Target protein related to nCoV-19, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV and possible drug proposed for prevention (data taken from reference [34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51]).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Haliç\nUniversity. She specialized in Microbiology at Abant Izzet Baysal\nUniversity (Biology Department), Turkey. Her previous experience\nincludes laboratory manager at microbiology laboratories in several\nresearch and private hospitals. Throughout her career, she collaborated\nwith academicians/researchers from Abant Izzate Baysal University (AIBU), Middle East Technical University (METU), and Istanbul\nUniversity Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, and has participated in various research projects.\nDr. Kırmusaoğlu’s research interests include medical microbiology, pathogenic bacteria, bacterial biofilms, antibiofilm and antibacterial activity, bacterial drug resistance, pathogen–host interactions, pathogenesis, molecular microbiology, and microbiota. 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In addition to these, she wrote the book Genel Biyoloji Laboratuvar\nKılavuzu (General Biology Laboratory Manual) published by Hipokrat Publisher.\nShe has contributed to a chapter translation of the book Sherris Medical Microbiology\nby Ryan et al. as one of the translation authors of Sherris Tıbbi Mikrobiyoloji, which is a\nTurkish translated book edited by Prof. Dr. Dürdal Us and Prof. Dr. Ahmet Başustaoğlu.",institutionString:"Haliç University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Haliç University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"178566",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia Bhonchal",middleName:null,surname:"Bhardwaj",slug:"sonia-bhonchal-bhardwaj",fullName:"Sonia Bhonchal Bhardwaj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178566/images/system/178566.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Sonia Bhonchal Bhardwaj is currently an assistant professor at the Department of Microbiology, Dr. Harvansh Singh Judge Institute of Dental Sciences and Hospital, Panjab University, Chandigarh. 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Owing to the large surface area, low permeability and high retention capability, clay minerals show outstanding adsorption performances for metal ions, organic matters and other substances that further control the transport and bioavailability of metal ions, nutrients, and contaminants; on the other hand, the surface properties of clay minerals are affected significantly by these adsorbents that may result in the aggregation, dissociation of clay minerals, and/or chemical reactions at the interface of clay minerals and aqueous solutions [4–7].
\nTo date, it remains challenging for experimental techniques to observe the interfacial processes of clay minerals and aqueous solutions because of the complexity of related systems (involving aqueous solutions, ions, counterions, and clay minerals that may have the various surface structures and even mixtures) and the promptness of related processes (generally on the femtosecond scale). Computational simulations, which can provide the otherwise inaccessible details such as adsorption configuration, distribution, stability, reaction thermodynamics and mechanism, dynamics, diffusivity as well as other fundamental issues such as electric double layer began to emerge as a powerful research tool to complement the experimental results. In the recent few decades, we have witnessed the unprecedented advances of computer simulations within this context. Quantum mechanical (QM) methods are highly precise and it proves that the MP2 or MP2:DFT schemes can reproduce the reaction barriers with near chemical accuracy [8, 9]. Although QM methods are qualified for predicting reaction mechanism, thermodynamics, spectroscopic data, and other information, they are computationally costly and thereby restricted mainly for the treatment of relatively small systems. To overcome this disadvantage, Morokuma and collaborators [10] developed an ONIOM scheme that divides the systems into several layers. For the ONIOM scheme, each layer can freely choose the desired functional and basis set, and in many cases, molecular mechanics (MM) is employed for the low-level region, which is also referred to as the so-called QM/MM methodology. In this way, systems up to thousands of atoms become within the power of computer simulations. Classical molecular dynamics (MD) based on Newton’s second law or the equation of motion (
Recently, these simulation techniques have been used in our group to tackle the adsorption behavior and mechanism of ions onto clay minerals, in the absence or the presence of aqueous solutions [12–16]. According to the QM-calculated results [12–14], metal ions such as K+ and
In consequence, this chapter focuses on the studies of adsorption of metal ions and anions at the interface of clay minerals and salt solutions, with inclusion of both QM and MD results. To broaden the horizon, the underlying ion-specific effects and the removal of heavy metal ions and anions are discussed as well. As aforementioned, the adsorption of metal ions onto clay minerals can exert a positive influence for a wide range of colloidal, chemical, physical, and geological processes [1–3]; on the other hand, the adsorption of heavy metal ions and certain anions is known to cause contamination to soils that further results in the serious environmental pollutions and threatens the health of human beings. Biochar, produced by the pyrolysis of biomass, has proven to be effective to improve soil properties, remediate soils with heave metal and organic pollutants and increase crop biomass [19]. With use of density functional calculations, we have demonstrated that biochar is potential to remediate soils with anionic pollutants [20], in addition to heavy metal ions that are known to us all.
\nThe scientific status of ion-specific effects has been well established, and Kunz et al. [21] explicitly suggested that the importance of ion-specific effects should be no less than Gregor Mendel’s work to genetics. As a matter of fact, ion-specific effects occur ubiquitously and play a vital role during a wide range of interfacial processes of clay minerals and salt solutions, and a number of these processes can be associated closely with the adsorption processes. We have clearly demonstrated the presence of Hofmeister series for both metal ions [12, 22–24] and anions [14, 16] during the adsorption of ions onto clay minerals and the resulting aggregation of clay minerals; in addition, mechanism of ion-specific effects was explored and for metal ions, it can be ascribed to the difference of polarization effects responding to the electric field of colloidal particles [12].
\nIsomorphous substitutions occur in almost all types of clay minerals, especially 2:1 layer type such as mica, montmorillonite, and pyrophyllite. A plethora of negative charges are thus created that determine the adsorption properties for ions. First principles density functional theory (DFT) calculations of pyrophyllite and montmorillonite have been carried out by Vamsee et al. [25], with consideration of octahedral
Shi et al. [26] study the adsorption of Na+, NH4+ and protonated formamide (FAH) ions onto the dry and hydrated montmorillonite surfaces at various interlayer distances. Complex interactions that vary with the identity of counterions, volume, and interlayer space are detected among the counterions, lower and upper montmorillonite surfaces, such as ionic bonding, H-bonding, electrostatic attraction and repulsion as well as vdW forces. Na+ ions form direct ionic bonds with the surfaces of montmorillonite by situating at approximately the center of six O atoms of hexagonal rings with the shortest Na-O distances of ca. 2.46 Å, whereas NH4+ and FAH ions construct strong H bonds with the surfaces of montmorillonite, with the shortest H-bond distance being equal to 2.31 and 2.13 Å, respectively. Different from Na+ ions that have been trapped by one of montmorillonite surfaces, NH4+ and FAH ions construct strong interactions with both montmorillonite surfaces through forceful H bonds. The expansion energy potentials near the equilibrium interlayer distances are described by the nearly quadratic functions, and at larger interlayer distances, the attraction interactions among the counterions, lower and upper surfaces turn to be predominant and the energy potentials approach the constant values.
