Comparison of metal ions concentrations measured by IC and certified values [22].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7524",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"High-Speed Rail",title:"High-Speed Rail",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The rapid expansion of transportation industries worldwide, including railways, and the never-ending desire to reduce travel time have highlighted the need to resort to advanced transit systems. Conventional railway systems have been modified to make them travel at much higher speeds. High-Speed Rail includes the main topics and basic principles of high-speed railways (HSRs). The book reflects new engineering and track developments, the most current design methods, as well as the latest industry standards and policies. It provides a comprehensive overview of the significant characteristics for HSRs; highlights recent advancements, requirements, and improvements; and details the latest techniques in the global market. High-Speed Rail contains a collection of the latest research developments on HSRs. This book comprehensively covers basic theory and practice in sufficient depth to provide a solid grounding for railway engineers. It also helps readers maximize effectiveness in all facets of HSRs. This professional book as a credible source and a valuable reference can be very applicable and useful for professors, researchers, engineers, practicing professionals, trainee practitioners, students, and others interested in HSRs.",isbn:"978-1-83880-923-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-922-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-924-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76549",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"high-speed-rail",numberOfPages:76,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"0e248745ed8a460687701d02462cb874",bookSignature:"Hamid Yaghoubi",publishedDate:"June 19th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7524.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4185,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"103965",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid",middleName:null,surname:"Yaghoubi",slug:"hamid-yaghoubi",fullName:"Hamid Yaghoubi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103965/images/system/103965.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hamid Yaghoubi is the director of Iran Maglev Technology (IMT). He became the Iran top researcher in 2010. In this regard, he was awarded by the Iranian president; the Iranian Minister of Science, Research and Technology; and the Iranian Minister of Information and Communication Technology. He became the 2011 and 2012 Outstanding Reviewer for the Journal of Transportation Engineering (JTE), American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), USA. One of his journal papers became the 2011 Top Download Paper for JTE. He received the ICCTP2011 Award for the 11th International Conference of Chinese Transportation Professionals (ICCTP2011), ASCE. He is an assistant chief editor and an editorial board member for some journals. He has been a reviewer for the majority of journals, books and conferences. He has also been an editor for some books. 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In 1981, the first high-speed line of the world was inaugurated; nowadays, high-speed is operating in more than 20 countries, the high-speed network covering more than 35,000 kms (with more than 25,000 additional kms under construction). Spain is the second country by total distance of railways installed (only behind China) and the first in terms relative to the population and surface. Since the installation of the first high-speed line in Spain in 1992, the elements of the superstructure have undergone a continuous evolution, in order to improve the performance, the durability of the components and the comfort of the passengers. This evolution rests on an adequate selection of materials based on the characterization of their physical and mechanical properties to ensure the optimum in-service conditions. This chapter includes an overview of the different elements present in the railway superstructure of the high-speed lines in Spain. 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This chapter first gives a review of NDT techniques of wheels and rails, followed by the recent applications of SHM on HSR enabled by a combination of advanced sensing technologies using optical fibre, piezoelectric and other smart sensors for on-board and online monitoring of the railway system from vehicles to rail infrastructure. An introduction of research frontier and development direction of SHM on HSR is provided subsequently concerning both sensing accuracy and efficiency, through cutting-edge data-driven analytic studies embracing such as wireless sensing and compressive sensing, which answer for the big data’s call brought by the new age of this transport.",signatures:"Lu Zhou, Xiao-Zhou Liu and Yi-Qing Ni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64211",authors:[{id:"253578",title:"Dr.",name:"Lu",surname:"Zhou",slug:"lu-zhou",fullName:"Lu Zhou"},{id:"254448",title:"Prof.",name:"Yi-Qing",surname:"Ni",slug:"yi-qing-ni",fullName:"Yi-Qing Ni"},{id:"270970",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao-Zhou",surname:"Liu",slug:"xiao-zhou-liu",fullName:"Xiao-Zhou Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"63242",title:"Main Ways to Improve Cutting Tools for Machine Wheel Tread Profile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80302",slug:"main-ways-to-improve-cutting-tools-for-machine-wheel-tread-profile",totalDownloads:986,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter considers the methods to increase the performance and reliability of the reprofile machining of the wheel tread profile. 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However, chromatography is more than a simple technique, it is an important part of science encompassing chemistry, physical chemistry, chemical engineering, biochemistry and cutting through different fields. It is worth to be mentioned here that the IUPAC definition of chromatography is "separation of sample components after their distribution between two phases".
