--\x3e of full-height wall segments and inversely proportional to the openings height;
\n
From Eqs. (1) and (2), the ratio between PA and PB is equal to the ratio between αA and αB:
\n
PAPB=αAαBE4
\n
The beams above and below the opening contribute in transferring load;
All the panels have the same height and similar openings.
\n
[PA⋅(hALA−hAbA)]:bA=[PB⋅(hBLB−hBbB)]:bBE5
PAPB=bAbB⋅hB(LB−bB)hA(LA−bA)E6
\n
Therefore, the following analytical formulation is proposed:\nwhere b and h are, respectively, the width and the height of the openings, while L is the width of the panel (Figure 9). P is the maximum shear strength attained by each panel during the experimental tests with the exception of panel D, whose value is not the one given by the experiment but the one corresponding to a deformation of 30 mm that, looking at the P-δ curve (Figure 8), and comparing its behaviour with the other three panels, seems more reliable.
\n
Figure 9.
Symbols for the formulation of the ultimate strength in the analytical model.
\n
The geometrical dimensions for the tested panels are reported in Table 3. Table 4 shows the application of the proposed analytical expression for the four panels that have been tested in Tsukuba. The ratio between the ultimate strength of two panels determined during the experimental session is compared with the value obtained by comparing the geometrical conditions.
\n
\n\n
\n
Specimen
\n
P (kN)
\n
L (m)
\n
b (m)
\n
h (m)
\n
\n
\n\n\n
\n
One opening
\n
1S4-A
\n
112.42
\n
4
\n
2
\n
2.2
\n
\n
\n
1S4-B
\n
167.90
\n
4
\n
2
\n
1.4
\n
\n
\n
Two openings
\n
1S6-C
\n
160.64
\n
6
\n
3.6
\n
2.2
\n
\n
\n
1S6-D
\n
272.05
\n
6
\n
3.6
\n
1.4
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Mechanical and geometric data for each tested panel.
Application of the proposed formulation and errors between the analytical values and the experimental value.
\n
The error given by the analytical value never exceeds 8%, showing therefore that the mathematical formulation can predict fairly closely the ultimate strength of panels with the same geometry, characteristics and boundary conditions. However, it must be noted that this relationship gives acceptable results when panels are similar. If configuration of the openings or dimensions of the compared panels such as height and thickness change and, for example, the openings are not symmetrical, the proposed equation is too simple and it will not lead to reliable results.
\n
Moreover, no tests on no-fenestrated panels have been conducted, so it was not possible to compare the results with a common value Pf. Thus, the analytical formulation can be used only if the ultimate strength of one of two panels is already known and the panels have the same height. The mathematical model proposed in this paragraph is based on rough calculations and is therefore very approximate; however, it can be interpreted as a way to provide first information about the tendency of the reduction of racking strength of CLT shear walls with openings.
\n\n
\n
4. Finite element model
\n
\n
4.1. Description and mechanical parameters
\n
The tested panels were modelled in SAP2000 by using a two-dimensional (2D) schematization with “Shell-Layered/Nonlinear” model [16]. The material properties adopted in the finite element model are listed in Table 5.
\n\n
\n
Modulus of elasticity—lower value (N/mm2)
\n
Elow
\n
4200
\n
\n\n\n
\n
MOE—average value (N/mm2)
\n
Eav
\n
5200
\n
\n
\n
Maximum bending strength (N/mm2)
\n
σb
\n
11,6
\n
\n
\n
Modulus of elasticity—outer layers (N/mm20)
\n
E1 = E3 = Eh
\n
173.33
\n
\n
\n
Modulus of elasticity—inner layer (N/mm2)
\n
E2 = Ev
\n
5200
\n
\n
\n
Rolling shear modulus (N/mm2)
\n
G12 = G23
\n
100
\n
\n
\n
Longitudinal shear modulus (N/mm2)
\n
G13
\n
400
\n
\n
\n
Tensile strength—minimum value (N/mm2)
\n
6.1.1. σt
\n
12
\n
\n
\n
Tensile strength—average value (N/mm2)
\n
σt
\n
16
\n
\n
\n
Density (kg/m3)
\n
ρ
\n
439
\n
\n
\n
Poisson’s coefficients
\n
ν
\n
0.35
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Material properties adopted in the finite element model.
\n
Under lateral loads, the connectors exhibit two different mechanisms of deformation. In the vertical direction, the anchors are subjected to tension, while in the horizontal one they experience shear deformation. These two deformation mechanisms are incorporated into the model by using individual springs for each of it, which act in unison. To find the stiffness and ultimate strength, tests on single-anchor elements should be conducted. In the present case, only the tensile connector (UT) has been previously subjected to monotonic load tests to correctly define its behaviour when subjected to tension.
\n
The stiffness, strength and ductility of the steel connections are determined according to the Yasumura and Kawai procedure [17]. This procedure was initially proposed for the evaluation of wood-framed shear walls. The ultimate strength Pu is calculated so that the equivalence of the deformation energies is achieved by assuming an elasto-plastic load-displacement curve. Figure 10 shows the definition of the bilinear curve that schematizes the behaviour of the tensile connectors. The contact—valid for tensile connectors—has been explicitly modelled using a set of compression-only springs identified at each point of the boundary mesh. For simulating the presence of the steel foundation, nodes with centre-to-centre distance of 10 cm have been generated at the base of the wall and all the degrees of freedom have been constrained. In the wall-to-floor contact, zero-length multilinear springs connect the nodes of the wall panel to the floor nodes. The compression-only springs are stiff in compression, and allow free movements away from it when subjected to tension. These springs are distributed along the contact between the wall and the floor. The friction between the steel beam foundation and the timber wall element is described by using spring elements with symmetrical and rigid-plastic behaviour placed along the whole length of the lower edge of the panel between the foundation nodes and the panel. The sliding resistance is described by the following equation:
\n
Ff=kf⋅FNE7
\n
where FN is the axial force at the current analysis step, kf the static friction coefficient and Ff is the static friction force. The friction coefficient between the rough concrete and the CLT wooden surface was estimated as equal to 0.7 instead of the usual value of 0.4 used for two pieces of timber. In a proper schematization of the panel, the friction force should be calculated for each node taking into account the effective axial force that lies on each spring. Springs are stiff until the shear flow in the contact zone does not attain the estimated friction force. After this stage, friction springs have constant load-bearing capacity and resist sliding of panel in combination with non-linear springs that represent shear connectors.
Figure 10.
Definition of the bilinear curve (kN-mm) determined according to the Yasumura and Kawai procedure [17].
\n
A pushover analysis was performed with a control of imposed displacement.
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Results from finite element modelling
\n
Confirming the experimental observation, the break occurs in the inner-cross layer due to the maximum tension attained in the corner of the opening of panel A (Figure 11). The maximum strength of 12 MPa is attained for a corresponding displacement of 17mm and 83-kN force.
Figure 11.