\nThe interlayer distance (
Isomorphous substitutions and resulting effects on the adsorption of ions have been studied by several different groups [27–32]. When montmorillonite is acid treated, the adsorption of protons (H+) takes place at the interlayer, and these protons act as counterions and can be exchangeable. Owing to the acidic treatment, the lattice Al atoms of montmorillonite undergo the rapid autotransformation and migrate to the ion-exchanged sites at the surfaces of clay minerals, at a comparable rate for lattice Al atoms at the octahedral and tetrahedral sheets [27]. At the same time, the cation-exchange capacity of montmorillonite declines significantly. The effects of isomorphous substitutions on the Brønsted acid sites are demonstrated by Claudia and Esther [28]. It shows that isomorphous substitutions of the octahedral
Correlation of the relative adsorption energetics for Ca2+ (up) and Na+ (bottom) ions with the sum of inverse cation-substitution distances (RM, M = Ca, Na). Details for the RM calculations can be found in the supplementary information of Ref. [
With isomorphous substitutions, counterions are strongly adsorbed onto the surface of clay minerals, and the hydration of counterions occurs facilely in humid environments, carrying the water molecules into the interlayer space and causing the swelling or collapse of the lamina structures [33–42]. It is apparently seen that the interactions among counterions, water molecules, and surfaces in the adsorption processes of metal ions are of great scientific importance. Periodic DFT calculations have been performed to investigate the hydration of
The distribution and migration of actinide compounds in the environmental circumstances are within the context of risk assessment for long-time radioactive waste repositories. Alena et al. [44] perform the periodic DFT calculations on the adsorption of uranyl (UO22+) on solvated (110) and (010) edge surfaces of pyrophyllite. The bidentate adsorption configurations on the various partially deprotonated sites of pyrophyllite (i.e., octahedral Al(O,OH), tetrahedral Si(O,OH), and mixed AlO–SiO). It shows that the preferred sites for adsorption of UO22+ are different for (110) and (010) edge surfaces, respectively, as the octahedral Al(O,OH) and mixed AlO–SiO sites. The authors of the same group [45] further show that structural parameters of uranyl adsorption complexes are essentially determined by the surface chemical groups that construct the local adsorption sites rather than type of clay minerals, and relatively slight effects on structural parameters are exerted even if substituted cations occur at the adsorption sites. Adsorption of uranyl can induce the hydrolysis of -AlOH and result in the formation of uranyl mono-hydroxide. The frayed edge sites formed in micaceous clays are indicated to have a crucial role with respect to the long-term stability of radioisotopes of Cs on the topsoil surfaces [46].
\nIt is known to us that clay minerals have outstanding adsorption performances for metal ions, including heavy metal ions that may rigorously pollute the environmental circumstances and further the heath of human beings. On the other hand, anions such as Cr(VI)-oxo and phosphate are also widely spread in soil systems as metal ions that can result in environmental pollutions [47–49]. There are obviously fewer computational reports on the adsorption of anions on clay minerals in contrast to the extensive studies on metal ions. DFT calculations are performed by Zhu et al. [50] to investigate the adsorption of As(V)- and As(III)-oxo anions and related reactions on Mn(II) and Mn(IV) sites of birnessite. It shows that whether on Mn(II) or Mn(IV) site, the adsorption of As(V)- rather than As(III)-oxo complexes is more thermodynamically favorable and thereby the oxidation of As(III) is expected to be inhibited due to the blocking of adsorption sites by As(V)-oxo complexes. For kaolinite surface, the adsorption of
Nowadays, biochar has been listed as one of the most concerned materials due to the high capacity for ion adsorption and facile recyclability, showing excellent performances to remove heavy metal ions from clay minerals and remediate soil ecosystems [52–55]. It is essential to acquire an in-depth mechanistic understanding of ion adsorption on biochar. However, biochar has no specific structures and it is suggested to use other carbon-based materials for prototypes. Graphene is a two-dimensional honeycomb structure composed by sp2-hybridized carbon atoms; that is, it is similar to other carbon-based materials such as biochar in that all of them are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, mainly built upon the structural unit of benzene ring. Accordingly, grapheme can be an idea model for comprehension of ion adsorption on carbon-based materials. Colherinhas et al. [56] conduct DFT calculations and indicate that the adsorption strength of metal ions on grapheme is closely associated with the radius and charge of metal ions. The adsorption configurations with the highest stability correspond to the hollow site (
where
That is, the hydrated ions are treated as a whole instead of separately. Because of the different adsorption configurations of hydrated halide ions and metal ions that water molecules around form H-bonds with halide ions and at the same time interact with graphene through their O atoms, while metal ions construct direct ionic bonds with the O atoms of water molecules, and hence, only the H atoms of water molecules can be available to interact with graphene. It shows that in the case of edge fluorination, the binding energies of halide ions remain substantial while those of metal ions decline apparently, and the change trends are opposite in the case of pristine graphene.
\nAs claimed by MD simulations, the adsorption of ions (whether metal ions or anions) onto the basal surfaces of clay minerals can proceed via two potential modes, respectively as the inner-sphere species that form direct interactions with the surfaces of clay minerals and the outer-sphere species that are separated from the surfaces by only one intermediate water molecule [15, 16, 60–72]. With regard to the inner-sphere metal ions, direct bonds are constructed with the surface of clay minerals, while forceful and complicated H-bond networks are detected in the case of anions such as halide ions (X−) and hydroxide ion (OH−) [16]. The adsorption behaviors and performances of metal ions are largely associated with the identity of clay minerals because their surface properties may vary significantly. With regard to regular clay minerals (with no isomorphous substitutions or defect sites), a majority of metal ions are found to adsorb primarily as the outer-sphere surface complexes, and to the best of our knowledge, only the weakly solvated alkali metals (K+, Rb+, and Cs+) are inclined to form mainly the inner-sphere surface complexes [73, 74].
