanks of pyroclastic and lava material, which can cover areas of >3000 km2 [72]. The central depression is often bounded by ring faults and hosts thick sequences of intra-caldera pyroclastic deposits, late-stage andesitic-rhyolitic lava-flows and domes, lacustrine sediments and debris. Caldera volcanoes may or may not produce a post-eruptive resurgent dome, a consequence of intra-caldera uplift from a renewed rise of magma into the chamber(s), such as documented from the Toba Volcano, Indonesia, and Yellowstone, USA [124].
Interpretation of buried caldera volcanoes from seismic data is scarce, and to our knowledge, only documented in two places offshore New Zealand [28]. Barque volcano, offshore Canterbury Basin, is potentially a large (ca 20 km wide) shield volcano with a central caldera (Figure 13). Hades caldera, in the Deepwater Taranaki, has a semi-circular structure 10 km across with a central depression 3.5 km wide and 1 km deep bounded by ring faults, likely formed by pyroclastic mechanisms of material fragmentation and dispersion (Figure 14). Both examples show no evidence of a single large batch of magma sited beneath the caldera. Rather, multiple interconnected intrusions, including saucer-shaped sills and tabular bodies aligned with pre-and syn-rift faults more likely describe their magma plumbing systems (Figures 13 and 14).
Seismic and outcrop examples of shield volcanoes with a central caldera. (a) Uninterpreted and (b) interpreted amplitude display of a seismic section across the Hades caldera, offshore Deepwater Taranaki Basin, New Zealand (Modified from [
Eruptions of voluminous (i.e. >10,000 km3) lava fields are commonly associated with continental break-up and upwelling of mantle plumes that form Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs). Characteristically, LIPs comprise extensive flood basalt plateaus derived from decompression melting of the mantle, but more differentiated alkalic, tholeiitic, and silicic rocks can also occur as lavas, pyroclastic, and intrusive bodies [125]. LIPs constitute the most extensive volcanic landscapes on Earth, including regional-scale igneous-dominated structures such as continental flood basalts, volcanic rifted margins, oceanic plateaus, submarine ridges, seamount chains, and ocean-basin flood basalts [126]. The voluminous lava fields often erupt at both continental (e.g. Siberian Traps, Asia) and oceanic crust (e.g. Ontong Java Plateau, Pacific Ocean), as well as at divergent plate boundaries such as the South Atlantic Margins [127].
The broad architecture of LIPs consists of stacks of sub-horizontal sheets of lava flows up to ca 10 km thick underlying by networks of subvolcanic sills and dykes [51, 128]. The extrusive part of LIPs is interpreted to be mainly fed by repeated voluminous eruptions sourced from scattered fissure vents and shield volcanoes, in which the entire volcanic pile is typically constructed in relatively short time spans (<1 Myr). Individual flows can reach volumes as much as 1000 km3 and extend for hundreds of kilometres from the vent site, such as described in the Columbia River Plateau and the Deccan Traps [72]. The Laki eruption in Iceland, for example, is one of the largest documented historical lava flows. It covered an area of near 600 km2 of southern Iceland in the 1780s, with an estimated discharge of almost 15 km3 of lava from a 27 km long fissure vent system consisting of scoria, spatter, and tuff cones [129].
Most voluminous lava fields are interbedded with sedimentary basins formed by crustal extension, rifting, and continental drifting [130]. Volcanic rift margins have been the most intensively studied LIPs from seismic reflection datasets (Figure 15). Over the past 40 years, interpretation of enormous amounts of seismic data along the boundaries of the Atlantic, Western Australian, and Southern Indian continental crusts showed that rift margins typically comprise a set of characteristic volcanic seismic facies units [4, 11, 131]. These seismic facies units represent interactions between volcanism and sedimentation, and their interpretation informs the construction of models for the initiation and evolution of volcanic rift margins [26]. The typical volcanic rift margin sequence initiates with aggradation of peperites, hydrobreccias, and pillow-lavas where magma interacts with water and wet sediments, while subaerial lava-flows can develop at the basin margins and on topographic highs [132]. Continued aggradation and progradation of igneous material favours more effusive and subaerial volcanism, in which eruptions tend to form extensive sheets of stacked lava-flow deposits [34]. If the lava-flows stretch an existing shoreline, a prograding lava-delta comprising of hyaloclastic and epiclastic material can be developed [133]. Subsequently, these volcanic deposits may be exposed to erosional conditions, forming escarpments surfaces, slumps, and volcaniclastic gravity flow deposits triggered by degradation of the volcanic sequence [134].
