Chemical composition of the obtained alloys (at.%) and their hardness after heat treatment at 1000°C/24 h and furnace-cooling.
\r\n\tThe present book intends to provide to the reader a comprehensive overview of the state of art in empathy studies, embracing the different theoretical points of view and illustrating the advanced research such as the application of new technologies to promote perspective-taking. The critical aspects and the future directions of the study on empathy will also be presented.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-612-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-611-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-613-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c1042dfe15aa9cea6019524c4cbff38",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Sara Ventura",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11443.jpg",keywords:"Theoretical Model, Skill, Perspective Taking, Training Programs, Practical Implications, Advanced Research, Future Directions, Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, New Trends, Assistive Technology",numberOfDownloads:19,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 1st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 7th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 26th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Passionate researcher in the application of new technologies to psychological treatments, neuro-rehabilitation, human behavior, and the evolution of the human-computer interaction. In 2017 Dr. Ventura won a competitive grant (Santiago Grisolia) at the University of Valencia at LABPSITEC group, where she was awarded her Ph.D. degree, supervised by Prof. Rosa Baños at the University of Valencia, and co-directed by Prof. Giuseppe Riva of the Catholic University of Milan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/227763/images/system/227763.jpg",biography:"Sara Ventura gained a B.Sc in Psychology at the University of Padua (Italy) in 2013 and an M.Sc. in Ergonomic Psychology at the Catholic University of Milan (Italy) in 2015. In 2016, she carried out a postgraduate training at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico (Mexico) at the Ciberpsychology lab, working on a rehabilitation protocol for people with acquired brain injury through Virtual Reality. In 2020, Sara gained the Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at University of Valencia (Spain) working with the LabPsitec group and focusing her research on the study of embodiment and empathy with the support of Virtual Reality. Actually, she is working both with Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna (Italy), and the University of Valencia (Spain) on the fields of embodiment, stroke rehabilitation, empathy and patient care. Her research interests mainly focus on the adoption of new technologies, particularly Virtual/Augmented Reality and Artificial Intelligence for the psycho-social wellbeing with clinical and non-clinical populations, the study of human-computer interaction, and the user experience. She is the author of several scientific papers and various presentations at national and international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"82719",title:"Empathy as a High-Performance Competency",slug:"empathy-as-a-high-performance-competency",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82888",title:"From Empathy to the Aggression–Compassion Continuum",slug:"from-empathy-to-the-aggression-compassion-continuum",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"191531",title:"Dr.",name:"Neil E.",surname:"Grunberg",slug:"neil-e.-grunberg",fullName:"Neil E. 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I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6494",title:"Behavior Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72a81a7163705b2765f9eb0b21dec70e",slug:"behavior-analysis",bookSignature:"Huei-Tse Hou and Carolyn S. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61063",title:"Technological Aspects of Production and Processing of Functional Materials Based on Intermetallic Fe-Al",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76701",slug:"technological-aspects-of-production-and-processing-of-functional-materials-based-on-intermetallic-fe",body:'\nFe-Al alloys with an ordered solid solution structure belong to the group of modern heat-resistant engineering materials with favorable physicochemical and mechanical properties at elevated and high temperature [1, 2]. The properties of Fe-Al alloys, such as low density, high melting point, high strength, and good oxidation resistance, combined with fracture toughness, create broad perspectives for industrial applications [3, 4]. These properties are the result of the existing ordering of the crystal structure, which reduces the free energy of the ordered alloys and thus their greater durability. In addition, alloys from the Fe-Al system are characterized by high fatigue strength [5]. Particular properties of alloys from the Fe-Al system make them a favorable material used for construction, as an alternative for stainless steels containing expensive alloying elements and for superalloys, as a coating material, as a material for elements operating under high-temperature corrosion, and as a starting material for complex alloys and composites [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Their application options are oriented toward filling the gap between the currently used conventional steels having particular properties and nickel superalloys in manufacturing of products for aircraft, automotive, and power industries. Despite many advantages of the Fe-Al alloys, their practical use is limited by their low creep strength at high-temperature, insufficient plasticity at moderate and low temperatures, as well as susceptibility to brittle cracking at room temperature [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. In some cases long-range ordering occurring in these alloys, on the one hand, limits the use of typical processing technologies such as cold plastic working and, on the other hand, provides a set of unique mechanical, physical, and chemical properties. According to the Fe-Al phase equilibrium system (Figure 1) [14], aluminum dissolves with iron α up to 54 at.% at 1102°C and 48 at.% at a temperature of about 200°C. During cooling, the constant limit solution Al in Fe is changed to the order Fe-Al. Further cooling affects to replace superstructure Fe-Al into the superstructure of Fe3Al.
\nFe-Al system.
For alloys from the Fe-Al system, the most important factors affecting their properties are aluminum content and the content of alloy microadditions. Fe-Al alloys show an increase in the yield stress with an increase of Al content. Two groups of alloying additives can be distinguished in Fe-Al alloys due to their effect:
Additives forming separations that affect the increase of strength. These include Nb, Zr, B, C, Cu and Ta.
Alloy additions affecting the strengthening of the solid solution, which may include Cr, Ti, Mn, Si, Mo, V, and Ni.
Fe-Al-based alloys have the highest concentration of thermal vacancies as the only of the long-range intermetallic alloy group. Their presence exerts influence on mechanical properties and, as a result, on the possibilities of industrial-scale application. The concentration of vacancies in Fe-Al alloys increases with the increase of Al content. Alloy additions, such as Cu, Ni, Mn, Cr, V, and Ti, which increase the hardness, affect the slight increase in the concentration of thermal vacancies; however, the addition of B is significant here because it affects the acceleration of the elimination of vacancies. At low temperatures, triple defects and their diffusion dominate by jumping the Fe atoms to the Al subnet. Then, the process of pushing back the anti-position Fe atoms from the Al subnet to the Fe network takes place. At a higher temperature, double vacancies are formed, and their movement is made by double jumps. The increase in the concentration of vacancies causes the increase of the yield stress [16, 17, 18].
\nTime perspective of application of this group of materials depends particularly on thorough understanding of the dependence between, on the one hand, the production processes and the microstructure, and on the other hand, physical properties, such as thermal conductivity and thermal expansion, phase transition temperatures, and defecting and structural ordering of these compounds [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. Such an approach will provide a range of information which allows for anticipating ways of influencing the process plasticity of these alloys.
\nBinary and complex alloys from the Fe-Al system (Table 1) were the materials for studies. An analysis of available Fe-Al and Fe-Al-Me equilibrium systems and literature research indicate that the chemical composition of alloys for plastic working should be in the range of 25% at. Al to 60% at. Al, and it may contain additives such as molybdenum, zirconium, carbon, and boron, with contents in the following ranges (at.%): Mo (0.2 ± 0.1), Zr (0.1 ± 0.05), C (0.1 ± 0.1), and B (0.02 ± 0.01). Most of all, the indicated microadditions serve the purpose of strengthening of grain boundaries, as well as grain refining.