Panel A: (a) maximum and minimum tension stresses in MPa at the last analysis step; (b) numerical pushover curve compared to the experimental curve.
\n
The force-deformation response obtained matches quite good to the experimental response for the elastic behaviour. When the panel starts to break and the behaviour became plastic, the CLT shear wall is subjected to large displacement for small increments of load.
\n
For panel B, the upper left corner is the one where the break occurred, as seen in the experimental test (Figure 12a). Figure 12b shows the pushover curve obtained for the shear wall B. Panel B, contrary to panel A, has a very brittle behaviour. In this case, the yielding point is near the breaking point and an overall acceptable accuracy in terms of elastic stiffness was obtained. The presence of the sub-window increases the global stiffness of the panel and highlights again the relevant role of the boundary conditions (contact and friction). The overall behaviour of panel C, due to the absence of the sub-windows, depends strongly from the UT and US connectors.
\n
In this case, the maximum tension is concentrated in both the external and internal corners as shown in Figure 13a. Due to the eccentric position of the load joint (located not in the geometrical centre of the panel but in the centre of the right window), the maximum tension that brought to failure occurred in the inner corner. Figure 13b shows the comparison between the backbone curve and the pushover curve with the observation that the numerical model results approximate the experimental ones quite well.
Figure 12.
Panel B: (a) maximum and minimum tension stresses in MPa at the last analysis step; (b) numerical pushover curve compared to the experimental curve.
Figure 13.
Panel C: (a) maximum and minimum tension stresses in MPa at the last analysis step; (b) numerical pushover curve compared to the experimental curve.
\n
As shown in Figure 14a, the stress concentration occurs in the corners of the windows and the breaking point corresponds with the inner corner of the left window confirming the experimental results. Also in this case, the sub-window contributes to increase the overall stiffness behaviour. In contrast with the other cases, for panel D, the pushover curve does not approximate exactly the stiffness of the panel (Figure 14b). The main reason of this result can be founded both in the general errors that occurred in the experimental session and in the general approximation of the boundary conditions. Other numerical analyses could be aimed at evaluating the energy dissipated by panels during cycles as done for masonry buildings [18].
Figure 14.
Panel D: (a) maximum and minimum tension stresses in MPa at the last analysis step; (b) numerical pushover curve compared to the experimental curve.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Discussion and comparison between results
\n
The main results obtained from experimental tests on CLT panels with openings have been compared and interpreted through analytical and numerical models. Concerning the experimental tests, failure occurred at the upper corner of the opening for all the specimens. The general behaviour was brittle for all the panels with the exception of the panel with a one-door opening, the most ductile and also the one with maximum dissipation of energy and deformation. The maximum strength was obtained for the sample with two windows but in this case the bending and sliding of the panel affected the results. Anyway, the maximum strength of the window type (panels B and D) was observed to be higher than that for the door type (panels A and C). An analytical model was adopted to predict the ultimate strength of panels similar to the tested ones, knowing the ultimate strength of one of two panels and the panels have the same height. The error given by the analytical method never exceeded 8%, showing therefore that the mathematical formulation can predict fairly closely the ultimate strength of panels with the same geometry, characteristics and boundary conditions. Finite element models confirmed, in terms of failure type and crack position, the experimental results. Moreover, the pushover curve obtained from the finite element procedure generally matched the experimental one quite well. Further analyses could be addressed to evaluate the out-of-plane resistance of the timber panels, by means of rocking analysis with proper boundary conditions, applying analogous concepts adopted for masonry panels [19, 20].
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
\n
An experimental campaign aimed at evaluating the ultimate behaviour of CLT panels with openings was here described and interpreted with both analytical and numerical models. The four-wall panels were shown to exhibit a prevalent brittle behaviour, except for the specimen with one-door opening, more ductile. This response was reproduced quite well in the multilayered finite element model. The position of the cracks at the ultimate limit state was correctly obtained from the numerical procedure, highlighting that the failure occurs at the corner of the openings, in different position depending on their size and configurations. The analytical model was capable to correctly evaluate the values of ultimate limit strength of walls with cut-out openings, with errors lower than 8%.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The research presented in this paper was funded by the Japanese company ‘Nihon Sekkei System’ and supported by PRA2016 funding of the University of Pisa.
\n
The authors would like to thank the Timber Structure Laboratory members (Department of Human and Social System, Institute of Industrial Science of the University of Tokyo) and Prof. Massimo Fragiacomo who provided technical expertise for the experimental testing.
\n
\n',keywords:"cross-laminated timber, CLT, cyclic tests, shear walls, cut-out openings, FE model",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52332.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52332.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52332",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52332",totalDownloads:1975,totalViews:382,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:82,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 30th 2016",dateReviewed:"July 26th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 1st 2017",dateFinished:"September 7th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This paper reports the results of an experimental campaign performed at the University of Tokyo on cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels subjected to lateral loads. Analytical and numerical interpretations are provided as well, comparing the experimental analysis results with two methods: firstly, an analytical method to preliminarily evaluate the ultimate strength of the four panels, based on the geometrical dimensions of the openings and of the panel; secondly, a finite element model has been developed in order to provide some guidelines for calculating the stiffness and elastic behaviour of CLT panels subjected to lateral loads. The experimental tests showed that the CLT panels are as more brittle and stiffer as more the difference between the total panel area and the fenestrated area is high. The presence of large openings determined stress concentration at the corners where failure occurred for the attainment of the maximum tension strength in the inner layer. The proposed analytical formulation was shown to fairly closely predict the ultimate strength of panels with same geometry, characteristics and boundary condition, allowing preliminary information of this relevant parameter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52332",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52332",book:{id:"5503",slug:"wood-in-civil-engineering"},signatures:"Valeria Awad, Linda Giresini, Mikio Koshihara, Mario Lucio Puppio\nand Mauro Sassu",authors:[{id:"192739",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Sassu",fullName:"Mauro Sassu",slug:"mauro-sassu",email:"m.sassu@ing.unipi.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"193120",title:"Dr.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Giresini",fullName:"Linda Giresini",slug:"linda-giresini",email:"linda.giresini@unipi.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"193197",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Valeria",middleName:null,surname:"Awad",fullName:"Valeria Awad",slug:"valeria-awad",email:"valeriaawad@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"193198",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mario Lucio",middleName:null,surname:"Puppio",fullName:"Mario Lucio Puppio",slug:"mario-lucio-puppio",email:"mariolucio.puppio@ing.unipi.