M. Tswett (1872-1919), a Russian botanist, discovered chromatography in 1901 during his research on plant pigments. According to M. Tswett: "An essential condition for all fruitful research is to have at one\'s disposal a satisfactory technique". He discovered that he could separate colored leaf pigments by passing a solution through a column packed with adsorbent particles. Since the pigments separated into distinctly colored bands as represented in Figure 1, he named the new method “chromatography” (chroma – color, graphy –writing). Tswett emphasized later that colorless substances can also be separated using the same principle.
Schematic diagram of the principles of chromatography as discovered by Tswett (1901).
The separation results from the differential migration of the compounds contained in a mobile phase through a column uniformly packed with the stationary matrix. A mobile phase, usually a liquid or gas, is used to transport the analytes through the stationary phase while the matrix, or stationary phase, is generally an inert solid or gel and may be associated with various moieties, which interact with the analyte(s) of interest. Interactions between the analytes and stationary phase are non-covalent and can be either ionic or non-ionic in nature depending on the type of chromatography being used. Components exhibiting fewer interactions with the stationary phase pass through the column more quickly than those that interact to a greater degree.
Tswett’s initial experiments involved direct visual detection and did not require a means of quantitation. Nowadays, chromatography is not only a separation technique. In most versions, it is hyphenated analytical techniques combining the separation with the identification and quantitative determination of the separated components. In this form, chromatography has become the most widely used technique in the chemical analysis of complex mixtures.
Many versions of chromatography are used. The various chromatographic techniques are subdivided according to the physical state of these two phases, the mobile and the stationary phases. These are: liquid chromatography including high performance, ion, micellar, electrokinetic, thin-layer, gel-permeation, and countercurrent versions; gas chromatography and supercritical fluid chromatography. Various forms of chromatography can be used to separate a wide variety of compounds, from single elements to large molecular complexes. By altering the qualities of the stationary phase and/or the mobile phase, it is possible to separate compounds based on various physiochemical characteristics. Among these characteristics are size, polarity, ionic strength, and affinity to other compounds. Chromatography also permits a great flexibility in the technique itself. The flow of the mobile phase might be controlled by gravity, pressure, capillary action and electro-osmosis; the separation may be carried out over a wide temperature range and sample size can vary from a few atoms to many kilograms. Also, the shape of the system in which the separation takes place can be varied, using columns of various length and diameter or flat plates. Through all this, evaluation chromatography has been transformed from an essentially batch technique into an automated instrumental method. Through its continuous growth, chromatography became the most widely used analytical separation technique in chemistry and biochemistry. Thus, it is not exaggeration to call it the technique of the 20th Century.
Classical liquid chromatography based on adsorption- desorption was essentially a non-linear process where the time of retardation (retention time) and the quantitative response depend on the position on the adsorption isotherm. Essentially, it was a preparative technique: the aim was to obtain the components present in the sample in pure form which could then be submitted to further chemical or physical manipulations [3].
Ion exchange chromatography (or ion chromatography, IC) is a subset of liquid chromatography which is a process that allows the separation of ions and polar molecules based on their charge. Similar to liquid chromatography, ion chromatography utilizes a liquid mobile phase, a separation column and a detector to measure the species eluted from the column. Ion-exchange chromatography can be applied to the determination of ionic solutes, such as inorganic anions, cations, transition metals, and low molecular weight organic acids and bases. It can also be used for almost all kinds of charged molecule including large proteins, small nucleotides and amino acids. The IC technique is frequently used for the identification and quantification of ions in various matrices.
This process of the eluent ion (E-) displacing an anion (X-) bonded to the resin can be expressed by the following chemical interaction:
This process can be represented by the chemical interaction showing the displacement of the bound anion (A¯) by the eluent anion (E¯).
Resin+-A¯ + E¯ <=> Resin+- E¯ + A¯
Resin+-B- + E- <=> Resin+-E- + B-
The overall 5 step process can be represented pictorially as shown in Figure 2:
Schematic representation of IC process.
A typical ion chromatography consists of several components as shown in Figure 3. The eluent is delivered to the system using a high-pressure pump. The sample is introduced then flows through the guard and into the analytical ion-exchange columns where the ion-exchange separation occurs. After separation, the suppressor reduces the conductivity of the eluent and increases the conductivity of the analytes so they are delivered to the detector. A computer and software are used to control the system, acquire and process the data. Since the introduction of ion chromatography in 1975, many developments were carried out to improve suppressor technology to provide better sensitivity and consistency for the analysis of a wide variety of compounds [5].