\nChemical composition of the obtained alloys (at.%) and their hardness after heat treatment at 1000°C/24 h and furnace-cooling.
An analysis of chemical composition carried out by optical emission spectrometry (OES) confirmed obtaining chemical compositions assumed for melting.
\nCurrently, the alloys from the Fe-Al system used as casting materials do not pose major technological problems during melting and casting. However, the requirements set for these alloys increase if semifinished products intended for a further processing are manufactured from them. Such alloys must exhibit a set of features ensuring their technological plasticity, including high-purity, uniform, and fine-grained structure with a minimal level of casting defects such as shrinkage porosities, cracks, and microporosity. Melting was carried out using a conventional melting technique in an IS5/III induction vacuum furnace from Leybold-Heraeus, using a compacted magnesia crucible (from MgO·Al2O3 spinel) with a granulation of 0.05–2 mm, under a vacuum of 13.5 Pa. Melting of alloys under vacuum allows for avoiding the use of protective covers and refiners and enables to use pure metals instead of master alloys as charges. It also promotes alloy degassing and protects from oxidation, but it requires taking into account the melting loss of the components in the result of their evaporation. The following constituents were used during the melting process: as charge components (ARMCO iron, aluminum of 99.98 wt.% purity, electrolytic chromium) and as microadditions (technically pure molybdenum in the form of a compressed powder, technically pure iodine zirconium, crystalline boron, carbon in the form of anthracite). Due to the form of the charge materials, the melting loss was assumed for molybdenum, zirconium, carbon, and boron. Mechanically, purified and dried pieces of the main alloy components, i.e., iron and aluminum, were placed together in the crucible. After melting and homogenization, the charge was overheated to a temperature of approx. 1600°C, and the following microadditions were added to the melt: zirconium, molybdenum, carbon, and boron. After reducing the temperature to approx. 1530÷1550°C and maintaining it for homogenization and degassing, the alloy was cast. After melting, the alloys were remelted once. Preparation of casts both having circular (the so-called bars) and rectangular (the so-called flats) cross sections was planned. The alloys were cast under the same conditions into cold graphite molds (Figure 2). In the upper sections of the mold, double insulating felt with a thickness of 3÷4 cm was used, serving the purpose of protection from rapid solidification of the liquid metal. Figures 1–4 show the applied graphite molds and dimensions of the obtained ingots.
\nGraphite mold for ingots having dimensions (a) Ø12 mm, l = 120 mm, (b) l = 45 mm and diameters (a) Ø50 mm, (b) Ø30 mm, and (c) Ø22 mm, (c) of approx. 160 mm × 30 mm × 20 mm.
The alloys after casting were characterized by a coarse-grained structure. In the case of the alloys without microadditions, occurrence of grains with diversified dimensions was observed, while in the alloys containing microadditions, the shape of the grains is typical for a primary dendritic structure. In Figure 3, selected microstructures of the studied alloys after homogenizing at 1000°C for 24 h and furnace-cooling are shown. In the alloys not containing the Cr alloying element, both binary (Fe-28Al, Fe-38Al) and complex (Fe-28Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B, Fe-38Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B) occurrence of precipitations both at the grain boundaries and inside the grains was found (Figure 3).
\nMicrostructures of the alloys after annealing 1000°C/24 h/furnace.
Microstructures of the alloys after annealing 1000°C/24 h/furnace. The presence of phases inside the grains and at their boundaries.
To identify the precipitations found in the studied alloys, investigations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were carried out. Non-etched and etched samples were examined. Due to the fact that phases of the same type were found in the Fe-28Al, Fe-28Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B, Fe-38Al, and Fe-38Al-5Cr-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C alloys, the phase identification results are presented for the Fe-28Al alloy only. The results of qualitative and quantitative analyses of chemical composition for the Fe-28Al alloy are presented in Figure 5.
\nResults of microstructure studies (SEM, STEM) and analysis of chemical composition together with the X-ray spectra (EDS) of the Fe-28Al alloy after annealing at 1000°C for 24 h and furnace-cooling: (a) etched microsection, (b) non-etched microsection, (c) surface distribution of the elements, and (d) collation of characteristic radiation spectra for the matrix and the phase.
The results of studies of chemical composition microanalysis obtained by scanning electron microscopy (analysis in microzones and surface distribution of the elements) indicate existence of phases with chemical composition close to that of the matrix. The obtained results (SEM) are confirmed by qualitative analysis of chemical composition, carried out by scanning transmission electron microscopy, where also the presence of iron and aluminum only was found in the identified phases. Figure 5 presents a collation of X-ray spectra obtained by STEM for the matrix and for the investigated phase. No differences in characteristic radiation spectra for the matrix and for the phase were found, which proves comparable concentrations of elements in both studied microzones.
\nThen, studies using electron backscatter diffraction were carried out. The obtained pattern of Kikuchi lines of the disclosed phase is shown in Figure 6. An analysis of geometry of the line pattern indicated occurrence of a Fe3Al phase in the Fe-28Al alloy. This fact was confirmed by studies of electron diffraction on a transmission electron microscope. Its results are depicted in Figure 7.
\nResults of studies of the microstructure (EBSD) of the Fe-28Al alloy after annealing at 1000°C for 24 h and furnace-cooling.
Microstructure of the Fe-28Al alloy after annealing at 1000°C for 24 h and furnace-cooling (TEM): (a) experimental zone (white area) and (b) diffraction pattern from the analyzed phase and diffraction solution.
The results are consistent with the phase equilibrium system, because in both studied systems, the Fe3Al phase may form during slow cooling at a temperature from approx. 500°C (for Fe-28Al) and from approx. 300°C (for Fe-38Al).
\nDue to the hot plastic working process planned in further steps, a structural analysis in the state after the high-temperature annealing was carried out, using rapid cooling in oil for vacancy freezing. In the case of the studied alloys, rapid cooling eliminates the formation of phase in the microstructure, exemplified in Figure 8. It suggests a lack of influence of the Fe3Al phase disclosed in the heat treatment process on the planned course of the hot plastic working process in the studied alloys.
\nMicrostructures of the studied alloys after the high-temperature annealing for 24 h and oil cooling.
Thermomechanical behavior of intermetallic alloys at a high temperature is connected with the existing state of structural ordering and with the complex defect structure, including the characteristic phenomenon of supersaturation with vacancies [1, 2]. Both the structure ordering and the presence of multiple defect types affect the properties of the studied alloys significantly. From the point of view of the plastic working process, it is necessary to determine the characteristic temperatures in relation to changes in the ordering type and the temperature of transition into a disordered state, in which the plastic working process may be realized. Characteristic transition temperatures were determined by dilatometric method and confirmed by DTA. The results obtained for the selected alloys are gathered in Figure 9. Critical temperature of the change in the ordering type in the alloys with 28 at.% Al was identified, connected with the transition from the B2 ordering-type state into DO3 at a temperature of approx. 550°C. For alloys with 38 at.% Al, a thermal effect was observed at a temperature of approx. 1260°C, which may be connected with the process of transition from a disordered (A2) into an ordered (B2) solid solution, and another one at a temperature of approx. 1060°C, which is probably a result of changes in physical properties within the phase B2 occurrence area, and precisely, with the B2(h) → B2′ transition, the changes being connected with a rebuilding of the defect structure [6].