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"193683",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikio",middleName:null,surname:"Koshihara",fullName:"Mikio Koshihara",slug:"mikio-koshihara",email:"kos@ii.u-tokyo.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Experimental tests on CLT three-layered panels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. CLT panels and test set-up",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Experimental tests results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. Connections response",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Analytical model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Finite element model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Description and mechanical parameters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Results from finite element modelling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Discussion and comparison between results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sassu, M., De Falco, A., Giresini, L., Puppio, M.L., Structural Solutions for Low-Cost Bamboo Frames: Experimental Tests and Constructive Assessments, Materials 2016, 2016, 9, 346; doi:10.3390/ma9050346.'},{id:"B2",body:'Handbook: cross-laminated timber (2011). Special Publication SP-528E, FPInnovations, edited by Gagnon S. and Pirvu C., QC, Canada.'},{id:"B3",body:'EN 1995-1-2 (Eurocode 5) (2004). Design of timber structures, Part 1-2: General—Structural fire design, CEN, Brussels, Belgium.'},{id:"B4",body:'Follesa, M., Christovasilis, I.P., Vassallo, D., Fragiacomo, M., and Ceccotti, A. Seismic design of multi-storey CLT buildings according to Eurocode 8. Ingegneria Sismica/International Journal of Earthquake Engineering, Special Issue on Timber Structures, Anno XXX-N.4 – Ottobre-Dicembre 2013.'},{id:"B5",body:'Studiengemeinschaft Holzeleimbau e.V. Building with cross laminated timber. Load-bearing solid wood components for walls, ceilings and roofs. Published: 04/2010, 2nd edition: 01/2010, 2011.'},{id:"B6",body:'Fragiacomo, M, Dujic, B, Sustersic, I. Elastic and ductile design of multi-storey crosslam wooden buildings under seismic actions. Engineering Structures 33, 2011, 3043–3053.'},{id:"B7",body:'Rinaldin, G., Amadio, G., Fragiacomo, M., A component approach for the hysteretic behaviour of connections in cross-laminated wooden structures. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 2013; 42: 2023–2042.'},{id:"B8",body:'Bogensperger, T., Moosbrugger, T., Silly, G., Verification of CLT-plates under loads in plane. Proceedings of the 11th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Riva del Garda, Italy, 2010.'},{id:"B9",body:'Dujic, B., Klobcar, S., Zarnic, R., Influence of openings on shear capacity of wooden walls. Research report, University of Ljubljana and CBD Contemporary Building Design Ltd., Slovenia, 2005.'},{id:"B10",body:'Dujic, B., Aicher, S., Zarnic, R., Investigation on in-plane loaded wooden elements – influence of loading on boundary conditions. Otto Graf Journal, Materialprüfungsanstalt Universität. Otto-Graf-Institut, Stuttgart, Vol. 16, 2005.'},{id:"B11",body:'Dujic, B., Hristovsky, Zarnic R. Experimental investigation of massive wooden wall panel system subject to seismic excitation. Proceeding of the First European Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.'},{id:"B12",body:'Dujic, B., Klobcar, S., Zarnic, R., Influence of Openings on Shear Capacity of Wooden Walls. In: Proceedings of the 40th CIB-W18 Meeting, paper 40-15-6, Bled, Slovenia, 2007.'},{id:"B13",body:'Dujic, B., Klobcar, S., Zarnic, R., Shear capacity of cross-laminated wooden walls. Proceedings of the 10th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Miyazaki, Japan, 2008.'},{id:"B14",body:'Ceccotti, A., New Technologies for Construction of Medium-Rise Buildings in Seismic Regions: The XLAM Case, Structural Engineering International: Journal of the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), n. 18, pp. 156–165, 2008.'},{id:"B15",body:'Popovski, M. Lateral resistance of cross-laminated wood panels. In: Proceedings of the 11th world conference on timber engineering. Vol. 4. Trees e Timber Institute, pp. 3394–3403, 2010.'},{id:"B16",body:'Sap2000 V.14, CSI, Computers and Structures Inc., CA, USA.'},{id:"B17",body:'Yasumura, M, Kawai, N. Evaluation of wood framed shear walls subjected to lateral load. Meeting 30 of the Working Commission W18-Timber Structures, CIB. Vancouver, Canada, 1997, paper CIB-W18/30-15-4, 1997.'},{id:"B18",body:'Giresini, L., Energy-based method for identifying vulnerable macro-elements in historic masonry churches, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering. 2006, Volume 14, Issue 3, pp 919–942. doi: 10.1007/s10518-015-9854-7.'},{id:"B19",body:'Giresini, L., Fragiacomo, M., Lourenço, P.B., Comparison between rocking analysis and kinematic analysis for the dynamic out-of-plane behavior of masonry walls. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics. 2015, Volume 44, Issue 13, pp. 2359–2376, doi: 10.1002/eqe.2592.'},{id:"B20",body:'Giresini, L., Fragiacomo, M., Sassu, M. Rocking analysis of masonry walls interacting with roofs. Engineering Structures, 2016, Volume 116, pp. 107–120. doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.02.041.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Valeria Awad",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Constructions Engineering (DESTEC), University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Constructions Engineering (DESTEC), University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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1. Introduction
This paper discusses the implications of climate change in Indonesia and discusses the challenges to and opportunities for climate change mitigation and adaptation within Indonesia.
It is widely known that one of the reasons for climate change is global warming which is marked by an increase in air temperature. Climate change is associated with increased atmospheric temperature caused by the “Green House Effect” which occurs due to the increase in green house gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the gases that causes global warming. According to the IPCC [1], the average temperature of the earth’s surface over the past century has increased by 1.30 F. The presence of CO2 is related to the condition of forests in an area. The trees that make up forests of various types and growth rates, known as forest structure and composition, have a role in storing CO2. Forests are dominated by vegetation that has chlorophyll which functions in the photosynthesis process by requiring light energy, water and CO2 to form carbohydrates. Thus the forest will absorb carbon from the air and accumulate in the plant body in the form of stems, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruit and roots and soil. In general, this process is known as Carbon Sequestration [2, 3]. Thus the forest can function as a carbon sink. Therefore, well-well-maintained forests can increase carbon sequestration or reduce the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. In addition, by expanding the forest area, of course, its ability to absorb carbon will be higher. The development of various ecosystems over millions of years has resulted in certain patterns of carbon flow in global ecosystems. However, human (anthropogenic) activities in the use of fossil fuels, conversion of forest land and others have resulted in changes in the exchange of carbon in the atmosphere, land and marine ecosystems. As a result of these activities, there was an increase in the concentration of CO2 into the atmosphere by 28% from the CO2 concentration that occurred more than 150 years ago.
Indonesia’s swamplands, which are around 33 million ha, 20.6 million ha of which are peatlands. Most of the peatlands are spread across three major islands, namely Sumatra (35%), Kalimantan (32%), Papua (30%), Sulawesi (3%), and the rest (3%) is spread over a narrow area [4]. The role of peatland is important because it has a high carbon sequestration and is a natural resource that has a hydrorological function. The existing peatlands need to be protected from fire. Because if a fire occurs in the peat forest, it will cause large CO2 emissions and the resulting smoke will disrupt airlines and cause shortness of breath, etc. Peatlands play a major role in the development of agriculture, oil palm plantations or industrial plantations. For this reason, peatlands are managed with the principle of sustainable peatland management so that they can minimize environmental damage. Apart from peatlands, there are also mangrove forests that are found on the coast of the Indonesian archipelago which have a high carbon content known as blue carbon.