\nNa+ and Cs+ density distributions at the external surface of montmorillonite as the function of relative humidity (RH). Black arrows show position of inner-sphere and outer-sphere ion complexes [
The mechanism of metal ions adsorbed onto the montmorillonite surfaces has been extensively investigated by MD simulations. Churakov [69] studies the Na+ and Cs+ migration on the external surfaces of montmorillonite under partially saturated and saturated conditions and demonstrates that the surface complexation of Na+ ions is driven substantially by the availability of water molecules. The density distributions of Na+ and Cs+ normal to the external surfaces are displayed in Figure 3. Under saturated conditions, Na+ ions are adsorbed principally as the outer-sphere surface complexes, and when the relative humidity (RH) declines and falls within the range of 43–61%, the thickness of water film reduces from two to one layer, which causes Na+ ions to approach the surfaces of montmorillonite and construct the so-called inner-sphere surface complexes; meanwhile, the coordination number of water molecules with Na+ ions shows an obvious decrease and as a compensation, the surface O atoms become part of the Na+ coordination shell. Rather than, Cs+ ions display a distinct adsorption behavior: They form both outer and inner-sphere surface complexes under saturated conditions and are presented exclusively as the inner-sphere surface complexes when the RH decreases below 60%. The adsorption differences between Cs+ and Na+ ions are assumed to be due to their different ionic sizes that can result in the obviously different strengths of ion–water and ion–surface interactions. Marry et al. [64] compare the dynamic properties of Na+ and Cs+ ions in the monohydrated montmorillonite interlayers. The distribution of Li+, Na+, and K+ ions on montmorillonite surfaces is also investigated by the combination of MD and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations [65–68], which are in agreement with the results of spectroscopic observations [70–80].
\n\nHydration occurs readily for metal ions at the interfaces of clay minerals and aqueous solutions. Water molecules can become an essential portion of coordination for metal ions. Greathouse and Cygan [17] perform a systematic MD study and show that
Representative Cs+ and Cd2+ adsorption complexes [
MD simulations can also provide the dynamic and diffusion information for up to real systems that seems challenging to acquire by the structural optimization tasks using QM-based methods. As indicated by the time-evolution trajectories, the inner-sphere Cs+ ions have little mobility and are kept rather stable at the hexagonal cavities of the tetrahedral SiO4 surface of regular kaolinite, whereas the outer-sphere Cs+ ions are liable to migrate on the tetrahedral SiO4 surface. The trajectories of outer-sphere Na+ ions are quite diffusive and resemble those of outer-sphere Cs+ ions. Although more focused at the adsorption sites than the outer-sphere species, the inner-sphere Na+ ions that are asymmetrical with respect to the hexagonal rings are not stable enough to maintain at the adsorption sites during the MD simulations, which is quite different from the case of inner-sphere Cs+ ions. Such discrepancy should be caused by the radius difference between these two alkali ions that result in the remarkable variations of ion-surface and ion-water interactions. As aforementioned,
The diffusional dynamics of interlayer species such as Cs+ ions and water molecules increases within the content of interlayer water molecules and with the distance from clay surfaces [84]. The mobility of ions in the water films on the external surfaces of clay minerals is similar to that at the surface of a water-saturated pore, as long as the thickness of water film is more than two layers. At the lower water pressure (i.e., thinner water films), the mobility of metal ions shows a dramatic decrease, and this is associated with the change in the surface complexation behaviors [85–89]. Zhang et al. [85] investigate the mobility of Na+ and Ca2+ ions in the interlayer of montmorillonite, showing that the self-diffusion coefficient of
A number of factors can exert potential influences on the adsorption of metal ions onto clay minerals, such as isomorphous substitutions, temperature, water pressure, and counterions. It seems almost impractical for experimental operations to adjust one factor and at the same time keep all the others constant, while molecular simulations can easily realize such tasks. Below, we will analyze these factors one by one.
\n(1) Isomorphous substitutions, which are a general phenomenon for clay minerals of 2:1 layer type such as mica and montmorillonite [81, 84, 86–90]. Ngouana et al. [84] investigate the effects of substitutional disorder on the mobility of aqueous solvated species within the montmorillonite interlayers using the differently distributed
Two predominant coordination environments for the inner-sphere Cs+ ions confined in the interlayer pores of smectite: (A) hexagonal site (H-site) and (B) triangular site (T-site) [
(2) Temperature: Malikova et al. [94] study the effect of temperature fluctuations (0∼150°C) on the adsorption of metal ions in the interlayer of montmorillonite. The diffusion coefficients for Na+ and Cs+ ions increase by an order of magnitude over the covered temperature range, and the clear differences at these temperatures indicate that Na+ and Cs+ ions have different modes of diffusion in the monohydrated montmorillonite: at both low and high temperatures, Cs+ ions exhibit a site-to-site diffusion mode that allows the coordination to six surface O atoms of the tetrahedral SiO4 surface of clay minerals, while no definitely preferential sites are present for the adsorption of Na+ ions, even at low temperatures. Water phase behaves similarly in Na- and Cs-montmorillonites, and a rapid transition from the surface to bulk dynamics has been detected in the case of Na-montmorillonite. Zheng and Zaoui [95] further state that the size and mass of hydrated metal ions play a crucial role on their diffusion behaviors. The hydration number of metal ions shows a gradual decrease with the increase of temperatures, and at relatively high temperatures, more water molecules from the hydrates of metal ions are released that elevates the amount of free water molecules into aqueous solutions and enhances the mobility of metal ions to a certain degree.
\n(3) Defect sites. Defect sites are ubiquitous in all types of clay minerals and play a vital role during the adsorption and reaction processes [15, 83, 96–98]. Li et al. [15] perform a systematic investigation on the adsorption behavior, stability, and mechanism of metal ions on the defective clay minerals, showing that the adsorption quantities and stabilities of metal ions on kaolinite can be fundamentally promoted by the occurrence of defect sites. In the case of regular kaolinite, Na+ ions are adsorbed mainly as the outer-sphere species and only at dense solutions, the inner-sphere Na+ ions can be detected sporadically. The presence of defect sites reverses the adsorption preference of outer versus inner-sphere Na+ ions and causes the inner-sphere mode to be predominant for defective models with the various sizes.