\nTransition temperatures for the Fe-28Al and Fe-38Al alloys recorded by dilatometric method and differential thermal analysis method.
Technological plasticity and thus the deformabilities of the studied alloys are significantly affected by the value of flow stress. In the case of the Fe-Al alloys, the more important factors affecting their behavior during deformation at a given temperature include Al content and, consequently, the obtainable different structure types of the alloy matrix, i.e., a matrix with an ordered structure of DO3 or B2 type. The type of the alloy matrix should be related to phase transitions, occurring with the given chemical composition, which may be used while selecting the parameters of the plastic working so as to decrease the value of flow stress at the given value of deformation. Also, the different deformation mechanism, depending on the Al content in this case, should be taken into account.
\nThe obtained results of plastometric examinations indicate that at a temperature below 900°C, the discussed alloys undergo a strong hardening. Deformation at a higher temperature affects a decrease of the flow stress value (Figure 10). A tendency to increase the hardening with the increasing Al content was found in the plastometric tests. The highest σp values among the studied alloys are exhibited by the Fe-38Al alloy.
\nInfluence of the deformation temperature on maximum flow stress of the studied alloys (deformation rate 1 s−1).
Analysis of the shape of the flow curves and evaluation of the structure of the studied alloys indicated that the prevailing rebuilding mechanism of the defected structure changes depends on the Al content. In alloys containing 28 at.% Al, a phenomenon of grain defragmentation is observed in the microstructure (Figure 11). Inside the primary grains, new grains nucleate. In the substructure, climb of dislocation, polygonization, and subgrain coalescence prevail phenomena characteristics for dynamic recovery process (Figure 12). In alloy with a higher Al content, prevalence of the wide-angle migration process of the grain boundaries and formation of new grains and phenomena accompanying the process of stricture rebuilding in the result of dynamic recrystallization were observed (Figures 11 and 13).
\nMicrostructures of the alloys after deformation with a rate of 0.1 s−1 at T = 1000°C.
Substructure of the Fe-28Al alloy after deformation with a rate of 0.1 s
After plastometric studies, rolling tests under laboratory conditions were carried out. Ingots of Fe-28Al, Fe-28Al-5Cr, and Fe-38Al alloys having dimensions of approx. 160 × 30 × 20 mm (Figure 2) after homogenizing annealing constituted charge materials. Hot rolling was carried out on a two-high reversed rolling mill with roller diameter of 65 mm at VSB-TU Ostrava. The samples were heated to a temperature of 1150°C and then rolled in three roll passes. The following percentage reductions were applied: 15, 15, and 15%. Rotational speed of the rollers was 80 rpm. After rolling, the samples were cooled in air. The process was carried out for ingots without covers and using covers made of ferritic steel (AISI 430) in order to protect the alloy surface from oxidation and cracking in the result of contact with cold rollers. In Figure 13, views of obtained profiles are collated. It was observed that in the case of binary alloys, it was necessary to use covers during hot rolling. A particularly evident net of deep cracks was observed after rolling without covers in the Fe-38Al alloy. In the case of the Fe-28Al-5Cr alloy, a qualitatively good surface was obtained even after rolling without covers (Figure 14).
\nSubstructure of the Fe-38Al alloy after deformation with a rate of 1 s−
Photographs of surfaces of the flats obtained after hot rolling.
For selected flats, a further rolling process was carried out using percentage reductions 15, 15, and 15% to a thickness of 6 mm, obtaining semifinished products (Figure 15) of satisfactory quality.
\nThen, tests of corrosion resistance in the “acid rain” environment – pH = 3.5 and 3% NaCl aqueous solution, for samples after homogenizing annealing and rolling was carried out. The scope of the tests included potentiostatic, galvanostatic, and potentiodynamic examinations as well as investigation of the condition of the sample surface after corrosion. It was proven that, in most cases, the tested alloys are characterized by a tendency for activation (depassivation) of the surface under the aforementioned conditions. The best corrosion resistance was exhibited by samples of the Fe-38Al alloy. For the samples of this alloy, the lowest values of current density for a potential both of E = Ekor + 300 mV and E = Ekor + 500 mV were recorded. A significant increase in the current density from the value of the corrosion current density to the value of the current density for the potential of E = Ekor + 300 mV was characterized here. Comparing the tests results for the samples with various degrees of deformation, one may see that a higher deformation degree under nonstationary conditions, or those closer to the actual corrosion conditions, does not cause an acceleration of the corrosion but, unlike under stationary conditions, a slowdown. For all studied alloys, the corrosion has a local character and leads to the formation of small point pits (Figure 16).
\nViews of the profiles after rolling with total reduction of ~70% to a thickness of 6 mm.
Surface of the Fe-38Al alloy (condition after rolling with a total reduction of ~70% to a thickness of 6 mm) after corrosion tests.
The studies carried out hitherto allowed for ascertaining that further technological tests should be carried out for the alloy with 38 at.% Al content. However, realization of tests for the alloy with such aluminum content with microadditions was planned at this stage. It was imposed, most of all, by the role of microadditions in the hardening process of grain boundaries.
\nRealizing the planned research program intended for obtaining semifinished products in the form of thin sheets, a sheet production process from the Fe-38Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B alloy was applied, consisting of heat treatment and plastic working. A semifinished product with a thickness of ~2 mm (Figure 17) was obtained.
\nFlats made of the Fe-38Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B alloy.
Successful results of the realized rolling tests induced realization of further planned goals, i.e., preparation of bars from the tested alloy by two techniques: rolling and hydrostatic extrusion. Execution of these tests was planned using metal covers.
\nRolling of ingots from the Fe-38Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B alloy with initial diameters of Ø30 mm and Ø22 mm (Figure 2) was carried out on a three-high mill. Before the rolling, the ingots were heated for approx. 45 min; the heating temperature was higher by 30°C than the planned initial rolling temperature, i.e., 1250°C. The rolling was carried out without reheating. In the first step, rolling of the ingots to a diameter of Ø12 mm was planned. Figure 18shows cross sections of the produced bars. Considering the occurrence of an uncontrolled material flow, further reduction of the cross section was canceled. However, it should be emphasized that in spite of the technological difficulties, a homogeneous and fine-grained structure was obtained (Figure 19).
\nCross sections of the bars formed in the hot rolling process (uncontrolled material flow).
The hot hydrostatic extrusion process was carried out for an ingot of the Fe-38Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B alloy, having a diameter of 30 mm after homogenization at a temperature of 1000°C. Cross sections of the prepared bars are shown in Figure 20.