Seismic and outcrop examples of volcanic rift margins and lava-fields. (a) Amplitude display of a seismic section across the Kolga Lava Delta, offshore Norway, showing the characteristic wedge of progradational deltas (From [
A recent seismic geomorphological study used a 2500 km2 high-quality 3D seismic survey to image the top-basalt horizon of the Vøring Marginal High, offshore Norway [29]. Interpretation of this seismic horizon revealed a series of volcanic macroforms such as lava-flows with compressional ridges and braided lava-channels with similar structure and size of morphologies described in modern subaerial lava fields (Figure 15). In addition, the Vøring Marginal High 3D data showed numerous pitted and irregular lava surfaces next to smooth sheet-like reflections with geometry comparable to fields of small cone and crater volcanoes and their associated peripheral lava flows. These pitted seismic features are interpreted to correspond to places where magma was emplaced into wet sediments or water [29]. Debris flows deposits along with large slumped blocks are well imaged at the top of the Vøring Escarpment, revealing a volcanic morphology influenced by erosion and degradation of pre-existing voluminous lava fields (Figure 15).
Interpretation of 2D and 3D seismic reflection datasets provides valuable insights into the morphology and stratigraphic signature of entire igneous systems buried in sedimentary basins. The application of 3D seismic visualisation methods offers a unique opportunity for direct comparison of the geomorphic aspects of buried and outcropping volcanoes, with resolutions down to tens of metres.
Buried volcanic systems comprise a network of intrusive, eruptive, and sedimentary architectural elements with length scales of 102–104 meters that are recognisable from both seismic and outcrop analyses. These architectural elements often show a spatial and temporal distribution controlled by their distance from eruptive centres. The geometry and internal arrangement of facies within these elements reflect a range of physical factors including, magma composition, effusion discharge rate, degree of material fragmentation, and the presence or absence of water at the eruption vent. Many, if not most, volcanic systems are underlain by shallow (<5 km) interconnected networks of sills, saucer-sills, laccoliths, dykes, and hybrid intrusions that often align with pre-existing crustal structures or contemporaneous faults.
Description and interpretation of seismic reflection surveys together with their outcropping volcano analogues from key localities worldwide suggest three main geomorphic categories of buried volcanoes. These categories are (1) clusters of small-volume (<1 km3) craters and cones, including maar-diatremes, tuff rings, spatter cones, scoria cones, tuff cones, and hydrothermal vent complexes, (2) large (>5 km3) composite, shield and caldera volcanoes, and (3) voluminous lava fields (>10,000 km3). This classification of buried volcanoes is based on their geometry, size, and spatio-temporal distribution of eruptive centres, and is independent of parameters such as magma composition, tectonic setting, or environment where the eruption occurred. Classifying the buried volcanoes into geomorphic categories helps us to understand the processes that link their endogenous and exogenous realms, providing insights into the architecture, edifice growth mechanisms and longevity of igneous systems buried in sedimentary basins.
The modern methods of seismic interpretation, from 2D regional scale to detailed 3D analysis, can provide an accurate understanding of the geological processes that formed the volcanoes now buried in the subsurface. Realistic models for the facies distribution and architecture of buried volcanoes can be constrained by their geomorphic similarities to outcropping volcanoes, establishing the principles for the new discipline of seismic-reflection volcanology.