(4) Water content. The dynamics of the interlayer species in clays is critically dependent on the water content in the system [84]. Zheng and Zaoui [99] compare the diffusion behaviors of counterions in montmorillonite at the one-, two-, and three-layer hydrated states, and the results show that the diffusion coefficients of counterions increase in a reverse proportion to the quantity of water content, corroborating that water content within the interlayer of clay minerals plays a very important role on the diffusion behavior of counterions. As discussed earlier, Churakov [69] demonstrate that the distribution of Na+ ions on montmorillonite surfaces is strongly dependent on the relative humidity (RH): At relatively high RH, Na+ ions form exclusively the outer-sphere complexes, and inner-sphere Na+ surface complexes will be constructed. With the addition of water molecules, the inner-sphere Na+ surface complexes that have formed at low RH will be reversibly transformed to the outer-sphere species, while K+ ions show a distinct response to the increase of RH: K+ ions at low RH form stable inner-sphere surface complexes and with increase of RH, remain tightly attached to the surface as inner-sphere species [100]. Zhang et al. [85] investigate the swelling properties, hydration behaviors, and mobility of interlayer ions (Na+ and Cs+) in montmorillonite at different water contents. It indicates that both Na+ and
Local structures of inner-sphere Na+ and Pb2+ ions adsorbed on the tetrahedral SiO4 surface of regular (
(5) Counterion. Metal ions and anions in aqueous solutions are referred to each other as “counterion.” It indicates that the distribution and stability of metal ions adsorbed onto the surface of clay minerals are affected substantially by different counterions such as the various halide ions (A− = F−, Cl−, I−) [16]. However, the adsorption modes of metal ions seem not affected by the choice of counterions; for example, inner-sphere (mainly) and outer-sphere adsorbed for Na+ ions and exclusively outer-sphere adsorbed for
The diffusion coefficients of metal ions (
Although obviously less attention has been given, anions are clearly shown to be capably adsorbed onto the surface of clay minerals as in the case of metal ions [16]. Anions construct only H-bonds with the surface clay minerals while form stable inner and outer-sphere complexes, even if when the metal ions of constituent electrolytes correspond solely to the outer-sphere adsorption mode; for example, F− in PbF2 where
With the advent of computer simulations, probing the complicated and prompt adsorption processes of ions at the interface of clay minerals and aqueous solutions becomes viable that complement the experimental observations. In the recent three decades, computer performances have improved unprecedentedly and sophisticated computational techniques (including methodologies and software) have emerged consecutively, which make computer simulations grow into an independent discipline. Nowadays, two types of computational simulations are popular in the studies of the adsorption processes of ions at the interface of clay minerals and aqueous solutions: QM methods accurately predict the adsorption behavior, reaction thermodynamics and mechanism, whereas MD methods provide the dynamic information for up to real systems on the femtosecond scale. With these computational techniques, a plethora of important details regarding to the adsorption configuration, distribution, stability, reaction thermodynamics and mechanism, dynamics, diffusivity as well as electric double layer and other fundamental issues have been brought to us, as has been elaborated in the chapter.
\nIon-specific effects, also known as Hofmeister effects, are detected over 130 years ago when Hofmeister [102] finds a series of salt ions have consistent effects on the solubility and stability of proteins. Recently, ion-specific effects have experienced a renaissance and as suggested by Kunz et al. [21], the importance of ion-specific effects should be no less than Gregor Mendel’s work to genetics. As a matter of fact, ion-specific effects control a wide spectrum of chemical, physical, biological, and colloidal processes, such as the interfacial tension of electrolyte solutions [103], chemical reaction rate [104, 105], protein conformation and stability [106–108], colloidal interaction [107] and even mudslides [109]. Ion-specific effects continue to defy all-encompassing theories [110]. Ionic size [111], hydration [111, 112], dispersion force [113–115] and surface charge [116, 117] are successively proposed to interpret the mechanism of ion-specific effects. Recently, our group [23, 118] reveals that the polarization effect could be the driving force of ion-specific effects for the adsorption of different metal ions onto the surface of clay minerals. With use of DFT calculations, we [12] have clearly shown that the polarization effect increases in a direct proportion with the negative charge of clay minerals and should be the driving force for the aggregation of colloidal soil particles. The aggregation mechanisms of colloidal soil particles with one- and bi-components are given and can be easily extended to more complicated colloidal soil particles. For the bi-component colloidal soil particles, the colloidal soil particles with more negative charges shows the larger polarization effect to metal ions and hence binds metal ions firstly and tightly, which then attract the colloidal soil particles with fewer negative charges. The aggregation processes are cycled and finished this way, and in consequence, the polarization effect is assumed to be responsible for the underlying ion-specific effects.
\nAlthough the aggregation of colloidal soil particles (usually carrying abundant negative charges) is dominated by metal ions [22], anions are found to also play a significant role and have clear Hofmeister series, as
As commented by Nostro and Ninham [119], “if we had to sum up in a line or two what we have learned over the past decade, we could say this: previously biologists and physical chemists lived in parallel universes, almost disjunct.” Ion-specific effects may probably be the bridge that connects soil science with other disciplines such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and the progresses made therein are likely to bring about revolutionary breakthroughs in colloidal and soil sciences. It is just in time that we are lucky to encounter the renaissance of ion-specific effects [120], and computer simulations are destined to play a critical role within the context.
\nThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41371249) and the Fourth Excellent Talents Program of Higher Education in Chongqing (2014-03).
\nEmergence of COVID-19 threatens human health and economy around the globe. Possibly, world populations have ever faces such crisis and will remain the witness of such incident. Each new day experiences number of new cases with increasing death toll since its first identification. However, suggested name of corona virus comes from Latin word corona, signifies crown or halo. Electron microscopy of corona virus reveals encapsulation of crown like fringe at outer surface [1]. Novel Corona virus known as different name such as COVID-19, COVID-19, HCoV-19 was outbreak in Wuhan, Capital of Hubei province, China in month of December-2019 and later become pandemic by quick spreading into the major countries in the globe [2, 3]. Outbreak has very high risk with potentiality of human to human transmission. Experts around the globe suggest that, the average incubation period of COVID-19 is ~5 days with a range of 2–14 days [2]. Symptom includes high fever, dry cough to severe respiratory acute disease and death (in some cases) [2]. Average fatality rate reported to be ~1–2% [1, 2]. Scientific community and researchers are at the midst of COVID-19 pandemic and have struggling to find out how much similarity with SARS-CoV. The study reveals that, COVID-19 is similar like SARS corona virus which is believed to be originated from either bats or civet cats or raccoon dogs [2, 3]. However, due to lack of evidence many scientific communities ruled out such report. As per WHO officials, COVID-19 is ten times more infectious than the 2009 pandemic H1N1 influenza virus. There is no effective drug or vaccine against the corona virus or similar infectious agents so far and it is still unknown how many more month require to develop. However, one needs to understand the priority and treatment protocol based on the severity of the disease.