\nMicrostructure of the Fe-38Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B alloy after the hot rolling process.
Cross sections of the bars formed in the hot hydrostatic extrusion process.
An effective structure refinement was obtained after the hydrostatic extrusion process. Figure 21 presents the alloy microstructure after the homogenization process and after the extrusion process.
\nMicrostructure of the Fe-38Al-0.2Mo-0.05Zr-0.1C-0.02B alloy: (a) after casting and heat treatment and (b–c) after the hot hydrostatic extrusion process (diameter 2 mm).
The tests carried out proved that melting of the studied alloys in induction vacuum furnaces is technically possible while maintaining the given process parameters. In the results of the application of the charge in the form of very pure components, melting and single refinement remelting, alloys with an assumed chemical composition, and a very low total content of gaseous impurities of the order of several ppm are obtained. It was found that the produced alloys are characterized by a very low castability and a high casting shrinkage (from 3.30 to 3.40%), leading to a coarse-grained primary structure and occurrence of shrink-type defects being deposited in the ingots.
\nIn the process of heat treatment, during cooling, Fe3Al phase forms in the studied alloys. According to the phase equilibrium system, the Fe3Al phase may form during slow cooling at a temperature from approx. 500°C (for Fe-28Al) and from approx. 300°C (for Fe-38Al). In order to eliminate the influence of the Fe3Al phase disclosed in the heat treatment process on the planned hot plastic working process, a heat treatment operation with oil cooling was used for the studied alloys to freeze the structure. Therefore, lack of influence of the aforementioned phase on the deformation process was confirmed.
\nFrom the point of view of the plastic working process, it was necessary to determine the characteristic temperatures in the studied alloys, particularly in relation to the changes in the ordering type and the temperature of transition into a disordered state, in which the plastic working process could be realized. Critical temperature of the change in the ordering type in the alloys with 28 at.% Al was identified, connected with a transition from the ordered state of B2 type into DO3 type at a temperature of approx. 550°C. For alloys containing 38 at.% Al, a temperature of transition from a disordered (A2) into an ordered (B2) solid solution was identified, and temperatures of transitions are connected with a rebuilding of the defect structure within the B2 phase.
\nThe obtained results of the plastometric studies indicated possibilities of technological forming of the studied alloys in the temperature range from 900 to 1200°C. At a lower temperature, strong hardening renders the deformation process more difficult. The technological hot plastic forming tests proved a possibility to obtain flat hot-rolled products consistent with the assumptions while maintaining the final rolling temperature not lower than 950°C, using metal covers. A proper method for production of bars consistent with the assumptions is the high-temperature hydrostatic extrusion process. A product obtained by this method warrants meeting the dimensional requirements, which has not been obtainable by rolling. In the case of both technologies applied, manufacturing of products in the form of bars requires an additional operation for jacket removal.
\nPotentially, the use of the developed flat products in heating systems of heat exchangers as substitutes for stainless steels used hitherto may be planned. Moreover, application of the developed products in the form of bars as elements of operational systems of motor vehicles may be envisaged, including particularly the use for roller axles of the supercharging pressure system of turbo.
\nOrigins of life remain a mystery for our humankind. The concept of “chemical evolution” describes a general evolutionary route from the abiotic to the biotic world through a variety of chemical and physical processes. Kitadai. et al. summarized the reactions explored in the lab for the chemical evolution (Figure 1). Starting from geologically abundant molecules (e.g., N2, CO2, H2, PO4, NO3−, HCN, etc.), high energy input drives the synthesis of small organic molecules as precursors. These small organic molecules react with each other to form life’s building blocks (e.g., amino acids, nucleobases, sugars, aliphatic acids, etc.). Subsequently, these monomers polymerize into functional polymers which assemble into the so-called protocell.
Overview of the chemical evolution of life, adapted from ref. [
As many life’s building blocks are not stable at temperatures higher than 100°C [2], a geological setting with moderate temperature is considered to be more favorable for life’s emergence. In addition, a moderate temperature can render the chemical system a kinetic control that will otherwise only generate the most stable products following thermodynamics under a high-temperature regime. Kinetic control is required to form metastable products. There are many challenges in chemical evolution, two of which are caused by reaction kinetics. First, in the beginning, how geologically abundant inorganic molecules were activated and converted into small organic molecules? Second, how the chemical reactions are directed towards a high molecular complexity and product diversity for selectively generating life’s building blocks? In this regard, catalysis is at the center of chemical evolution. A catalyst lowers the energetic barrier and enhances the reaction rate of activation of inert molecules. Different catalysts with tuned surface property and electronic characteristics can regulate the reaction pathways by adjusting the transition states of the intermediates.
Geological molecules, as the feedstocks of prebiotic synthesis, are typically chemically inert despite their high abundances. The activation of small geological molecules, such as H2, CO2, etc., requires redox processes. H2 needs to be oxidized to release the chemical energy while CO2 needs to be reduced to synthesize organics which usually show intermediate valence states of carbon (from +3 to −3) [3]. Similarly, methane (CH4), which was considered to be abundant on the early Earth in some scenarios [4], needs to be oxidized to synthesize useful organics. Therefore, in general, redox processes play an important role in chemical evolution.
The importance of redox processes for energy conservation is also reflected in modern biology, where modern living organisms are relying on enzymes for catalyzing biochemical reactions and maintaining homeostasis. In particular, redox enzymes are important for organisms to harvest energy from geologically available molecules in their surrounding environments. For example, methanogens convert CO2 and H2 into methane, with the generation of proton gradient for ATP synthesis [5, 6]. Nitrogen-fixing organisms use redox enzyme nitrogenase to reduce N2 into ammonia for N assimilation, which is a 6e−/6H+ reaction (N2 + 6e− + 6H+ = 2NH3) [7, 8]. These metabolic reaction pathways were considered to be very ancient based on phylogenetic analysis, which could have appeared in the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) [9, 10, 11]. Redox enzymes accounting for these reactions highly rely on earth-abundant transition metals (e.g., Fe, Ni, Mo, etc.) due to the electron-shuttling property of these metal sites and the relatively high affinity of the
However, before life emerged, it has long been considered that enzymes are too complex to be readily available. What are the geo-catalysts responsible for activating small molecules (including C-, N-, and S-related compounds)? Earth owns more than 5700 known species of minerals, with new species being identified every year (e.g., https://rruff.info/ima/). Both the variety and relative abundances of minerals have changed dramatically over the Earth’s history, through various chemical, physical, and biological processes [14]. To understand the role of minerals in the origin of life, determining the first place to spawn the first life is an essential question. There are two dominating and contrasting scenarios of origins of life: those predicting that life emerged in the submarine, alkaline hydrothermal vent systems where the redox, pH, and T gradients keep the system far from equilibrium and serve as energy sources for prebiotic synthesis, as pioneered by Russell, et al. [4, 9, 15, 16, 17, 18]; and those predicting that life emerged within subaerial environments with prebiotic synthesis driven by UV photolysis pioneered by Sutherland et al. [3, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Both of these two scenarios implicitly emphasize the importance of redox processes for activating inert molecules. The former scenario proposed minerals (such as sulfides and hydroxides) as key players, while the latter relies on radicals and solvated electrons for redox conversions. Recently, an alternative scenario of origins of life in volcanic hot-spring water or the so-called “land-based pool” scenario was proposed by Damer and Deamer [24, 25, 26], to solve the self-assembly problem for membrane formation in the salty ocean while allowing condensation/polymerization through wet-dry cycle provided by the fluctuating boundary conditions. This scenario has been testified with self-assembly experiments simulating the hot-spring conditions [25]. Since the role of minerals hasn’t been explicitly considered in the scenarios by Sutherland et al. and Deamer et al., only the scenarios involving mineral catalysis (e.g., alkaline hydrothermal vent (AHV) theory, iron–sulfur world theory by Wächtershäuser [27, 28, 29, 30, 31]) will be discussed in this chapter.