Peatlands planted with oil palm and acacia function as a carbon sequester through the photosynthetic process and carbon is stored as plant biomass. The carbon tethering process through the photosynthesis process is able to offset the loss of carbon stocks in the soil which are oxidized to CO2 gas emissions. However, if the expansion of oil palm plantations is excessive to the point where many natural forests are converted, it will have a negative impact on the biodiversity of the peatlands. The existing mangrove forests have also suffered a lot of damage because the area is used for the construction of ponds, excessive mangrove wood extraction and the large number of mangrove forests that have turned into settlements in coastal areas. The area of mangrove forests in Indonesia reaches 3.49 million ha but 52% or 1.82 million ha is in a damaged condition [5].
Carbon emissions from forest land including peat and mangrove forests generally fluctuate depending on many factors including climate, soil and hydrology. Environmental factors that greatly influence the amount of carbon emissions, especially from peatlands, are temperature, soil moisture and electrical conductivity (EC) [6]. These three factors fluctuate greatly from day to day depending on climatic and hydrological factors, resulting in high fluctuations in carbon emissions [7, 8]. High carbon content in natural and plantation forests is usually found in forests where the potential for wood or wood volume unit (m3/ha) is also very high. Therefore, if an area is only used for seasonal plant development, of course the carbon content is low. The lowest carbon content is when forest land has been converted into urban areas with the development of housing, markets, offices, development of road networks and infrastructure. Even with the construction of urban areas with various tall buildings, it has triggered the emergence of a heat island. One of the safety valves so that forest areas can maintain carbon content is the application of the agroforestry system. This system is a cultivation in an area with a mixture of perennials and seasonal plants.
In an effort to increase the prosperity of a country, a lot of forest is transferred to other uses such as the development of oil palm plantations, agricultural land, livestock grazing and urban expansion etc. In fact, many agricultural lands have changed their function into settlements. If this happens, the forest area will continue to decrease again because after the agricultural land has turned into residential land, the forest land is converted again for agricultural expansion, this happens continuously. In other words, deforestation and forest degradation have triggered climate change.
If viewed from the CO2 flux, there will also be changes in the basic CO2 flux from forest land, plantation land, agriculture and urban areas. It is certain and inevitable that the forest area will decrease and be used for non-forestry development. One of the reasons is the increase in population which is difficult to control every year. Thus, changing a forest area to non-forest will have an impact on the lack of carbon sequestration as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
The lower carbon sequestration of forest to non-forest areas. (a) Forests: very high carbon sequestration, (b) Agroforestry: high carbon sequestration, (c) Agricultural crops: low carbon sequestration, (d) Cities with infrastructure: very low carbon sequestration.
The conversion of forest land to non-forest land actually occurs as a result of economic motivation. For example, more forest land will be converted into oil palm plantations if the results of oil palm management turn out to be more profitable from an economic perspective. Therefore, forest management must endeavor to be able to generate more tangible benefits from non-forest uses.
2. Expansion of oil palm plantations and the issue of deforestation
Indonesian oil palm plantations have grown rapidly in large parts of Indonesia. Sumatra and Kalimantan are two large islands which are the main centers of oil palm plantations in Indonesia. About 90% of oil palm plantations in Indonesia are located on these two oil palm islands, and the two islands produce 95% of Indonesia’s crude palm oil (CPO) production. In the period 1990–2015, there was a revolution in the exploitation of oil palm plantations in Indonesia, which was marked by the rapid growth and development of smallholder plantations, namely 24% per year during 1990–2015. During this period, the forest land changed into oil palm plantations. This marks the end of the logging era and the drastic reduction of the plywood industry. The Ministry of Forestry has revoked many HPH licenses and an increasing number of plywood industries have closed due to a shortage of log raw materials. So in addition to the development of oil palm plantations, it is also planting industrial tree plantations which encourage the construction of pulp and paper mills. The area of Indonesian oil palm plantations in 2015 reached 11.3 million ha [9]. In 2017 it has reached 16 million ha. The largest proportion of oil palm plantations is smallholder plantations 53%, large private plantations 42%, and state plantations 5%. The rapid development of the palm oil industry has attracted the attention of the world community, particularly the world’s major vegetable oil producers. In 2019 the area of oil palm plantations has reached 14.6 million ha [10]. Indonesia has become the world’s largest palm oil producing country since 2006. Indonesia managed to surpass Malaysia in 2016 where Indonesia’s CPO production share has reached 53.4% of the world’s total CPO. Meanwhile, Malaysia only has a share of 32%. Likewise in the global vegetable oil market, palm oil has also managed to outperform soybean oil since 2004. In 2004, total CPO production reached 33.6 million tons, while soybean oil was 32.4 million tons. In 2016, the share of world CPO production reached 40% of the world’s main vegetable products, while soybean oil had a 33.18% share [11].
Indonesia with its enormous reserves of oil palm plantations needs to ensure that these resources contribute to its national energy plan. Therefore the central government has compiled a Biodiesel Mandate which is among the most ambitious in the world. By 2016, liquid fuels must contain at least 20 percent of biofuels (and by 2025, 30 percent). A subsidy program has also been established to account for the substantial difference in production costs between biofuels and conventional diesel. One can feel considerable optimism because this funding is based on taxes on Crude Palm Oil (CPO) exports rather than on national budget expenditures which are negotiated annually [12]. With the mandate of biodiesel, in an effort to achieve national energy independence, expansion of oil palm plantations is something that cannot be avoided.
The rapidly increasing share of palm oil in the world vegetable oil market has influenced the dynamics of competition between vegetable oils and has even led to a negative / black campaign against palm oil. In addition, the sustainability aspect of oil palm plantations is under the spotlight. The development of oil palm plantations in Indonesia is perceived as unsustainable and is accused of being the main cause of deforestation and loss of wildlife habitat. The rapid clearing of forest land into oil palm plantations has led to the perception that Indonesia has carried out deforestation on a large scale. Actually this action was taken by the Government of Indonesia in carrying out national development in order to improve the welfare of its people. So there are stages for a country to deforest for the welfare of its people. When viewed from the development history of a number of major countries in the world, both the United States and Europe have deforested their countries. Therefore, it is unfair if the issue of deforestation is used to suppress the growth of Indonesian oil palm plantations.