COVID-19 is the seventh coronavirus which infect humans like earlier reported coronavirus SARS-CoV, MERSCoV, HKU1, NL63, OC43 and 229E. [4]. For an enveloped virus, primary mode of transmission is close contact with the infected individual. Transmission is appeared to be silently enter into the host body and no immediate onset symptoms have been evident. Therefore, before infected host tested positive, he/she already transmitted virus to many others (provided infected person does not maintaining isolation/social distancing). In most cases, human to human transmission occurs, though human to human transmission has been ruled out at the very early stage of the outbreak. However, probability of getting infectious becomes higher when an infected person or person in incubation stage comes closer to the healthy person. Alternative transmission medium might be via contact surfaces i.e. skin to skin touching or touching objects having COVID-19 particles. Then direct or indirect entrance of that surface particles into one’s body through mouth, nose, or eyes. The other forms of transmission possibly through inhalation of particle aerosols emanated from exhaled breathe of infected person or via droplet due to cough/sneezes [4]. A recent study reveals that, COVID-19 may survive in aerosols (size <5 μm) for at least three long hour in an open air ambient [1, 2]. Relative humidity, fomite material, and air temperature possibly are the factors for prolonging virus life. Long time survival at the outside of its host organism (surfaces such as aluminum, sterile sponges, or latex surgical gloves) will increase the opportunity to produce new host via touching or breathing [2, 4]. Facal transmission is another transmission path where COVID-19has been found in stool specimen like aluminum, sterile sponges, or latex surgical gloves etc. [2]. The surface stability of S-protein of COVID-19found to be more on plastic, stainless steel than the copper and card board [2]. It is worth mentioning that, some positive COVID-19 cases were also reported due to the nosocomial transmission. Recent study of Wang et al. reflects 29% health professionals and 12% hospitalized patient (associated with other disease history) becomes infectious due to nosocomial transmission [5]. It is worth to mention that, urine of infected one does not contain any COVID-19 particles and therefore does not have any role for transmission [6]. Study of Casanova et al. suggest that, corona virus may remain active even in pure water and pasteurized settled sewage for few days to one week [7]. Airborne dust particles or microorganisms or particulate matter (PM) are the potential transmitter [6]. Some study finds the virus can transmit through air up to 1 m whereas another recent study find virus particles can transmit up to 13 ft. [6]. However, COVID-19 particles combined with airborne dust particles or microorganisms or particulate matter (PM) enters into the deeper alveolar and tracheobronchial regions of the host.
The transmission, survival and characteristics of COVID-19 directly influenced by environment factors like temperature, pressure, pollution level [8]. In addition, outbreak further involved with the reproduction number (R0). The reproduction number (R0) defined as the number of healthy people getting infected from a single infectious living in a susceptible populated environment. Reproduction no (R0) mainly governed by the factors like (i) stage of infection, (ii) transmissible strength of the pathogen, and (ii) the number of susceptible contacts. It is meaningless to set the exact value of R0 until otherwise the surrounding environment clearly specified. For example, Li et al. reported R0 value for COVID-19 as 2.2 (95% confidence interval, 1.4–3.9) [9]. However, in reality R0 for COVID-19 might be very higher than expected if one does not obey the rule of social distancing or home quarantine. Few governing factor are crucial for reproduction rate or newly infected cases in a particular area viz.; (i) isolation of infected person from the day of infection, (ii) availability of general needs for ones to remain in isolation like food and other necessities and (iii) availability of sufficient diagnosis tools in the area. Based on the above facts, a mathematical model proposed by Tang et al. [10] determines the reproduction rate or spreading rate by individual infected host per day. If the above factors favor in a particular region, then contact rate
Where
Where
Showing simulation data of (A) contact rate C (t) and diagnosis rate (B) effective daily reproduction ratio for the period of 30 days somewhere in Wuhan [
Many infectious remains asymptomatic and silently affected so many. Most of the mild cases symptoms such as, fever (83–100%), myalgia (11–35%), diarrhea (2–10%), fatigue, headache (7–8%) and cough (59–82%), and dyspnoea have been found predominantly [11]. However, severe infection outcome includes drastic reduction in average circulating lymphocyte and platelet counts etc. Other abnormalities are on chest radiographic imaging, lymphopenia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia [2]. Respiratory system is highly affected. Though age is still not be a proven critical risk factor for COVID-19 infection, but it was observed that, mortality rate were prominent for elderly having some previous disorder like hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, cardiovascular disease. Such prior disorder with COVID-19 particles in body quickly developed some dangerous malfunction like coagulation dysfunction, septic shock, metabolic acidosis and acute respiratory distress syndrome which are hard to correct eventually leading to the death. Further, few other malfunction like decrease in neutrophil count, D-dimer, blood urea, and creatinine levels etc. were prominent in severe infected patient [2]. However, all effects (including inhaled particulate matter combined with an immune response or cytokine storm induced by COVID-19 infection) together exacerbate severe ill effect on respiratory system and increase the risk of patient life. In order to investigate the different organ disorder due to COVID-19, human protein database and distribution of antigiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been correlated. It would be appropriate to mention that, an ACE2 is a transmembrane enzyme, act as a receptor function in host body and help to enter COVID-19 in host cell [8, 9, 10, 11]. Figure 2(b) and (c) shows the detection of ACE2 receptors over neurons and glial cells, further, how COVID-19 binds to ACE2 receptor in brain cell. Figure 2(a) and (e), ensure presence of COVID-19 in general blood circulation with abundant number of virus in cerebral circulation. The presence of such virus possibly is the reason of slowing the blood circulation mechanism in capillary endothelium which results in higher interaction probability of COVID-19 spike protein with the ACE2 [3]. Hence, there is a possibility of neuronal damage or endothelial rupture of cerebral capillaries in association with bleeding in cerebral tissue which increases the life risk of patient infected with COVID-19. Few evidence of neurotropic mortality caused by COVID-19 has been reported but proper explanation is yet to be established [12]. A study of 218 patients from recent outbreak reveals 78 patient (36.4%) having neurological malfunctions due to the COVID-19. Rest of the patients is either losing control over breathing or suffering from acute respiratory failure [3, 12]. However, evidence of virus in cerebrospinal fluid is still under debate. Apart from blood circulation, entry of COVID-19 through cribriform plate close to the olfactory bulb can be an alternative pathway to the brain. Further, indirect consequences of multi organ failure (pulmonary, renal, cardiac, and circulatory damage) caused in patient having COVID-19appears to be more dangerous than expected. The study reveals that COVID-19 severely damages leucocytes which possibly are the reason of multi organ failure [13]. Older infected people having diabetes mellitus-2 are at more risk to mortality due to the uncontrolled glycaemia [14]. COVID-19 infection in diabetes patient raises the stress level and hence blood glucose levels and abnormal glucose variability. Increase in blood glucose possibly due to the release of hyperglycemic hormones (glucocorticoids and catecholamines) [14].