We would like to thank the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE) of New Zealand and TGS for access to seismic and well data, and IHS Markit and Schlumberger for providing academic licence to use Kingdom and Petrel software. AB thanks funding from the MBIE research grant UOCX1707. SP acknowledges support from the Norwegian Research Council Centres of Excellence funding scheme (CEED; project number 223272). We appreciate the constructive reviews of Ray Cas and Jim Cole, and the contribution of Jessica Fensom in proof-reading and discussing the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Journal Article:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Article who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author. Co-Author: All other Authors of the Article besides the Corresponding Author. IntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Journal.
\n\nJournal: The publication as a collection of Articles compiled by IntechOpen .
\n\nArticle: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to publish, communicate to the public, reproduce, republish, transmit, sell, distribute and otherwise use and make available the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works, in electronic and print editions of the Publication and in derivative works and on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen, throughout the world, in all languages, and in all media and formats now known or later developed.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to create and store electronic archival copies of the Article, including the right to deposit the Article in open access digital repositories.
\n\n• An irrevocable, worldwide, royalty-free, perpetual, transferable, sublicensable, non-exclusive right to license others to reproduce, translate, republish, transmit and distribute the Article in whole, partial or adapted from and/or incorporated in or in conjunction with other works under the condition that the Corresponding Author and each Co-Author is attributed (currently this is carried out by publishing the Article under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence).
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Article but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Article as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world. The Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Article and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Article.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Article as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Article arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Journal in which the Article has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re publishing the Article.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Article, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\n• Comply with all instructions and guidelines provided by IntechOpen;
\n\n• Produce the Article with all due skill, care and diligence, and in accordance with good scientific practice;
\n\n• Submit all the corrections in due time as defined during the publishing process schedule.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Article Processing Charge.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Article worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Article does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Article contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Article is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Article has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a Journal or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication
\n\nAgreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Article to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Article was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Article on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Article attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Article and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Article is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Article,
\n\nIntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1354",title:"Wastewater Engineering",slug:"technology-environmental-engineering-wastewater-engineering",parent:{id:"287",title:"Environmental 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by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:10,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"66882",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85919",title:"World’s Demand for Food and Water: The Consequences of Climate Change",slug:"world-s-demand-for-food-and-water-the-consequences-of-climate-change",totalDownloads:2125,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"This study focused on analysis of global food demand and supply situation by 2030 and 2050, water demand-availability, impact of climate change on world water resource, food security and desalination challenges and development opportunities. The population of the world will be 8.6 billion in 2030 and 9.8 billion in 2050; Africa will be the major contributor. World cereal equivalent (CE) food demand is projected to be around 10,094 million tons in 2030 and 14,886 million tons in 2050, while its production is projected to be 10,120 million tons in 2030 and 15,970 million tons in 2050 having a marginal surplus. India and China