AHV theory was proposed based on the notion that the far-from-equilibrium condition in alkaline hydrothermal vent systems resembles biochemistry in the following aspects: (1) the large chemical disequilibrium is akin to the conditions the biology tends to live on and stably maintained through Earth’s geological time; (2) the pH gradient sustained by the chimney rock wall resembles the chemiosmotic energy conservation shared by all life forms; (3) the transition metal-bearing mineral walls are rich in sulfides, which share the similar metal center and sulfur ligands with the modern Ni-, and Fe-bearing redox enzymes (e.g., carbon monoxide dehydrogenases, hydrogenase, ferredoxin, etc.) [9], thus could have catalyzed similar chemical conversions; (4) many chemoautotrophic microorganisms were discovered in the deep-sea hydrothermal vents and their metabolism is suggested to be phylogenetically old and energetically fueled by the chemicals in the vents; (5) different from the acidic type, high temperature hydrothermal vents, the low temperature (<120°C), alkaline, lost-city type hydrothermal vents renders kinetic control and could stabilize biomolecules formed in-situ.
Regardless of the scenarios, minerals have shown special functions in different types of prebiotic synthesis. Here in this chapter, a special focus will be posted on the redox catalysis mediated by minerals for the prebiotic synthesis, involving C, N, S, which are the fundamental elements of life and involved in a variety of redox conversions.
Before reviewing the state-of-art of mineral-catalyzed organic synthesis, larger questions here are: (1) Why catalysis is required for chemical evolution? (2) At which evolutionary period did catalysis begin to play an important role? The emergence of first life and the subsequent evolution from prokaryotes to eukaryotes all require well-regulated chemical conversion for efficient energy harvesting, sustainable supply of building blocks, and maintaining intracellular homeostasis. Eukaryotes developed more complex energy harvesting organelles that rely on respiration electron transfer chain and photosynthesis to metabolize with a higher transformation efficiency of energy and mass [32] (Figure 2). This is essential for maintaining their high cellular complexity in terms of both structure and functionality by balancing the enthalpy and entropy [36]. Notably, the enzymes responsible for these chemical conversions are catalytic, namely, the enzyme catalysts do not change chemically after one cycle or turnover of reaction, although enzymes indeed need replacement after the expiration of their lifetime. This catalytic feature is essential for boosting the reaction kinetics, saving energy for re-synthesizing enzymes, adapting to different substrate conditions, reversibly promoting both the two directions of the reaction, and so on [37]. As a comparison, in a non-catalytic, stoichiometric reaction, the active species that reacts with the geochemical substrates to target organics end up with a change in their chemical structures in an irreversible manner. After the complete consumption of the active species, the reaction can no longer proceed. From a top-down point of view, the prebiotic chemistry probably needs to evolve towards a catalytic, sustainable type of reaction network, to solve the problem of the shortage of supply of the building blocks/precursors, promote the reaction kinetics, and finally become self-independent when being encapsulated in a protocell. However, it should be noted that, at the initial stage of prebiotic synthesis, both catalytic and stoichiometric reactions are important for the synthesis of organic molecules to accumulate these organic precursors for subsequent conversion. As will be shown later, a large portion of prebiotic syntheses to date have been focusing on a stochiometric type reaction, therefore, relying on active agents. However, for some reason, the term “catalyst” has been used occasionally and misleading. In the following session, special care will be paid to differentiate the “catalytic” and “stoichiometric” types of reaction.
The scenario of co-evolved catalytic system and life. During the continuous evolution from geochemistry to biochemistry, and the evolution of eukaryotes from prokaryotes, the gradually evolving catalytic systems serve as the physicochemical and energetic basis for promoting an increased energy transduction efficiency and reaction activity for supporting the higher complexity of (proto-)metabolism or (cellular) structures. Schemes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cellular structures are adapted from Ref. [
Miller-Urey experiments open up the whole field of prebiotic chemistry [38]. At that time, the early Earth atmosphere was considered to be reducing and mainly composed of reducing species, such as methane, H2, CO, NH3, etc. However, this has been questioned, and the current consensus is that the early Earth atmosphere was oxidizing, with CO2, N2, and H2O as the major components, with a trace amount of H2 [39]. Based on this, a chemoautotrophic scenario pioneered by Wächtershäuser was proposed [27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. The chemoautotrophic origin of life scenario relies on primordial carbon fixation within a sulfide-rich hydrothermal vent. Driven by the reducing energy and activation ability of carbon monoxide (CO), many types of reactions were demonstrated. For example, at 100°C, C-C bond formation with the generation of acetate proceeds on FeS and NiS from a mixture of CO and CH3SH, or from a mixture of CO and H2S alone with the addition of Se [27]. This reaction resembles the reductive acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) pathway, where the key enzyme, acetyl-CoA synthase, contains a Ni-Fe-S active center and forms acetyl-CoA from coenzyme A, CO, and a methyl group. CO was also demonstrated to promote the reductive polymerization of HCN to α-hydroxy acids and α-amino acids at 80 ~ 120°C on FeS or NiS precipitates [29], where glycine and alanine were formed accompanied by glycolic and lactic acid. The polymerization of amino acids into short peptides was also demonstrated by CO activation [28]. In these experiments, high-pressure CO gas was used (1 ~ 75 bar) [29].