Showing possible targets of COVID-19 (lungs, heart, kidneys, intestines, brain, and testicles); (a) COVID-19 distribution and ACE2 receptor in human, (b) COVID-19 transmission to brain through upper nasal trancribrial path (c) inset image shows binding mechanism of spike protein at the site of neuron (d) showing COVID-19 distribution through blood circulation at lungs and (e) inset image showing bind of COVID-19with ACE2 receptor at lungs cell (reproduced with permission ref. [
The COVID-19in the infected human body consists of critical virion which is a spike type glycoprotein known as S-protein [15]. The characteristics of spike protein or S-protein solely determine whether host cell is infected by corona virus or not. The spike protein has two subunit referred as S1 and S2 respectively. S1 is responsible for virus-host range and cellular tropism with the help of receptor binding domain (RBD) whereas S2 expedite the virus-cell membrane fusion with help of heptad repeats 1 (HR1) and heptad repeats 2 HR2 [16]. However, a polybasic cleavage site (RRAR) in between S1 and S2 influence the viral infectivity and host range with the effect of furin and other proteases [4]. O-linked glycans created by the proline, which possibly flank the cleavage site and shields epitopes or key residues on the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein [4]. However, the outermost part of critical virion cell is full of spike protein which helps to binding and subsequent fusion of antigiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) membranes in host cell. ACE2 is a transmembrane enzyme, act as a receptor function in human body and help to enter COVID-19 in host cell [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. ACE2 exist at almost each organ of the body including arterial smooth muscle cells in the lungs, lymph nodes, stomach, colon, skin, liver bile ducts small intestine, kidney parietal epithelial cells, and the brain [14, 15].
The genome sequence of COVID-19contains ~ 27 no of protein and almost ~30000 nucleotides in length as shown in Figure 3(a) [17]. Open reading frames (ORFs) are found to be variable in COVID-19 gene. In first ORFs (ORF1a/b), almost 2/3 viral RNA have been found which encodes 16 non-structural protein (NPS) and translates two polyproteins (pp1a and pp1ab). Accessory and structural proteins encoded by remaining 1/3 ORFs. Most essential proteins are RNA dependent polymerase (RdRP) and four structural proteins viz.; matrix protein (M), nucleocapsid protein (N), small envelope protein (E) and spike surface glycoprotein (S) [17]. The function of S protein is to binding and fusion of ACE2 membrane in host cell. On the other hand, M, N and E protein helps to budding, envelope formation, assembled, pathogenesis and RNA encasing in host cell [15, 16, 17]. Upper part of the respiratory tract has lower ACE2 results in less infection by S-protein whereas lower parts of the lungs have more amount of ACE2 consequently higher tendency of getting infected by S-protein as confirmed by higher opacity in CT image as shown in Figure 4. ACE2 has high binding capability with COVID-19 spike protein and its initiates the infection process as shown in Figure 3(b) [5]. The interaction of S-protein and ACE2 in the host cell is as follows; COVID-19genome encodes many structural protein (glycosylated spike (S) protein) and non-structural protein (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), protease (3CLpro), and papain-like protease (PLpro)) for inducing host immune response [19]. 3CLpro and PLpro are responsible for COVID-19genome replication in host cell by proteolytic processing of non-structural proteins. As per National Center for Biotechnology1 (NCBI) database, with ID NC_045512, the COVID-19 genome structure is 29,903 bp single-stranded RNA (+ss-RNA) coronavirus [3]. COVID-19genome at the host cell releases it outer encapsulation and remain as single-stranded positive RNA (having 5′-cap structure and 3′-poly-A tail). RNA translated into viral polyproteins with help of host antigiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Cleaving of polyproteins turns it to an effector protein by viral proteinases 3CLpro and PLpro [19]. Such mechanism reduces the host immune response drastically. Monte Carlo simulations by convolution contact maps suggest, receptor binding domain (RBD) area of spike protein shows various conformations with respect to the remaining portion of the protein structure [20]. The identified RBD area were then reassembled using pipeline method which produces a complex structure of spike trimer and the extracellular domain of human ACE2. Cryo-EM structure analysis reveals that, the binding affinity of ACE2 with the S protein of COVID-19spike protein is 10–20 times higher than that of the SARS CoV spike protein [3]. However, corona virus genome sequence study suggests that, RBD in spike protein is the most variable part and determines probability of getting infected based on the binding efficiency with host receptor. From reports of Wan et al. six RBD amino acid of COVID-19viz; L455, F486, Q493, S494, N501 and Y505 found to have high binding affinity with ACE2 receptor of human [21]. Possibly high binding capability of RBD with human ACE2 results in high rate of natural infection in human species.
(a) Genome structure of COVID-19, (b) spike protein structure of COVID-19 constructed from C-I-TASSER, and (c) human antigiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) (yellow color) and spike protein trimmer (right side multicolor (magenta, cyan and blue)).(reproduced with permission [
CT image of (A) 75 year male patient having fever and cough since 5 days (B) 55 year female patient having fever and cough since 7 days (C) 43 year male patient having fever and cough since 7 days [D] 43 year female patient having fever and cough since 5 days; the abnormalities in axial CT were [a] bilateral subpleural CGO [B] extensive CGO with consolidations [C] small bilateral areas of peripheral CGO with minimal consolidation [d] peripheral consolidation in right lung (reproduced with permission from ref. [
Diagnostics measure can play a major role for the screening of COVID-19 patient from the healthy ones. Initial identification of the COVID-19have been carried out through molecular diagnostic approach viz.; metagenomic next generation sequencing (m-NGS), reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR) procedure and CRISPR. Rapid DNA alteration/genome structure of COVID-19makes it difficult to detect by any specific method. Therefore, specific DNA sequence must be developed for early stage detection and subsequent alarming. A paper-based colorimetric assay for DNA detection based on pyrrolidinyl peptide nucleic acid (acpcPNA)-induced nanoparticle aggregation has been reported by Teengam et al. [22]. The oligonucleotide targets were detected by investigating different color measurement of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) with detection limit down to 1.53. Chen et al. followed real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using nucleic acid analysis for detection of COVID-19 [4]. Measurement accuracy reported to be about 71% [4]. Pathogens from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid analysis found to be an alternative of finding genetic sequence of corona virus. Swab test possibly have higher accuracy but insufficient kits impose to go for other techniques. In this section few diagnosis process discussed elaborately.