Schematic representation of Ion chromatography instrumentation.
Typical IC instrumentation includes: pump, injector, column, suppressor, detector and recorder or data system as represented in Figure 4.
Typical ion chromatography instrument.
The IC pump is considered to be one of the most important components in the system which has to provide a continuous constant flow of the eluent through the IC injector, column, and detector. The most practical system for the delivery of the mobile phase is that which can combine several liquids in different proportions at the command of the operator. This blending capability speeds the process of selecting the optimum eluent mixture required for isocratic analysis. There is a series of mobile phase reservoirs that can contain a range of different mobile phases that can be used individually, blended or for mobile phase programming purposes "gradient elution". In general liquid chromatography, the reservoirs can be stainless steel but in ion chromatography where the mobile phases can have extreme pH values, the reservoirs need to be made of glass or preferably a suitable plastic such as PEEK (polyether-ether-ketone). The advantage of PEEK is that it is also inert to many organic solvents that may need to be used in the mobile phase. In fact, all components of an ion chromatograph that may come in contact with either phase of the distribution system should be constructed from appropriate inert material. This includes all mobile phase conduits, valves, pumps, sampling devices, columns, detector sensor cells, etc. The solvent reservoirs are connected to a solvent selection valve and a solvent programmer where a particular solvent or particular solvent program can be selected. The solvent then passes from the selector/programmer to a high pressure pump. The mobile phase passes from the pump to the sampling device, usually a simple rotating valve that on rotation places the sample in line with the mobile flow which then passes onto the column. The exit flow from the column passes either to an ion suppressor (which will be discussed later) or directly to the detector. Gas may come out of the solution at the column exit or in the detector, resulting in sharp spikes. Spikes are created by microscopic bubbles which change the nature of the flowing stream making it heterogeneous. The drift may occur as these microscopic bubbles gradually collected and combined in the detector cell. The best results can be obtained by applying vacuum to each solvent for about 5 min. with subsequent helium purging and storing under helium atmosphere.
The constant-flow pumps is the most widely used in all common IC applications. Flow rate stability is an important pump feature that distinguishes pumps. For size exclusion chromatography, the flow rate has to be extremely stable. External electronic control is a very desirable feature when automation or electronically controlled gradients are to be run.
Constant-flow systems are generally of two basic types: reciprocating piston and positive displacement (syringe) pumps. Reciprocating piston pump can maintain a liquid flow for indefinitely long time.
The pumping rate is controlled by piston retracts or by the cam rotating speed. The main drawback of this type of pump is sinusoidal pressure pulsations which lead to the necessity of using pulse dampers.
Provides a constant and almost pulse free flow. Both pump chambers are driven by the same motor through a common eccentric cam; this common drive allows one piston to pump while the other is refilling. As a result, the two flow-profiles overlap each other significantly reducing the pulsation downstream of the pump; this is visualized below.
Its advantages are: unlimited solvent reservoir allowing long-term unattended use; quick changeover and clean out capability; wide flow rate range (0.01 to 10 ml/min) is provided without gear change. While its drawbacks are: incompletely compensated pulsations might be observable at high refractive index detector sensitivities, especially at low flow rates; pump reliability depends on the cleanliness of the mobile phase and continued sealing capability of four check valves on each cycle (e.g. several times per minute).
Recent improvements include: A computer-designed camshaft is used to achieve maximum overlap of pump strokes, resulting in virtually undetectable pulsation or ripple and small-volume check valves are used to allow the pumps to function reliably at flow rates as low as 0.001 ml/min.
Sample introduction can be accomplished in various ways. The simplest method is to use an injection valve. In more sophisticated LC, automatic sampling devices are incorporated where sample introduction is done with the help of auto-samplers and microprocessors.
In liquid chromatography, liquid samples may be injected directly and solid samples need only to be dissolved in an appropriate solvent. The solvent need not to be the mobile phase, but frequently it is judiciously chosen to avoid detector interference, column/component interference or loss in efficiency. It is always best to remove particles from the sample by filtering, or centrifuging since continuous injection of particulate materials will eventually cause blockage of injection devices or columns.
Injectors should provide the possibility of injecting the liquid sample within the range of 0.1 to 100 ml of volume with high reproducibility and under high pressure (up to the 4000 psi). They should also produce minimum band broadening and minimize possible flow disturbances. The most useful and widely used sampling device for modern LC is the
With commercially available automatic sampling devices, large numbers of samples can be routinely analyzed by LC without operator intervention. Such equipment is popular for the analysis of routine samples (e.g., quality control of drugs), particularly when coupled with automatic data-handling systems. Automatic injectors are indispensable in unattended searching (e.g., overnight) for chromatographic parameters such as solvent selectivity, flow rate, and temperature optimization.