Based on the modeling of the atmosphere in the late Hadean period [39], the most abundant abiotic carbon feedstock on the early Earth is carbon dioxide (CO2), with a trace amount of CO. Therefore, for the autotrophic origin of life scenarios, CO2 was a more preferable and primary carbon source for primordial biosynthesis. CO2 dissolved in the ocean and resulted in a mildly acidic ocean (pH ~ 5.5) [40]. Compared to CO, CO2 is a chemically inert molecule that requires high activation energy. The acetyl-CoA (AcCoA, or Wood-Ljungdahl) pathway is considered to be the most ancient autotrophic CO2 fixation pathway in nature [41]. To answer the question of how CO2 reduction occurs before the evolution of proteins, CO2 reduction has been demonstrated by Varma et al. [42], that native transition metals (Fe0, Ni0, and Co0) can reduce CO2 to acetate and pyruvate in millimolar concentrations. Moreover, in the AHV theory proposed by Russell and colleagues [9, 15, 18], the carbon fixation was driven by the direct redox coupling of CO2 and H2 on metal sulfides or oxyhydroxides [16]. Later, Lane and Martin [43, 44] also discussed the plausible relevance of the pH gradients in membrane-separated alkaline hydrothermal vent systems with the H+ gradients across the cell membranes that drive ubiquitous chemiosmotic coupling in all life forms. This scenario was approved in recent work by Sojo et al., that in a microfluidic system with a freshly precipitated thin Fe-, or Ni-sulfide mineral membrane, CO2 in simulated sea water side was reduced to formate at several micromolar yield [45]. The reaction was likely promoted by pH gradient as evidenced by the boosted yield with increased pH gradient. This shows that CO2 was reduced by Fe or Ni sulfide, probably through an electrochemical process coupled with the oxidation of H2.
Inspired by Russell’s AHV origin of life theory, in the past decade, an alternative scenario “geo-electrochemical driven carbon fixation” has been explored by Nakamura, Yamamoto, Kitadai, and their colleagues [46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. This theory is based on the pH, redox, and thermal gradients between the alkaline hydrothermal vent and seawater. Those gradients thermodynamically drive the redox conversions by coupling H2 oxidation in the hydrothermal fluid/mineral interface with CO2 reduction at the seawater/mineral interface. The experimental results show that CO2 was effectively reduced to CO on certain types of sulfide, such as Ag2S and CdS [53], with much higher efficiency than FeS and NiS despite their higher geological abundances [48, 53]. The product selectivity highly depends on the identity of the metal in the sulfide minerals. Using the CO gas generated by electrochemical reduction, many reactions that were reported in Wächtershäuser’s experiments were confirmed [53]. Since the disequilibrium and gradients in the deep-sea hydrothermal vent system can be maintained throughout the Earth’s early history, the geo-electrochemical CO2 reduction provided a stable and sustainable source of CO which could have fueled the prebiotic synthesis. By simulating the geo-electrochemical conditions of alkaline hydrothermal vents, other researchers also reported CO2 reduction to a variety of products, including formate [49, 53], acetate [49], methane [48, 52], pyruvate [49], C2H6 [52], methanol [49] on Fe- or Ni-containing sulfides.
Regarding the reaction mechanisms, relevance with biological enzymes has been suggested. In biology, the enzyme catalyzing the reduction of CO2 to CO is carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) with a [NiFe4S4] cluster [56]. The reaction is considered to be the oldest pathway of biological carbon fixation and therefore may have been involved in the origin of life [9, 10]. Yamaguchi et al. first studied two metal sulfides greigite (Fe3S4) and violarite (FeNi2S4) and found that Ni-bearing sulfides show higher efficiency in reducing CO2 [48]. Further, Lee et al. reported the in-situ FTIR spectroscopic analyses of the surface intermediate during electrochemical CO2 reduction on these two minerals [52]. Intermediate species assignable to surface-bound CO2 and formyl groups were found to be stabilized in the presence of Ni, lending insight into its role in enhancing the multistep CO2 reduction process. These researches suggested an evolutionary link between mineral-catalyzed prebiotic reaction and enzyme-catalyzed biochemical reaction.
The most geologically abundant N source on the early Earth is dinitrogen (N2). This molecule is chemically inert because of the stable N ≡ N triple bond. Under high-temperature conditions, N2 can be reduced hydrothermally to ammonia, where reductants were considered to be abundant H2S [57] or sulfide minerals. The yield of ammonia using H2S as the reductant at low temperature (120°C) is relatively low even with iron monosulfide as the catalyst and is considered to be insufficient for providing ammonia for prebiotic synthesis. On the other hand, there have been accumulating reports on electrochemical reduction of N2 on Fe2O3 [58, 59, 60], or FeS [61], CuS [62, 63, 64], Mo sulfides [65, 66] at ambient temperature and pressure. These types of reactions could contribute to the prebiotic synthesis of ammonia, following the geo-electrochemistry-driven prebiotic synthesis scenario.
Another chemically more active form of inorganic N species on the early Earth is nitrogen oxyanions including nitrate (NO3−) and nitrite (NO2−). These compounds were formed by lightning and photochemical processes of atmospheric N2 and CO2 with subsequent hydration during rainfall. This could lead to the accumulation of these nitrogen oxyanions in the early ocean with a concentration of micromolar level that is expected to be sufficient for serving as high-potential electron acceptors for the emergence of life in the oceanic environment [67]. NO3− and NO2− are high-potential electron acceptors (E0(NO3−/NO2−) = 0.835 V vs. NHE (normal hydrogen electrode), E0(NO2−/NO) = 1.202 V vs. NHE) [68]. These electron acceptors are invoked to participate in redox coupling with the oxidation of reducing species, such as methane [17], for the synthesis of active methyl-bearing species such as Acetyl-CoA-like molecules.
Despite their relatively higher reactivity, the reduction of NO3− is still kinetically demanding due to the low chemical affinity and low complexation ability with metal sites. Therefore, industrial reduction of NO3− typically requires relatively harsh conditions, such as very acidic pH, UV-photolysis, or high temperature [69]. Fe-based species have been extensively studied for ammonia synthesis via reduction of NO3− and NO2−. These include mackinawite (FeS) [70, 71], Fe2+ [72, 73], pyrite (FeS2) [74, 75], and green rust (FeII4FeIII2(OH)12SO4·yH2O) [76]. Fe(II) ions and green rust can reduce nitrite to ammonia at neutral to alkaline pH (pH ≥ 7) [73, 77]. Although Fe(II) cannot reduce nitrate, the addition of a trace amount of Cu2+ enables the generation of ammonia at pH 8 [77]. Green rust and pyrite can also reduce nitrate into ammonia at pH ~8, which however requires an anion-free environment due to the strong competing adsorption effect from many types of anions [74, 76]. Moreover, the reduction ability of Fe(II) and green rust decrease upon decreasing the solution pH to acidic pH [73, 76]. Therefore, this reaction could have consumed ferrous ions in the ocean. In high temperature (300°C), high pressure (50 ~ 500 MPa) hydrothermal setting, a variety of minerals (Fe-, Ni-, Cu-sulfides, and magnetite) can reduce nitrate into ammonia [78] and the ammonia is maintained stably in contact with these minerals. Accordingly, it was argued that the hydrothermal vent system could have supplied sufficient ammonia for the prebiotic synthesis of biomolecules, such as amino acids. However, at the same time, these mineral-promoted reactions are stoichiometric and strongly affected by the presence of other ions and low pH [73, 76].