COVID-19 outbreak converges existing reproductive health and economic stability of the women’s and girl’s. The crisis reduced the access of family planning, and increase the unsafe abortion, miscarriage, unintended pregnancies, post traumatic stress disorder, intimate partner violence etc. [39]. Limited resources available for illness prediction of COVID-19infected pregnant women but provide some insight based on the effects one encounter from similar type of corona virus infection (SARS) and MERS). COVID-19can increase the rate mortality for the case of pregnant women and enhances the chance of transmission to new born baby via vertical transmission. A study of 33 new born baby from infected mother reveals vertical COVID-19transmission in 3 babies [39]. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) sets few rule and regulation for women having new born babies are (a) sanitize the hands before touching the baby, (b) wash feeding bottles before and after use, (c) women are allowed to breast feed until evidence suggest otherwise, (d) use mask during breast feeding, (e) use of dexamethasone as an alternative to betamethasone for fetal lung maturation etc. [24]. Study of Liu et al., from January 20, 2020, to February 10, 2020 gives a clear picture of different symptoms and subsequent treatment of infected women having different stage of pregnancies [40]. The entire clinical study reviewed by three radiologist for 15 pregnant infected women (diagnosis with reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) at the time of admission) reveals that, 11 patient gave successful deliver of new born and 4 patient are still under observation (three are in second trimester and one in third trimester). They were not facing any natal asphyxia, neonatal death or abortion up to the end of the study. The CT imaging was carried out for infected women before and after delivery. All patients chest CT imaging shows pulmonary abnormalities. Similar chest diagnosis by CT scan and pulmonary abnormalities of all admitted patient has also been found in the report of Rasmussen et al. [41]. CT imaging reveals ground-glass opacity (GGO) in early stage of the infection and crazy paving pattern (denser, more profuse, and confluent) in patients having more infection than the images of healthy lungs [40, 41]. The most common symptoms were found to be fever (13 among 15 patients) and cough (9 among 15 patients). Lymphocytopenia was the most common abnormality found in 12 patients. CT scanning ensures no evidence of COVID-19provocation after delivery. Among 11 patients. All were given antibiotic treatment before and after delivery whereas 4 patient who were still pregnant till end of the study period were treated only with antibiotics. Another study by Zhu et al., reported nine pregnant women with 10 new born (one twin) babies [42]. The report says onset symptoms of COVID-19 were evident in four patients before 1 to 6 day of delivery, in two patients on the same day of delivery and in three patients after 1to 3 day of delivery. Two among the nine mothers had intrauterine fetal distress and 6 babies were born preterm. No mortality was reported [42]. As far as respiratory acute failure is concern, 40% pregnant women were given mechanical ventilation whereas it was 13% for non-pregnant women [31]. However, what treatment is actually applied is still unknown. Pregnant women’s are more likely to be affected due to the physical changes like diaphragm elevation, edema of respiratory tract mucosa, increased oxygen consumption etc. drive them to more complicated cases. What about the new born babies? Whether there is any vertical transmission of COVID-19 to new born or not? If transmission takes place, then in what mode and is it when fetal is in the mother womb or during delivery time (by means of surface contact)?. This question mark is still in dilemma. Because some evidence proofs that, there is no vertical transmission takes place [41]. On the other hand, few study ensure positive cases in new born babies [43]. Vertical transmission case study of four mother and their new born have been investigated by Chen et al. with different parameters variation in mother as well as in the new born babies [44]. All four mothers were admitted in hospital at their trimester with positive COVID-19. Initial health counseling of mothers was as follows; three among four have fever, two among four have myalgia or fatigue, two among four have cough. The fetal movement was normal except one mother who have dyspnea. Lymphocytes count (<1.1 × 109/L) found to be lower than in normal case and C-response protein was found to be significantly increased in level for all four mothers. Chest CT imaging before delivery confirms abnormalities. However, after antiviral treatment, COVID-19test found negative in three mother and they were released after 3–5 days. One who suffer with dyspnea takes more time to recover from COVID-19. The states of babies are as follows; all four babies were isolated upon birth from their mother. For prevention of COVID-19 perinatal and postnatal transmission, three mothers opted cesarean section and remaining one had vaginal delivery due to the sudden labor pain. The RT-PCR testing were carried out after 72 hour of their birth and only three babies were tested since one among four were not given consent for testing.
Worldwide scientist and physicians started major campaign to understand the emergence of the disease and its possible antiviral treatment by drug development or therapeutic agents or developing vaccines. As of now there is no specific therapeutics agent or vaccine approved to cure COVID-19 patient in clinical procedure. Due to limited clinical and basic research information, most of the clinical trial/manifestation follows basic symptomatic treatment protocol and supportive care which was followed for curing SARS and MERS patients [45]. The strategies of SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV therapy or antiviral drug have been extrapolated for the treatment of COVID-19 (Table 1). Most of the hospitalized infected patient have following status; (i) among the admitted patients, 23%–32% enters into ICU, (ii) 17%–29% feels critical respiratory failure (iii) ~7–8% were discharged and (iii) ~1% reported death. S-protein of COVID-19 has much similarity (in structural as well as replication procedure) with SARS and MERS protein and hence most of the articles reported broad spectrum antiviral activity of remdesivir, baricitinib, and chloroquine as the clinical trial antiviral drug [19] (Figure 5). Remdesivir demonstrated effectiveness for curing COVID-19 in USA [46]. Nucleotide type of remdesivir drug assisted to premature termination of RNA chain in host cell. On the other hand, ribavirin is a guanosine analogue mostly used for treating chronic hepatitis C [47]. However, study finds suitable dosage of ribavirin might stop the replication spike protein RNA [47]. Lopinavir (a viral protease inhibitor) with its pharmacological booster ritonavir (LPV/R) initially proved to be useful for HIV, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV treatment with the action of protease inhibitors. Recently study in South Korea reveals significant decrease in COVID-19 viral load after treating with (LPV/R) [46, 48]. Similar reduction in viral loading (associated with pneumonia related symptoms) was also observed after treating with arbidol [34]. Chloroquine and its hydroxy-analogue hydroxychloroquine demonstrated to be relevant for patient having diabetes with infected COVID-19 [14]. Researcher and scientific community stress more on 3CLpro, PLpro and RdRp protein target than other target possibly due to the most responsible proteases for COVID-19 replication and hence attractive targets for antiviral therapies. Further, one needs to understand, the possible action mechanism of existing drug on COVID-19 before being used. For example, arbidol can be used for fusion of virus-host cells to prevent virus entry into the host. The clinical trial of arbidol is in process [34]. Clinically approved camostat mesylate a possible inhibitor used (to reduce activity of TMPRSS2) for blocking the COVID-19entry into human body [35]. Combination of tocilizumab and hydroxychloroquine found to be very effective for curing COVID-19patient underwent kidney transplant surgery [49].