Most of the autosamplers have a piston metering syringe type pump to suck the preestablished sample volume into a line and then transfer it to the relatively large loop (~100 ml) in a standard six-port valve. The simplest autosamplers utilize the special vials with pressuarization caps. A special plunger with a needle, push the cap down to the vial and displace the sample through the needle into the valve loop. Most of the autosamplers are microprocessor controlled and can serve as a master controller for the whole instrument
The principle of ion exchange chromatography is that, charged molecules bind electrostatically to oppositely charged groups that have been bound covalently on the matrix. Ion exchange chromatography is a type of adsorption chromatography so that, charged molecules adsorb to ion exchangers reversibly so, the molecules can be bounded or eluted by changing the ionic environment. Ion exchangers can be used in column chromatography to separate molecules according to charge; actually other features of the molecule are usually important so that the chromatographic behavior is sensitive to the charge density, charge distribution, and the size of the molecule. An ion exchanger is usually a three-dimensional network or matrix that contains covalently liked charged groups. If a group is negatively charged, it will exchange positive ions and is a cation exchanger. An example of a group used in cation exchanger is the carboxy-methyl group. However, if a group is positively charged, it will exchange negative ions and is an anion exchanger. An example of a group used in anion exchanger is the di-ethyl-amino-ethyl group (DEAE). The matrix (stationary phase) can be made of various materials, commonly used materials are dextran, cellulose, and agarose.
The separation on an ion exchanger is usually accomplished in two stages: first, the substances to be separated are bound to the exchanger using conditions that give stable and tight binding; then the column is eluted with buffers of different pH, ionic strength or composition and the components of the buffer compete with the bound material for the binding sites. To choice whether the ion exchanger is to be anionic or cationic depend on the material to be separated. If the materials to be bound to the column have a single charge (i.e., either plus or minus), the choice is clear. However, many substances (e.g., proteins), carry both negative and positive charges and the net charge depends on the pH. In such cases, the primary factor is the stability of the substance at various pH values. Most proteins have a pH range of stability (i.e., in which they don’t denature) in which they are either positively or negatively charged. So, if a protein is stable at pH value above the isoelectric point, an anion exchanger should be used; but if stable at values below the isoelectric point, a cation exchanger is required. Ion exchange columns vary widely in size, packing material and material of construction. Depending on its ultimate use and area of application, the column material may be stainless steel, titanium, glass or an inert plastic such as PEEK. The column can vary in diameter from about 2mm to 5 cm and in length from 3 cm to 50 cm depending on whether it is to be used for normal analytical purposes, microanalysis, high speed analyses or preparative work. The life of a column will depend largely on the type of samples it is used to separate but the conditions under which the separations are carried out will also place limits on it useful lifetime.
The suppressor reduces the background conductivity of the chemicals used to elute samples from the ion-exchange column which improves the conductivity measurement of the ions being tested. IC suppressors are membrane-based devices which are designed to convert the ionic eluent to water as a means of enhancing the sensitivity. It can be used with universal detectors to act as a desalting device, thereby removing the interference resulting from the presence of ionic salts in the eluent. Suppressors are normally used with purely aqueous eluents, so there is a need to establish whether these suppressors can be used with the aqueous/organic eluents needed to elute organic analytes which are retained on the stationary phase during their interaction. Eluents using ionic gradients and containing organic solvents can be suppressed satisfactorily using either chemical suppression with a micromembrane suppressor or electrolytic suppression using a self-regenerating suppressor. For utilization in industry, the electrolytic suppressor is usually more appropriate since it can employ water as the suppressor regenerant and is fully automated in terms of response to changing eluent conditions. Care needed to be taken with controlling the suppressor current in order to avoid damage to the suppressor and also the generation of ionic components from oxidation of the organic solvents (especially methanol) present in the eluent. Further potential problems, arising when using suppressors as de-salting devices with organic analytes, are the possibility of analytes loss in the suppressor as a result of adsorption or precipitation effects and dispersion of the analyte band in the suppressor.