are capturing large share of global food demand. The developing country will demand more animal origin foods due to income growth in the future. The growth rate of world demand for cereals will decline till 2050. Global water demand is projected to increase by 55% between 2000 and 2050 from 3500 to 5425 km3. Evidence showed that climate change will have adverse impact on world water resources and food production with high degree of regional variability and scarcity. A number of options are suggested for development of global water resource and food production.",book:{id:"7645",slug:"desalination-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Sheikh Mohammad Fakhrul Islam and Zahurul Karim",authors:[{id:"288119",title:"Prof.",name:"S.M. Fakhrul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"s.m.-fakhrul-islam",fullName:"S.M. Fakhrul Islam"},{id:"288121",title:"Prof.",name:"Zahurul",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"zahurul-karim",fullName:"Zahurul Karim"}]},{id:"60850",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76624",title:"Wastewater Treatment Using Membrane Technology",slug:"wastewater-treatment-using-membrane-technology",totalDownloads:2957,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Water contamination by heavy metals, cyanides and dyes is increasing globally and needs to be addressed as this will lead to water scarcity as well as water quality. Different techniques have been used to clean and renew water for human consumption and agricultural purposes but they each have limitations. Among those techniques, membrane technology is promising to solve the issues. Nanotechnology present a great potential in wastewater treatment to improve treatment efficiency of wastewater treatment plants. In addition, nanotechnology supplement water supply through safe use of modern water sources. This chapter reviews recent development in membrane technology for wastewater treatment. Different types of membrane technologies, their properties, mechanisms advantages, limitations and promising solutions have been discussed.",book:{id:"6539",slug:"wastewater-and-water-quality",title:"Wastewater and Water Quality",fullTitle:"Wastewater and Water Quality"},signatures:"Azile Nqombolo, Anele Mpupa, Richard M. Moutloali and Philiswa\nN. Nomngongo",authors:[{id:"191669",title:"Dr.",name:"Philiswa",middleName:null,surname:"Nomngongo",slug:"philiswa-nomngongo",fullName:"Philiswa Nomngongo"}]},{id:"70242",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90256",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1870,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Fenton is considered to be one of the most effective advanced treatment processes in the removal of many hazardous organic pollutants from refractory/toxic wastewater. It has many advantages, but drawbacks are significant such as a strong acid environment, the cost of reagents consumption, and the large production of ferric sludge, which limits Fenton’s further application. The development of Fenton applications is mainly achieved by improving oxidation efficiency and reducing sludge production. This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]},{id:"67689",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86952",title:"Membrane Distillation: Basics, Advances, and Applications",slug:"membrane-distillation-basics-advances-and-applications",totalDownloads:1435,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Membrane technology as an emerging separation process has become competitive with other separation techniques in recent decades. Among pressure-driven and isothermal membrane processes, membrane distillation (MD) as a thermally driven process has come out to put an end to hardships of such processes like distillation. MD process can be used in a wide variety of applications such as desalination and wastewater treatment. Generally, MD is a process which water is a main component of the feed solution and only water vapor can pass through a hydrophobic membrane pores. With four main configurations different from each other by their condensation procedure, the performance of MD process is limited due to the lack of appropriate module, membrane, and energy consumption rate. In recent years, many experiments have been carried out to find well-suited membrane type and module. Also, applying solar or waste heat as heat source and the capability of coupling with other processes like forward osmosis and osmotic distillation distinguish MD process from other membrane processes. This chapter addresses membrane characteristics, MD applications, transport mechanisms, and process challenges.",book:{id:"8915",slug:"advances-in-membrane-technologies",title:"Advances in Membrane Technologies",fullTitle:"Advances in Membrane Technologies"},signatures:"Mohammad Reza Shirzad Kebria and Ahmad Rahimpour",authors:[{id:"289042",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimpour",slug:"ahmad-rahimpour",fullName:"Ahmad Rahimpour"},{id:"289043",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Shirzad Kebria",slug:"mohammad-reza-shirzad-kebria",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Shirzad Kebria"}]},{id:"70086",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90192",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes: A Powerful Treatment Option for the Removal of Recalcitrant Organic