So far there have been many accusations stating that 67% of oil palm plantations are obtained from forest conversion [13]. Gunarso et al. [14] tried to examine the truth of forest conversion in Indonesia for oil palm plantations. This is done by using data from disturbed and undisturbed forest land cover classes according to the carbon stock sequence published by the Forestry Planning Agency in 2011. Carbon stock of natural/production forests, either undisturbed forest or disturbed forest, contains carbon stocks higher than carbon. Oil palm plantation stock. Thus, if there is conversion of production forest to oil palm plantations, there will be a decrease in land carbon stock or deforestation. Meanwhile, timber plantation, agricultural land (mixed tree crops, dry cultivation land) and shrubs/ abandoned land (schrub) contain lower carbon stocks than oil palm plantations. Thus, the conversion of scrub agricultural land/abandoned land, including industrial plantation forest land, into oil palm plantations is categorized as an increase in land carbon stock or reforestation. This study turns out to provide conclusions that are different from the allegations by Koh and Wilcove [13]. The Indonesian oil palm plantations planted until 2010, namely 8.1 million ha, turned out to be 5.5 million ha of which came from the conversion of agricultural land and abandoned land (reforestation). While the rest, namely 2.5 million ha, comes from conversion of production forests (deforestation). Because the area of deforestation for oil palm plantations is much less than the area of reforestation for oil palm plantations, in net terms, the expansion of Indonesian oil palm plantations to reach 10.4 million ha in 2013 is a form of reforestation and not deforestation. This means that the expansion of Indonesian oil palm plantations to 10.4 million ha in 2013 on a net basis is to increase land carbon stock or reforestation [15]. However, the conversion of forest land which was converted into oil palm plantations in 2019 has reached 14.6 million ha, so that deforestation cannot be avoided. This is what causes a huge source of CO2 emissions that actually triggers climate change.
3. The opportunities for mitigating and adapting to climate change in Indonesia
3.1 Mitigation and adaptation opportunities through the REDD+ Program
The remaining forest area in Indonesia in 2019 is 94.1 million ha or 50.1% of the total land area [16] These forests play an important role in climate change mitigation and adaptation, so various strategies are needed and identification of opportunities to strengthen the results for both. a logical step. Therefore, the existence of the REDD+ Program will be very useful to support various steps that will help reduce the vulnerability of forest communities to the impacts of climate change. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degaradation (REDD+) is an effort to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, the role of conservation, sustainable forest management and increasing forest carbon stocks using a national approach and sub-national implementation. In its implementation, mitigation-adaptation synergy is needed which aims to find ways to take advantage of the synergy between REDD+ and climate change adaptation. Thus there is certainty that REDD+ will have impacts that go beyond mitigation and are sustainable in a climate that changes over time [17].
3.2 Climate change financing opportunities
Indonesia still dominantly uses fossil energy sources that are not environmentally friendly and contribute to the increase in GHG which has been scientifically proven to change climate patterns with the emergence of global warming. Climate change will affect the duration of the dry and rainy seasons. This will certainly affect the yields in the agricultural-plantation sector and also the results of fishing in the sea. Therefore, people whose income depends on these two livelihoods will definitely be affected directly. To overcome this, it is necessary to implement climate change mitigation and adaptation programs. Here there are funding opportunities to carry out climate change mitigation and adaptation sourced from (1) public funds through the State Budget (APBN), (2) funds from abroad in the form of grants or loans (3) Funds from the private sector through Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Green Bond [18].
3.3 Opportunities for providing climate information
The selection of the types of adaptation that can be carried out in various regions is basically a follow-up to the National Action Plan - Climate Change Adaptation (RAN-API). Understanding the impacts of climate change varies depending on location or region. In this condition, an assessment of the impacts and vulnerability of climate change specific to the economic sector in a location or region is required as a first step in selecting climate change adaptation options. Furthermore, an evaluation of adaptation options is carried out considering that the implementation of climate change adaptation requires additional costs [19]. One of the important elements needed in conducting a climate change impact and vulnerability assessment is climate information. This climate information plays a vital role in identifying the impact of global climate change on climate conditions in a region. The trend of climatic elements such as rainfall and air temperature observations is the earliest stage to see the effects of climate change in an area. Climate information is needed to (1) undergo impact models, for example: crop simulation models to assess the impact of climate variability in a region on the agricultural sector, (2) validate climate model outputs for projecting future climate conditions, compiling climate change scenarios. The uncertainty of future climate change is often approached by using more than one climate model or emission scenario. To understand the capabilities of climate models, validation of climate model outputs for the current period (control) is carried out using observational climate information. Compiling climate change scenarios also requires observational climate information, for example by changing (adjusting) observational climate information with differences between future climate projections and control periods [20].
4. The challenges to mitigating and adapting to climate change in Indonesia
4.1 A policy framework and implementation of climate change control have not yet gone hand in hand
Indonesia is the fourth largest country with GHG emissions in the world but does not make climate change a national priority agenda. At the international level, Indonesia has ratified the PARIS Agreement and has committed to reduce GHG emissions without conditions by 29% under a business as usual scenario in 2030 and up to 41% with international assistance. The government has established a policy framework such as RAN GRK SINCE 2011 and RAN API in 2014. These policies must be broken down to sub-national levels in the form of RAD GRK and RAD API. However, in practice, the policy framework and implementation often do not go hand in hand because local governments do not fully implement the policies set by the central government [21]. Addressing this challenge requires a strong synergy between the central government and local governments.
4.2 The rights of indigenous peoples to the REDD+ program
For indigenous community activists, fighting for community rights to support the implementation of REDD+ is very important. This is because the role of indigenous peoples is very real in protecting the forest and its environment. Those with local wisdom have the knowledge to protect and protect their territory with customary laws, customary institutions and tenure systems that are different from the Western system. In general, they apply communal ownership and do not understand property rights [22]. Tenure issues cannot be eliminated in forestry management in Indonesia. This is due to overlapping control of forest areas because there are claims of state blasphemy over customary forests which are controlled by customary law communities. State forest claims provide room for the State’s unilateral control over the forest through the various companies it owns or granting permits on it with the authority of the regional government. This has resulted in legislation and policies that are not clearly formulated, uncoordinated granting of permits and denial of recognition of indigenous peoples and other local forest users [23]. Indigenous peoples have a special role in REDD+, especially from the policy context, namely their participatory role. They have long lived in the forest and are able to care for and protect the forest for their survival from generation to generation. In addition, their cultural and spiritual relationship with the land and forest where they live is very deep [24]. Actually, the existence of this tenurial conflict has been eliminated somewhat by the implementation of the Social Forestry Program. In general, indigenous peoples have been given access to be able to carry out activities and manage in State forests. Tenure conflicts do not only occur on land already owned by companies that have forest concession permits but also in forest areas that have implemented the REDD+ program. So this is a challenge that must be resolved in the future.