Metals other than iron have rarely been considered to account for the geochemical reduction of nitrogen oxyanions. Nevertheless, biological nitrate reduction is catalyzed by nitrate reductase enzyme. All types of nitrate reductases exclusively utilize mononuclear molybdenum as the active center which is bounded by one or two dithiolene groups (-S-C-C-S-) ligated to a pterin group and other ligands (oxo, water, sulfur, etc.) [79, 80]. Inspired by the enzyme structures, the bio-inspired mineral catalysts provide another approach to tackle the kinetic problem. An oxo-bearing molybdenum sulfide as a structural analog of nitrate reductase was synthesized using the hydrothermal method. Notably, this mineral catalyzes both nitrate and nitrite reductions at a wide range of pH, with the generation of a variety of products, including NO, N2O, NH4+, and N2 [51, 69]. The reaction mechanism of nitrate reduction resembles that of the enzyme, relying on a redox-active, pentavalent [(MoV=O)S4] species as the active intermediate. This species was likely generated by a concerted proton-coupled electron transfer step, as evidenced by the near Nernstian behavior revealed by the pH dependence [69]. During nitrite reduction, this mineral show ability to decouple the proton transfer with electron transfer, facilitating a pH-regulated reaction selectivity towards the N-N coupling process [81, 82]. Therefore, this study shows that minerals can not only catalyze a similar reaction with the enzyme but also share a similar reaction mechanism, therefore reinforcing the evolutionary link between geo- and biochemistry.
Thioesters (R-(C=O)-SR’) are organics with high energy (C=O)-S bonds and was invoked to act as an alternative and prebiotic version of phosphoesters (such as ATP) to drive endergonic reactions coupled with the hydrolysis of (C=O)-S bond. The reasons are as follows as described in a recent paper [83]: (1) both thioester and phosphoester bonds have similar standard free energies of hydrolysis; (2) the thioester synthesis precedes the synthesis of phosphoesters in metabolism, such as in glycolysis and the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway; (3) based on computational studies employing network extension algorithms to a phosphate-free core metabolism, thioesters can promote similar reactions like phosphoesters through energetic coupling, for example, reductive TCA cycle and biosynthesis of amino acid [84]. In addition, using thioester as a prebiotic energy coupling agent can partially solve the problem of the scarcity of phosphate in the ferruginous Archean ocean [85] despite the presence of other reactive P sources (e.g., phosphite) [86]. Researchers have reported the synthesis of thioester by abiotic processes. Driven by active CO, at 100°C, the Wächtershäuser group reported C-C bond formation with the generation of CH3-CO-SCH3 thioesters proceeds on FeS and NiS from a mixture of CO and CH3SH [27]. Sandan et al. reported the generation of thioester by reacting of thioacetate and thiols in presence of Fe3+ at 70°C in water [83]. In addition, by further adding ferredoxin–heme maquettes, [4Fe-4S] cluster was formed based on the characteristic UV–Vis absorption band at 384 and 447 nm. This process also generates iron sulfide minerals. Recently, Kitadai et al. demonstrated the synthesis of S-methyl thioacetate (MTA) synthesis from CO and methanethiol on NiS at room temperature at neutral pH [54]. NiS was partially reduced to Ni under simulated geo-electrochemical conditions. This partially reduced Ni0/NiS mixture catalyst is important to accumulate surface-bound CO by electro-reduction of CO2. CO accumulation process on Ni0/NiS surface was crucial for subsequent thioester formation in early ocean hydrothermal systems. The pH and temperature conditions are mild and geologically plausible.
It is not surprising that many bio-essential metal elements are also Earth-abundant, considering the high reliance of the biosphere on the geosphere. These include mainly d-block elements (vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and zinc (Zn)) and exist in numerous oxidation states and be bonded by various ligands (O, S, etc.) with varied crystal structures and stoichiometries in minerals. The variety and relative abundances of minerals evolve with the Earth’s history and also depend on the geological type of the locality [14]. In the ocean, changes in elemental abundances on geological time scales are intimately linked to evolutionary processes [87]. The availability of soluble transition metals changes progressively with time, with the greatest change in the redox-sensitive elements. However, this has provided environments enriched with an immobilized form of minerals, which would have provided the active surface for promoting prebiotic organic synthesis. The redox state of the environment evolved through at least three stages (adapted from ref. [87]), with major oxygenation events occurring ~2.4 billion to 1.8 billion years ago during the first of these stages, the ocean was largely devoid of dissolved O2, and iron was abundant in the form of dissolved Fe2+ complexes. Much of the sulfur at that time was in the form of insoluble sulfide minerals locked in the continental crust. Besides Fe, the ocean abundances of transition metals such as manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, and molybdenum are sensitive to environmental redox conditions, and also precipitate as sulfide minerals.
The scarcity of many bio-essential transition metals due to precipitation as insoluble sulfides has been considered to limit the size and shape the metabolism of the primordial biosphere [87, 88]. However, in terms of prebiotic chemistry, both the soluble and precipitated forms of transition metals could contribute to promoting the reactions, as have discussed in Section 3. The immobilized form of metal sulfides could have provided active surfaces with enormous potentials for catalytic functions. Therefore, for future prebiotic synthesis studies, more work using non-iron elements should be conducted to screen optimal geological catalysts.
Since transition metals mainly existed in sulfides during Hadean and early Archean eon, these sulfides have been studied for prebiotic synthesis, as described in Section 3. However, in most cases, the activities of these minerals are low compared with their enzymatic counterparts and their contribution to prebiotic synthesis has rarely been quantitatively constrained based on their kinetics with some exceptions [73]. A possible reason accounting for the low reactivity is that prebiotic synthesis researches have been heavily focused on the most earth-abundant minerals (e.g., FeS, and NiS). To explore the chemical diversity of sulfide minerals, Li et al. evaluated the chemical diversity of metal sulfides of Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, V, and/or W with 135,434 species-locality pairs recorded in the mineralogy database (http://rruff.info/ima/) [88]. The diversity and distribution of these metal sulfides were analyzed in terms of the following aspects: locality frequency, multiple metal composition, crystal structure, and valence state of dominating elements. It was found that natural metal sulfides show marked variations in chemical composition, crystal structure, and metal/sulfur valence states, suggesting a large chemical space associating with chemical variations of sulfide minerals still waits for exploration (Figure 3). For Fe sulfides, unexpectedly, mackinawite (FeS) is not among the top-ten mostly frequently observed species. This suggest that it may be problematic to use this mineral as a dominant target for prebiotic synthesis. Rather, pyrite is the most frequently observed species. The observation of the S22− state suggests that not only metals can mediate redox change, sulfur ligands can also participate in the redox reaction with the valence change (S22−/S2−).