Compounds",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-a-powerful-treatment-option-for-the-removal-of-recalcitrant-organic-com",totalDownloads:1602,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are the technologies that generally use the hydroxyl radicals, the ultimate oxidant for the remediation of organic contaminants in wastewater. These are highly effective novel methods speeding up the oxidation process. AOP can combine with ozone (O3), catalyst, or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation to offer a powerful treatment of wastewater. Future research should be focused on enhancing the properties of heterogeneous catalysts in AOPs. This chapter reports general review of different AOPs utilized for the removal of various phenolic compounds and textile dyes in wastewater. The chapter also aimed at an investigation of efficiency for different photochemical AOPs. The authors have carried out the experimental runs at a laboratory scale for the removal of malachite green oxalate (MGO) dye with photochemical AOPs. The influence of ferrous ions and oxidant dosage on percentage decolorization of MGO in wastewater has been reported. The discussion extends to the utilization of different modified photocatalysts for the photocatalysis process. The future challenges, such as the adoption of strategies for the integration of processes and the decrement in operational cost of AOPs, are discussed. The discussion covers the utilization of different heterogeneous catalysts, the reduction of input demands of chemicals and energy for the processes.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Damodhar Ghime and Prabir Ghosh",authors:[{id:"251470",title:"Dr.",name:"Prabir",middleName:null,surname:"Ghosh",slug:"prabir-ghosh",fullName:"Prabir Ghosh"},{id:"312650",title:"Mr.",name:"Damodhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ghime",slug:"damodhar-ghime",fullName:"Damodhar Ghime"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70242",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1873,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"Fenton is considered to be one of the most effective advanced treatment processes in the removal of many hazardous organic pollutants from refractory/toxic wastewater. It has many advantages, but drawbacks are significant such as a strong acid environment, the cost of reagents consumption, and the large production of ferric sludge, which limits Fenton’s further application. The development of Fenton applications is mainly achieved by improving oxidation efficiency and reducing sludge production. This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]},{id:"71660",title:"Applications of Chemical Kinetics in Heterogeneous Catalysis",slug:"applications-of-chemical-kinetics-in-heterogeneous-catalysis",totalDownloads:1104,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Chemical kinetics is a key subdiscipline of physical chemistry that studies the reaction rate in every elemental step and corresponding catalytic mechanism. It mainly concludes molecular reaction dynamics, catalytic dynamics, elemental reaction dynamics, macrodynamics, and microdynamics. Such a research field has wide applications in heterogeneous catalysis. Based on the Arrhenius plot fitted by the catalytic conversions below 15% without the mass transfer effect and heat transfer effect, the apparent activation energy echoing with the intrinsically catalytic sites and the pre-exponential factor echoing with the relative number of active sites can be, respectively, derived from the slope and intercept of the Arrhenius plots, which can be used to compare the intrinsically catalytic activity of different catalysts and the relative amount of active sites. Reaction orders of both reactants and products are derived from the reaction rate equation and also fitted by the catalytic conversions below 15% without the mass transfer effect and heat transfer effect. According to the acquired reaction orders, the reaction mechanism can be proposed and even defined in some simple reactions. Therefore, investigations of chemical kinetics are of extreme importance and meaning in heterogeneous catalysis.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Zhenhua Zhang, Li-Ping Fan and Yue-Juan Wang",authors:[{id:"312555",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenhua",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"zhenhua-zhang",fullName:"Zhenhua Zhang"},{id:"316868",title:"Ms.",name:"Li-Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"li-ping-fan",fullName:"Li-Ping Fan"},{id:"316869",title:"Prof.",name:"Yue-Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yue-juan-wang",fullName:"Yue-Juan Wang"}]},{id:"77416",title:"Application of Water Quality Index for the Assessment of Water from Different Sources in Nigeria",slug:"application-of-water-quality-index-for-the-assessment-of-water-from-different-sources-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:517,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Water quality index (WQI) provides a single number that expresses the overall water quality, at a certain location and time, based on several water quality parameters. The objective of WQI is to turn complex water quality data into information that is understandable and usable by the public. A number of indices have been developed to summarize water quality data in an easily expressible and easily understood