structure of viral entry inhibitor (a) remdesivir, (b) ribavirin, (c) IDX-184, (d) chloroquine, (e) hydroxycholoroquine, and (f) camostat mesylate.
Sr No | Target Protein | Possible Drug | Ref |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) | Arbidol | [34] |
2 | Viral spike glycoprotein (S-protein) | Arbidol | [34] |
3 | Transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) | camostat mesylate | [50] |
4 | Coronavirus main protease 3CLpro (3CLpro) | lopinavir | [46] |
5 | Papain-like protease PLpro (PLpro) | lopinavir | [48] |
6 | RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) | remdesivir, ribavirin, favipiravir | [47] |
7 | JAK kinas | baricitinib | [51] |
8 | Endosome/ACE2 | Chloroquine, Hydroxychloroquine | [47] |
8 | RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) | IDX-184 | [35] |
Recently nanomaterial used for point of care diagnosis, therapeutics agent, or in vaccine development. Nanomaterial found to be the promising candidate for the modulation of viral infection cycle [4]. Especially, carbon quantum dots having size below 10 nm found to be a promising interferes for the viruses into the cells. Nanomaterial having different nanostructure offers multivalent character due to surface to volume ratio. Such multivalent properties facilitate several ligands to attach with virus. The viral-ligands interface blocks the entry of virus into the host cell [20]. Łoczechin et al. reported function of carbon quantum dot (CQD) as inhibitor for COVID-19 [52]. CQD synthesis itself from different precursor offer different level of inhibition strength to corona virus. Two different study of CQD synthesis from (i) citric acid/ethylenediamine and further conjugated by boronic acid, and (ii) 4-aminophenylboronic acid and phenylboronic acid offer 50% inhibition concentrations of EC50 = 52 ± 8 μg mL−1 and EC50 = 5.2 ± 0.7 μg mL−1, respectively [52]. CQD inhibit growth of s-protein by fusion mechanism and stop replication process of S-protein by signal transduction mechanism or by interaction with cytosolic proteins [52]. Nanomaterial particles as therapeutic agent for stopping viral entry and subsequent replication of S-protein in host membrane may be an alternative of many existing treatment to avoid their side effects. For example, use of ribavirin and IFN as an antiviral drug for COVID-19 spike protein have many side effects including short-term memory loss, confusion, extrapyramidal effects and deficits in executive functions [20, 52].
Plasmonic biosensor working on the cumulative effect of plasmonic photothermal (PPT) and localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) transduction principle found to be another potential alternative diagnosis of COVID-19 [53]. Two dimensional (2D) gold nanoislands (AuNIs) functionalized with DNA receptors exploited as sensing of RNA gene sequence. Sensitivity of material can be enhanced to some order by direct thermoplasmonic heating to biosensor chip. The usable plasmonic heat to the chip has been generated by setting a particular plasmonic resonant frequency. Photon generated oscillation frequency modulated the electrons behavior on the surface of plasmon material which might be the crucial factor for detection of selective COVID-19 gene sequence from multi gene mixture. Enhanced plasmonic field at the nanostructures surfaces increases sensitivity of sensor by suppressing local variation like refractive index and molecular binding. Employing field effect transistor as biosensor for fast and accurate spike protein detection through nasopharyngeal swab has recently been reported by Seo et al. [54]. Graphene coated specific antibody has been used as sensing material for spike protein detection [54]. The spike protein directly not attached with graphene surfaces rather 1-pyrenebutyric acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester was used as probe linker to conjugate protein structure on graphene surfaces. Such attachment of spike protein induced by 1-pyrenebutyric acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester on graphene surface leading to changes in conductivity and subsequently in current through the FET structure (shown in Figure 6(a) and (b)). The sensitivity which was measured by current fluctuation due to presence or absence of spike protein is shown in Figure 6(c) and (d). The biosensor capable to detect down to 16 pfu/mL in cultural mode and 2.42 × 102 copies/mL in clinical sample [32]. The diagnosis method does not require sophisticated laboratory equipment and provide very high sensitivity with instantaneous measurements employing small volume of nasopharyngeal swab.
(a) showing conjugation of spike protein on to the surface of graphene via 1-pyrenebutyric acid N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (b) model showing spike protein on the surface (covered with graphene) of field effect transistor (c) FET sensor sensitivity in presence of SARS-COV-2 antibody and in absence of SARS-COV-2 antibody and (d) FET sensor sensitivity in MERS-COV and SARS-COV-2 (reproduce with permission [
Like other epidemic, COVID-19 may also become seasonal, but at present one can only predicted about it not for sure. Meanwhile, to reduce the outbreak, it is required to have international collaboration with data sharing policies. Because, of the limited information, one can reuse the existing drugs as clinical trial for curing COVID-19 infection (based on the similarity of target protein with other coronavirus). Further, fight against COVID-19 requires the knowledge of computer science, medicine, health policy, environmental factors and risk management etc. Present situation imposes researcher and scientific community a number of research target viz.; (i) production of rapid point of care diagnosis (ii) enhancement in surveillance and monitoring (iii) design of new therapeutic agents and finally (iv) vaccine development. We can only reduce the transmission level up to certain extent but cannot be demolished completely. For complete cure one has to develop vaccine.
Author declares there is no conflict of interest.
My sincere thanks to the doctor, nurses, and all other professionals for their continuous involvement directly or indirectly to fight against COVID-19.
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\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
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