4.3 Uncertainty in the implementation of the REDD+ program
Before REDD+ is fully implemented, a Demonstration Activity (DA) is carried out in the early stages. The implementation of DA is based on international guidelines from COP’s decision in the form of International Guidance for DA. The aim is to find out progress, evaluate the implementation of activities and lessons learned related to DA REDD+. In the implementation of DA REDD+, various activities carried out refer to the methodology issued by the IPCC but the mechanisms mostly follow the schemes issued by the Voluntary Standard such as VCS, CCBS and Plan Vivo. The implementation of REDD+ provides benefits and provides opportunities because it is in accordance with the principles of forest sustainability and provides benefits to the community and biodiversity preservation. The current conditions for DA REDD+ are various, many lessons learned have ended and are also results-based with varying progress which still needs further guidance [25]. A crucial implementation stage is the implementation of the Measuring, Reporting and Verifying (MRV) System. Developing country governments at the COP 16 meeting in Cancun 2010 were encouraged to carry out various mitigation activities, including: reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserving forest carbon stocks, sustainable forest management, and increasing carbon stocks (FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1/C/Par. 70). In connection with these activities, a suitable and transparent measurement and reporting system needs to be established (FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1/C/Par.71). Specifically for activities funded by international or domestic sources, verification must be carried out based on the conventions / guidelines that will be developed (FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1/C/Par.71; FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add 1/B/Par. 61 and 62). During its development, the Monitoring, Reporting and Verification system was changed to Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) at the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) 36 in Bonn, 2012. MRV system is the basic and main requirement of implementing the REDD+ program using the principles incentives that are assessed based on performance or pay for performance [26].
MRV activities include measuring and reporting the effectiveness of GHG reduction or absorption quantitatively using methods and procedures that are reliable, transparent and accountable. MRV is part of a monitoring system where measurement methods and results are conveyed using standard and consistent scientific principles. These activities will serve as the basis for payment for the performance of reducing emissions. Each MRV activity must be in line with the reporting principles of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), which must be transparent, accurate, consistent, complete, comparable and have minimal uncertainty. The MRV system implementer is an independent body but still coordinates with the REDD+ Agency as a governing council. The UN-REDD Program has recommended a set of key considerations for the development of a national MRV system. As a system, MRV can be applied to several scales, namely national, sub-national (province, district) and projects. The MRV system can also be reported to certain agencies and verified or validated by certain agencies or associations related to carbon. The use of MRV at the local and national levels is highly recommended. At the international level, reporting to the UNFCCC is a must or a requirement. Because the MRV system reporting must be based on scientific principles, this is a challenge for scientists and foresters in implementing the MRV system [27]. This is very important because the MRV principle is applied to collect data on each type of forest, forest cover and the amount of carbon content contained therein. Forest conditions in Indonesia are very diverse and categorized as mega-biodiversity. Of course, there will be many difficulties in implementing MRV. The challenge that is often faced is the calculation of the biomass present in each forest type. Ideally, biomass calculations are carried out by developing an allometric equation for each tree species which is very expensive. If this is done per tree type in each forest type, it certainly requires a large biomass measurement fund. The REDD+ program is known for leakage, additionality and uncertainity. In REDD+ activities, forest land which is designated as the location for REDD+ implementation according to the stipulated time period must be able to prevent leakage from occurring[28]. Here it is necessary to take intensive care for the location of the implementation of REDDD + so that there is no leakage originating from the work area and the surrounding area. Thus, year after year additionality must be guaranteed. Given the prevalence of forest conversion to non-forest, unresolved tenurial conflicts and illegal logging, etc., it will definitely be difficult to avoid uncertainty.
5. Conclusion
Global warming has caused climate change around the world. The impact of climate change is very large which affects the joints of life from an economic, ecological, and social perspective. The main cause is deforestation and forest degradation which releases CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. Thus, if deforestation and forest degradation cannot be controlled, the earth’s temperature will get warmer. The warming of the earth’s temperature is also triggered by the use of fossil energy which is not environmentally friendly. Nowadays there is awareness from each country to start replacing fossil energy with biofuels that are more environmentally friendly. Indonesia has planned the production of biofuels to be independent of national energy that is environmentally friendly. One of them is by converting forest land for expansion of oil palm plantations and of course it will cause deforestation. So on the one hand developing environmentally friendly energy but on the other hand, sacrificing the area of the forest so that it becomes a contributor to CO2 emissions that trigger climate change. Therefore, it requires a strong determination from the Government to be able to find the best way that can benefit both of them in controlling climate change. In every program that is executed, there are always opportunities and challenges that must be faced. One of them is the implementation of climate change mitigation and adaptation programs, such as opportunities for implementing the REDD+ program, financing climate change management, and the availability of climate information. There are also challenges faced, such as the lack of synergy in the policy framework and implementation of climate change control, recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights, and uncertainty in the implementation of the REDD+ program.
\n',keywords:"flux CO2, REDD+, climate change, mitigation, adaptation, oil palm plantations",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76407.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76407.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76407",totalDownloads:198,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 30th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 4th 2021",datePrePublished:"April 22nd 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 22nd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The impacts of climate change are changes in rainfall patterns, sea level rise and extreme weather or extreme meteorological events. This impact will further provide dangers that threaten the sustainability of human life. The main causes of climate change are deforestation and forest degradation and the growth rate of industry and transportation modes that are not environmentally friendly. Therefore, Indonesia is participating in the Paris Agreement and implementing the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation program, role of conservation, sustainable management of forest and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries (REDD+). In an effort to increase the prosperity of the State, many forests have been transferred to other uses such as the development of oil palm plantations, agricultural land and urban expansion etc. In fact, many agricultural lands have changed their function into settlements. If this happens, the forest area will continue to decrease again because after the agricultural land has turned into residential land, the forest land is converted again for agricultural expansion, this happens continuously. When viewed from the CO2 flux, there will also be changes in the basic CO2 flux from forest land, plantation land, agriculture and urban areas. The problem of deforestation and forest degradation is inseparable from the large number of forest conversion functions into oil palm plantations, expansion of agricultural areas and other uses such as urban development and infrastructure. Opportunities for climate change mitigation and adaptation include the implementation of the REDD+ program, financing of climate change mitigation and availability of climate information. The challenges faced include the lack of synergy in the policy framework and implementation of climate change control, recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights and uncertainty in the implementation of the REDD+ program.