format. The WQI is basically a mathematical means of calculating a single value from multiple test results. This chapter discusses, in detail, the application of a water quality index for the assessment of water quality to different several water sources in Nigeria.",book:{id:"9921",slug:"promising-techniques-for-wastewater-treatment-and-water-quality-assessment",title:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment",fullTitle:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment"},signatures:"Ruth Olubukola Ajoke Adelagun, Emmanuel Edet Etim and Oko Emmanuel Godwin",authors:[{id:"256167",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Edet Etim",slug:"emmanuel-edet-etim",fullName:"Emmanuel Edet Etim"},{id:"345734",title:"Mr.",name:"Oko",middleName:null,surname:"Emmanuel Godwin",slug:"oko-emmanuel-godwin",fullName:"Oko Emmanuel Godwin"},{id:"345735",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",middleName:null,surname:"Olubukola Ajoke Adelagun",slug:"ruth-olubukola-ajoke-adelagun",fullName:"Ruth Olubukola Ajoke Adelagun"}]},{id:"71348",title:"Water Treatment and Desalination",slug:"water-treatment-and-desalination",totalDownloads:1049,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Water covers a large area of the earth that reaches about three quarters of the surface of this planet, but we cannot say that all of this water is fresh or drinkable; according to many statistics, the percentage of fresh water reaches about 1% of the total water on earth. But with the great need for fresh water, whether for drinking or other purposes such as agriculture, the search for water treatment methods has become much larger. One of the most important of these methods that have been developed is desalination of seawater using desalination plants; therefore, we will address here the most important methods used in desalination and water treatment.",book:{id:"7645",slug:"desalination-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Mona M. Amin Abdel-Fatah and Ghada Ahmed Al Bazedi",authors:[{id:"286268",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mona",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Fatah",slug:"mona-abdel-fatah",fullName:"Mona Abdel-Fatah"},{id:"295973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Basedi",slug:"ghada-al-basedi",fullName:"Ghada Al-Basedi"}]},{id:"73429",title:"Emerging Trends in Wastewater Treatment Technologies: The Current Perspective",slug:"emerging-trends-in-wastewater-treatment-technologies-the-current-perspective",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The quality of freshwater and its supply, particularly for domestic and industrial purposes are waning due to urbanization and inefficient conventional wastewater treatment (WWT) processes. For decades, conventional WWT processes have succeeded to some extent in treating effluents to meet standard discharge requirements. However, improvements in WWT are necessary to render treated wastewater for re-use in the industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors. Three emerging technologies including membrane technology, microbial fuel cells and microalgae, as well as WWT strategies are discussed in this chapter. These applications are a promising alternative for manifold WWT processes and distribution systems in mitigating contaminants to meet acceptable limitations. The basic principles, types and applications, merits, and demerits of the aforementioned technologies are addressed in relation to their current limitations and future research needs. The development in WWT blueprints will augment the application of these emerging technologies for sustainable management and water conservation, with re-use strategies.",book:{id:"9921",slug:"promising-techniques-for-wastewater-treatment-and-water-quality-assessment",title:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment",fullTitle:"Promising Techniques for Wastewater Treatment and Water Quality Assessment"},signatures:"Edward Kwaku Armah, Maggie Chetty, Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji, Donald Tyoker Kukwa, Boldwin Mutsvene, Khaya Pearlman Shabangu and Babatunde Femi Bakare",authors:[{id:"237732",title:"Dr.",name:"Babatunde",middleName:"Femi",surname:"Bakare",slug:"babatunde-bakare",fullName:"Babatunde Bakare"},{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",middleName:"Manimagalay",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"323336",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald Tyoker",middleName:null,surname:"Kukwa",slug:"donald-tyoker-kukwa",fullName:"Donald Tyoker Kukwa"},{id:"324641",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Kwaku",middleName:null,surname:"Armah",slug:"edward-kwaku-armah",fullName:"Edward Kwaku Armah"},{id:"326294",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeremiah Adebisi",middleName:null,surname:"Adedeji",slug:"jeremiah-adebisi-adedeji",fullName:"Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji"},{id:"326593",title:"Mr.",name:"Boldwin",middleName:null,surname:"Mutsvene",slug:"boldwin-mutsvene",fullName:"Boldwin Mutsvene"},{id:"326594",title:"Mr.",name:"Khaya Pearlman",middleName:null,surname:"Shabangu",slug:"khaya-pearlman-shabangu",fullName:"Khaya Pearlman Shabangu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1354",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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