(A) Metal sulfide distribution in natural environments. The 20 most frequently observed species are ranked in order of locality counts. The chemical composition of each species is shown. (B) Distribution and chemical diversity (chemical composition, Fe/S valence states, and crystal symmetry) of Fe single-metal sulfides. (C) Relative abundances and locality distribution of Fe2+-, Fe3+-, and Fe2+ plus Fe3+-sulfides. Adapted from ref. [
Each metal also has the dominant valent states. In Fe-S species, more than 84.86% of localities feature only Fe2+ species, followed by those containing both Fe2+ and Fe3+(15.12%), and by three sulfides that only contain Fe3+ (0.02%). Generally, metals with low valence states predominate the library of metal sulfides, except for Co, allowing these minerals to act as an electron source or a catalytic center for charge accumulation during redox conversion. The minerals with mixed-valence states could exhibit unique functions due to special electron transfer and surface adsorption properties [89, 90]. Moreover, binary metal compositions are ubiquitous in natural sulfides. For example, Ni-Fe sulfides have ten species, and seven of them contain Ni and Fe as substitutional cations with a wide Ni/Fe ratio range (0 ~ 35 at%), with pentlandite (Ni,Fe)9S8 being the most prevalent form. The other three species contain fixed Fe/Ni ratios. The capability of Ni-Fe binary sulfides to have both fixed and varied Ni/Fe ratios in their structures is a unique characteristic different from that of Cu-Fe binary sulfides, in which Cu and Fe tend to form specific structures with fixed stoichiometries. The great chemical diversity provides a wide variety of catalytic functions and suggests that there is still a large chemical space of minerals for the exploration of unknown reactivities.
Based on the discussion above, screening suitable geological catalysts is challenging and requires rational approaches. In this regard, machine learning or big-data mining could provide promising solutions.
Given an envisioned evolution from geochemistry to biochemistry, the mineral-and enzyme-based catalytic systems could be compared to understand the evolutionary link between them. In 2014, Michael Russell and his colleagues proposed that minerals sharing similar metal sites and ligands with enzymes could serve as a prebiotic catalyst for activating small geological molecules [4] (Figure 4) because the similar structure could exhibit similar chemical affinity towards the same substrate. Many prebiotic syntheses are influenced by similar perceptions and pursue the prebiotic carbon and nitrogen fixation using enzyme mimetic mineral catalysts [27, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 69]. This idea could narrow down the candidates of geo-catalysts, however, an inherent difficulty in studying the property of minerals is the wide range of data and parameters to consider when searching for an appropriate catalyst for a specific enzymatic reaction [91]. Especially, since the structure (particularly the first coordination structure) alone doesn’t dictate the overall catalytic property, the structural resemblance between minerals and enzymes doesn’t ensure a definite functional similarity.
Structural comparison between minerals and enzyme active centers. Adapted from ref. [
To solve this problem, a computational approach has been employed to systematically compare the metal–ligand structure of minerals and enzymes, as reported in recent work by Zhao et al. [91]. They compared the metalloenzyme cluster structure recorded in the protein database and the mineral structural data in the mineralogy database, using molecular similarity metrics. Therefore, this is probably the first attempt to quantify the structural similarity between biological machineries and minerals. In this study, iron–sulfur and nickel–iron–sulfur ligands were analyzed. Except for greigite and mackinawite, other iron sulfide species (marcasite and troilite) that were less studied previously were also predicted to have high structural similarity with iron–sulfur clusters in biology. Therefore, these results highlight the predictability of the modeling method for searching less studied minerals that hold potential as early prebiotic catalysts.
Minerals have been considered as the key player for prebiotic synthesis, and up-to-date researches have verified the catalytic property of many prebiotic mineral catalysts towards the carbon and nitrogen fixation reactions. Based on these discussions, mineral-mediated processes are probably critical for the evolution of protometabolism towards autotrophic origins of life. However, the rare demonstration of the formation of other types of life’s building blocks, such as sugars, nucleobases, etc., accompanied by the difficulty in polymerization in water, pose several obvious challenges for many related origins of life scenarios [92]. To solve this problem, extensive screening of prebiotic catalysts based on the mineralogy database combined with the numerical prediction of structure–function relations should be helpful. Alternatively, other types of membrane and replicating systems have been proposed [16]. Additionally, the evolution of the mineral catalytic system could be further explored, by considering the hybridization of organic ligands with minerals. These organic ligands could be short peptides that can be formed under geologically plausible conditions [93, 94], or other types of polymers (e.g., polyesters [95, 96]). The hybridization of these organic ligands introduces stereochemical and electronic control on the whole reaction systems, which could help with overcoming the kinetic problems for certain reactions.
This work is funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science KAKENHI grants No. 19 K15671 and No. 20H04608.
Place appendix and nomenclature before Reference list.
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In addition, recent studies concerning the active use of dual-beam platforms are mentioned",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Meltem Sezen",authors:[{id:"176338",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Sezen",slug:"meltem-sezen",fullName:"Meltem Sezen"}]},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:6112,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Ultra-short laser pulse interaction with materials has received much attention from researchers in micro- and nanomachining, especially for the generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments, because of the straightforward method and direct application for organic solvents. In addition, the colloidal nanoparticles produced by laser ablation have very high purity—they are free from surfactants and reaction products or by-products. In this chapter, nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond laser pulse durations are compared in laser material processing. Due to the unique properties of the short and ultra-short laser pulse durations in material processing, they are more apparent in the production of precision material processing and generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments.",book:{id:"5236",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:10155,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Electron microscopes are usually supplied with equipment for obtaining diffraction patterns and micrographs from the same area of a specimen and the best results are attained if the complete use is to be made of these combined facilities. Electron diffraction patterns are used to obtain quantitative data including phase identification, orientation relationship and crystal defects in materials, etc. At first, a general introduction including a geometrical and quantitative approach to electron diffraction from a crystalline specimen, the reciprocal lattice and electron diffraction in the electron microscope are presented. The scattering process by an individual atom as well as a crystal, the Bragg law, Laue conditions and structure factor are also discussed. Types of diffraction patterns such as ring pattern, spot pattern and Kikuchi pattern, and general and unique indexing diffraction patterns are explained. The procedure for indexing simple, complicated and imperfect patterns as well as Kikuchi lines and a combination of Kikuchi lines and spots is outlined. The known and unknown materials are identified by indexing patterns. Practical comparisons between various methods of analysing diffraction patterns are also described. The basic diffraction patterns and the fine structure in the patterns including specimen tilting experiments, orientation relationship determination, phase identification, twinning, second phases, crystallographic information, dislocation, preferred orientation and texture, extra spots and streaks are described in detail. Finally, electron diffraction patterns of new materials are investigated.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]},{id:"38543",title:"Application of FTIR Spectroscopy in Environmental Studies",slug:"application-of-ftir-spectroscopy-in-environmental-studies",totalDownloads:27699,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:43,abstract:null,book:{id:"2397",slug:"advanced-aspects-of-spectroscopy",title:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Advanced Aspects of Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Claudia Maria Simonescu",authors:[{id:"142381",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Simonescu",slug:"claudia-maria-simonescu",fullName:"Claudia Maria Simonescu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"228",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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