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76407",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76407",signatures:"Gun Mardiatmoko",book:{id:"7724",type:"book",title:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Climate Change in Asia and Africa - Examining the Biophysical and Social Consequences, and Society's Responses",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. John P. Tiefenbacher",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7724.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83962-630-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-629-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-631-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"73876",title:"Dr.",name:"John P.",middleName:null,surname:"Tiefenbacher",slug:"john-p.-tiefenbacher",fullName:"John P. Tiefenbacher"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Expansion of oil palm plantations and the issue of deforestation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The opportunities for mitigating and adapting to climate change in Indonesia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Mitigation and adaptation opportunities through the REDD+ Program",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Climate change financing opportunities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Opportunities for providing climate information",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. The challenges to mitigating and adapting to climate change in Indonesia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1 A policy framework and implementation of climate change control have not yet gone hand in hand",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2 The rights of indigenous peoples to the REDD+ program",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Uncertainty in the implementation of the REDD+ program",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. 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Ini alasan hak adat menjadi penting untuk REDD+. https://forestsnews.cifor.org/53264/ini-alasan-hak-adat-menjadi-penting-untuk-redd?fnl= (accessed 22 May 2019)'},{id:"B25",body:'Wibowo, A. 2016. Implementasi Demonstration Activity (DA) REDD+ untuk mendukung kebijakan pengendalian perubahan iklim. P3SEKPI-Research Data. http://puspijak.org/Myfront/indexUsulan'},{id:"B26",body:'REDD+ Task Force MRV Working Group. 2012. Strategy and Implementation Plan for REDD+ Measurement, Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) in Indonesia. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/566f0f00d8af100a22fb3bfd/t/58540e10e4fcb56428732a47/1481903646370/Indonesia+REDD%2B+Task+Force.+National+Strategy.pdf (accessed 21 March 2019)'},{id:"B27",body:'Jaya, I.N.S., Saleh, M.B. 2013. Peta Jalan (Road Map)MRV Kehutanan. Direktorat Jenderal Planologi Kehutanan, Kementrian Kehutanan. Jakarta'},{id:"B28",body:'Mardiatmoko, G. 2018. From Forest Biomass to Carbon Trading. https://www.intechopen.com/books/renewable-resources-and-biorefineries/from-forest-biomass-to-carbon-trading (accessed 7 December 2017).'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gun Mardiatmoko",address:"g.mardiatmoko@faperta.unpatti.ac.id",affiliation:'
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. 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Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:9282,totalCrossrefCites:166,totalDimensionsCites:399,abstract:null,book:{id:"2270",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13727,totalCrossrefCites:40,totalDimensionsCites:161,abstract:null,book:{id:"3817",slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]},{id:"44359",doi:"10.5772/56197",title:"Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High Strength Two-Phase Titanium Alloys",slug:"microstructure-and-mechanical-properties-of-high-strength-two-phase-titanium-alloys",totalDownloads:10310,totalCrossrefCites:56,totalDimensionsCites:128,abstract:null,book:{id:"3494",slug:"titanium-alloys-advances-in-properties-control",title:"Titanium Alloys",fullTitle:"Titanium Alloys - Advances in Properties Control"},signatures:"J. Sieniawski, W. Ziaja, K. Kubiak and M. Motyka",authors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka"},{id:"109232",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Sieniawski",slug:"jan-sieniawski",fullName:"Jan Sieniawski"}]},{id:"46882",doi:"10.5772/58534",title:"Additive Manufacturing of Al Alloys and Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs)",slug:"additive-manufacturing-of-al-alloys-and-aluminium-matrix-composites-amcs-",totalDownloads:10125,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:117,abstract:null,book:{id:"3844",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications",title:"Light Metal Alloys Applications",fullTitle:"Light Metal Alloys Applications"},signatures:"Diego Manfredi, Flaviana Calignano, Manickavasagam Krishnan,\nRiccardo Canali, Elisa Paola Ambrosio, Sara Biamino, Daniele Ugues,\nMatteo Pavese and Paolo Fino",authors:[{id:"16648",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Manfredi",slug:"diego-manfredi",fullName:"Diego Manfredi"},{id:"18978",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Pavese",slug:"matteo-pavese",fullName:"Matteo Pavese"},{id:"19187",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Biamino",slug:"sara-biamino",fullName:"Sara Biamino"},{id:"19188",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrosio",slug:"elisa-ambrosio",fullName:"Elisa Ambrosio"},{id:"19189",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Fino",slug:"paolo-fino",fullName:"Paolo Fino"},{id:"170227",title:"Dr.",name:"Flaviana",middleName:null,surname:"Calignano",slug:"flaviana-calignano",fullName:"Flaviana Calignano"},{id:"170228",title:"MSc.",name:"Riccardo",middleName:null,surname:"Canali",slug:"riccardo-canali",fullName:"Riccardo Canali"},{id:"170229",title:"MSc.",name:"Manickavasagam",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",slug:"manickavasagam-krishnan",fullName:"Manickavasagam Krishnan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2672,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to remove toxic waste from polluted environment. Bioremediation is highly involved in degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification diverse chemical wastes and physical hazardous materials from the surrounding through the all-inclusive and action of microorganisms. The main principle is degrading and converting pollutants to less toxic forms. Bioremediation can be carried out ex-situ and in-situ, depending on several factors, which include but not limited to cost, site characteristics, type, and concentration of pollutants. Hence, appropriate bioremediation technique is selected. Additionally, the major methodologies to develop bioremediation are biostimulation, bioaugmentation, bioventing, biopiles, and bioattenuation provided the environmental factors that decide the completion of bioremediation. Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16251,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:408,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:6894,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",book:{id:"6552",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]},{id:"71326",title:"Stability of Metal Complexes",slug:"stability-of-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:2384,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The stability of coordination complex is an important factor that decides the stability and reactivity of a metal complex. The stability of metal complex is governed by two different aspects such as thermodynamic and kinetic stabilities. The correlation between stability and reactivity of coordination compounds has been described in this chapter. This chapter also enlists the factors influencing the stability of metal complexes such as the nature of metal ions, ligands, bonding between metal ions and ligands, etc. In addition, the methods available for the determination of stability constants are given in detail.",book:{id:"9190",slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",title:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds",fullTitle:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds"},signatures:"Senthilkumar Muthaiah, Anita Bhatia and Muthukumar Kannan",authors:null},{id:"60518",title:"Synthetic Methods for Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: A Review",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-a-review",totalDownloads:5268,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) semiconductor nanoparticles are one kind of important and promising photocatalysts in photocatalysis because of their unique optical and electronic properties. Their properties, which are determined by the preparation method, are very crucial in photocatalysis. In this chapter, an overview was carried out on the different methods that are used or have been used to prepare titanium dioxide nanoparticles. There are various methods that can be used to synthesize TiO2 and the most commonly used methods include sol-gel process, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and hydrothermal method among others. This review will focus on selected preparation methods of titanium dioxide photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6426",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",title:"Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment"},signatures:"Pardon Nyamukamba, Omobola Okoh, Henry Mungondori,\nRaymond Taziwa and Simcelile Zinya",authors:[{id:"196100",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Taziwa",slug:"raymond-taziwa",fullName:"Raymond Taziwa"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"226567",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamukamba",slug:"pardon-nyamukamba",fullName:"Pardon Nyamukamba"},{id:"239758",title:"Mr.",name:"Simcelile",middleName:null,surname:"Zinya",slug:"simcelile-zinya",fullName:"Simcelile Zinya"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"158",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82118",title:"Surface Hardening of Stainless Steel",slug:"surface-hardening-of-stainless-steel",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105036",abstract:"The addition of nitrogen to stainless steel improves mechanical and corrosion properties. Nitrogen-bearing stainless steel (HNSS) is a new corrosion-resistant alloy class exhibiting better tribological properties. High-pressure and powder metallurgy techniques were developed for the fabrication of HNSS. Solid-state routes allow nitrogen introduction through thermochemical, implantation, or plasma surface treatments. High-temperature gas nitriding (HTGN), carried out in an N2 atmosphere in the 1000°C range, allows N uptake, obtaining thick, ~0.5–1.0 wt.% N austenitic cases. HTGN is different from conventional nitriding, performed in the 500°C range, where intense CrxNy precipitation occurs, impairing the corrosion resistance. Low-temperature plasma nitriding (LTPN) introduces more N in solution, and colossal supersaturated expanded phases (~45 at.%N) are formed. N supersaturation and compressive stresses increase the hardness of the surface layer to 10–14 GPa. Ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation-hardened stainless steels can be surface-treated by LTPN, obtaining expanded ferrite and martensite. However, single LTPN stainless steel may prematurely fail when submitted to high loading, as the thin and hard expanded layers collapse due to lack of load-bearing capacity. Duplex-nitriding treatment (HTGN + LTPN) results in a thick nitrogen-rich hardened austenite substrate layer, granting mechanical support and adhesion to the expanded austenite layer.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"André Paulo Tschiptschin and Carlos Eduardo Pinedo"},{id:"81579",title:"Welding Based Additive Manufacturing: Fundamentals",slug:"welding-based-additive-manufacturing-fundamentals",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104768",abstract:"Additive Manufacturing (AM) has drawn abundant attention over the past decades in the manufacturing and fabrication industries, especially to make part models and prototypes. This chapter introduces a potential welding based AM process called Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for the fabrication of near-net shaped metal components including stainless steel components. To start with traditional AM processes, various fundamental traditional AM for the fabrication of components have been presented. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has been explained with its variants, synonyms, different welding processes to suit WAAM particularly to weld stainless steel metal; primary process selections for working with WAAM, important metals, and alloys that could be used in WAAM have been elaborated. A case study for WAAM fabrication of AISI 316 L stainless steel plate is included to introduce the fabrication of metal components using WAAM. Further, the most common defects which possibly play a vital role in WAAM components fabrication and a few of the future challenges regarding WAAM development are discussed. Fundamental information covered in this chapter could be more beneficial to beginners for the understanding of WAAM process generally including stainless steel component fabrication in a lucid tactic.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Maruthasalam Sowrirajan, Selvaraj Vijayan and Munusamy Arulraj"},{id:"80664",title:"Dependence of Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steels on the Magnetic State of Austenite",slug:"dependence-of-corrosion-resistance-of-austenitic-chromium-nickel-steels-on-the-magnetic-state-of-aus",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102388",abstract:"Corrosive behavior of austenitic chromium-nickel steels from the magnetic state (parameter χ0) of austenite, pre-formed to interact with aggressive media are research. Correlation between the rate K of pitting corrosion and the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite was experimentally established. It is experimentally established that the corrosion resistance of austenitic steels AISI304, 08Cr18Ni10, AISI 321, 08Cr18Ni10Тi (containing a low amount of δ-ferrite ∼0.005…0.5%) depends on the magnetic state of austenite: the corrosion rate of steel decreases with increases χ0 austenite. The tendency of change in the corrosion rate of austenitic alloy with a high nickel content 06Crh28NiMoCuTi (not contain δ-ferrite) has the opposite character: with increasing χ0, the corrosion rate of the alloy increases is revealed. For austenitic chromium-nickel steels, the corrosion rates of the individual (austenite (A), δ-ferrite (F), strain-induced α′-martensite (M)) and total (A + F, A + M and A + F + M) phases are determined. It is proposed to predict corrosion according to the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite and the amount δ-ferrite.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Gennadii Snizhnoi"},{id:"80199",title:"The Evaluation of the Comparative Corrosion Behaviour of Conventional and Low-Nickel Austenitic Stainless Steel: Hercules™ Alloy",slug:"the-evaluation-of-the-comparative-corrosion-behaviour-of-conventional-and-low-nickel-austenitic-stai",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102381",abstract:"Austenitic stainless steels require approximately 8% Ni to maintain austenitic microstructure at room temperature for alloys such as 304 stainless steel (304SS). Ni contributes approximately 60% of the total material cost and its price fluctuates, making the cost of austenitic stainless steel unpredictable. The use of low-nickel austenitic stainless steels as a substitute has been considered in order to remedy costs associated with Ni price fluctuations. Alloying elements such as Mn and N have been considered, however they have been found to reduce corrosion resistance. A new alloy namely Hercules™ has been developed with reduced Ni content (1.8–2% Ni). This chapter presents a comparative study of the corrosion behavior of Hercules™ and 304SS in different solutions. The alloys were evaluated using cyclic polarisation technique and immersion tests. The results demonstrated that the corrosion resistance of Hercules™ is comparable to that of 304SS. This presents the alloys as potential industrial substitutes of each other.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Duduzile Nkomo and Nomsombuluko Masia"},{id:"80346",title:"Nitrogen Supersaturation of AISI316 Base Stainless Steels at 673 K and 623 K for Hardening and Microstructure Control",slug:"nitrogen-supersaturation-of-aisi316-base-stainless-steels-at-673-k-and-623-k-for-hardening-and-micro",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102387",abstract:"The high-density plasma nitriding at 673 K and 623 K was employed to make 10% of nitrogen supersaturation on AISI316 base austenitic stainless steels. The processing parameters and nitrogen-hydrogen gas flow ratio were optimized to increase the yield of N2+ ion and NH-radical for efficient nitriding. The nitrided AISI316 specimens were prepared for multidimensional analysis to describe the fundamental features of low-temperature plasma nitriding. First, macroscopic evaluation revealed that nitrogen supersaturation induced the γ-lattice expansion and the higher nitrogen content than 4% of mass in depth. The mesoscopic analysis describes the holding temperature and initial grain-size effects on the microstructure changes. Plastic straining, grain-size refinement, and nitrogen zone-boundary diffusion processes advance with nitrogen supersaturation to drive the inner nitriding behavior. The microscopic analysis explains the microstructure refinement, the two-phase structuring, and the microstructure modification. Through this multi-dimensional analysis, the essential characteristics of the low-temperature plasma nitriding of 316 austenitic stainless steels were precisely understood to extend the engineering treatise on the bulk nitrogen stainless steels for surface modification and treatment of stainless steels by nitriding. This plasma nitriding was applied to strengthen and harden the AISI316 wire surfaces toward its application on surgery wires.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa, Tomomi Shiratori, Tomoaki Yoshino, Yohei Suzuki and Takafumi Komatsu"},{id:"79904",title:"Corrosion Resistance, Evaluation Methods, and Surface Treatments of Stainless Steels",slug:"corrosion-resistance-evaluation-methods-and-surface-treatments-of-stainless-steels",totalDownloads:106,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101430",abstract:"Stainless steels are widely recognized and find applications in many engineering industries and companies due to their excellent properties including high resistance to corrosion as a result of their minimum 10.5% chromium content, exceptional strength and durability, temperature resistance, high recyclability, and easy formability. In the present book chapter, the basic concepts of stainless steel including its applications, classifications, and corrosion properties will first be discussed. Thereafter, their corrosion behaviour will then be explained. The various methods by which the corrosion resistance behaviour can be significantly improved including surface treatments such as coatings/electrodepositions, alloying, mechanical treatment, and others will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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