Weakly acidic analytes are anionic in the presence of the high pH eluents used with anion-exchange IC, but become protonated in the suppressor and are therefore prone to hydrophobic adsorption or precipitation. Similarly, weakly basic analytes are separated as cations with low pH eluents but are deprotonated in the suppressor to form neutral species. The micro-membrane suppressor consists of layered ion-exchange membranes and fibrous chamber screens with the regenerant chamber screen modified to possess a high ion-exchange capacity which serves as a reservoir for regenerant ions. There is also a possibility of losses of analytes resulting from penetration of the analyte through the suppressor membrane into the regenerant chamber. Theoretically, anionic analytes are not able to penetrate the cation-exchange membranes of the anion suppressor due to the effects of Donnan exclusion.
Introduction of a suppression device between the column and the detector can be expected to cause some degree of peak broadening due to diffusional effects. The shape of the analyte band will also be influenced by hydrophobic adsorption effects, especially when the adsorption and desorption processes are slow. Examination of peak shapes and analyte losses can therefore provide important insight into the use of suppressors with organic analytes which are weakly acidic or weakly basic. It can be expected that peak area recovery rates after suppression are governed by a combination of hydrophobic interactions with the suppressor and permeation through the membranes with the balance between these mechanisms being determined by eluent composition, suppression conditions and analyte properties.
Current LC detectors have a wide dynamic range normally allowing both analytical and preparative scale runs on the same instrument.
An ideal detector should have the following properties: low drift and noise level (particularly crucial in trace analysis), high sensitivity, fast response, wide linear dynamic range, low dead volume (minimal peak broadening), cell design which eliminates remixing of the separated bands, insensitivity to changes in type of the solvent, flow rate and temperature, operational simplicity and reliability. It should be non-destructive.
The amplifier output is then either digitized, and the binary number sent to a computer for storage and processing, or the output is passed directly to a potentiometric recorder. This would result in a false change in impedance due to the generation of gases at the electrode surfaces. The frequency of the AC potential that is applied across the electrodes is normally about 10 kHz. In its simplest form, it can consist of short lengths of stainless steel tube insulated from each other by PTFE connecting sleeves.
Sensitivity can be associated with the slope of the calibration curve. It is also dependent on the standard deviation of the measurements. The higher the slope of your calibration curve the higher the sensitivity of your detector for that particular component, but high fluctuations of your measurements will decrease the sensitivity. The more selective the detection, the lower is signal/noise and the higher the sensitivity. The detector response is linear if the difference in response for two concentrations of a given compound is proportional to the difference in concentration of the two samples.
The main goal in using electronic data systems is to increase analysis accuracy and precision, while reducing operator attention. In routine analysis, where no automation (in terms of data management or process control) is needed, a pre-programmed computing integrator may be sufficient. For higher control levels, a more intelligent device is necessary, such as a data station or minicomputer.
Ion chromatography is basically a chromatographic method that has become a routine analytical method. It is regarded as a versatile analytical technique for separating and quantifying ions. The concept of IC was successively widened with advancements of the rapid development in separation, column stationary phase, great variety of detectors, data analysis and hyphenated techniques. Moreover, it could include other separation methods (e.g., ion interaction and ion exclusion) for simultaneous separation of analyte components. IC analysis has matured to a well-established rugged, sensitive and reliable analysis technique for a wide variety of chemical compounds present in various matrices. On this manner, many papers have been published during the last few years dealing with new modalities in sample pretreatment, separation, detection, etc., for improving samples analysis. The following section deals with the recent development in instrumentations and applications to fit the desired fields of applications.
The demand for the determination of ionic species in various water samples is growing rapidly along with increasing environmental problems and it is clearly important to develop an appropriate analytical method for their determination. IC represents one of the most efficient methods that provide accurate and rapid determination of ionic species in water samples. Basically, anions and cations can be independently separated. Recent advances in ion chromatography (IC) make it a superior analytical method; it has been expanded for the simultaneous determination of inorganic anions and cations. Column switching has become a capable technique for the simultaneous determination of inorganic anions and cations in a single chromatographic run. Amin et al. [10] demonstrated a convenient and applicable method for various natural fresh water samples analysis (Figure 5). They proposed an ion chromatography (IC) method for the determination of seven common inorganic anions (F−, H2PO4−, NO2−, Cl−, Br−, NO3−, and SO42−) and/or five common inorganic cations (Na+, NH4+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+) using a single pump, a single eluent and a single detector. The system used cation-exchange and anion-exchange columns connected in series via a single 10-port switching valve. The 10-port valve was switched for the separation of either cations or anions in a single chromatographic run. Using a specific eluent, 1.0 mM trimellitic acid (pH 2.94), seven anions and the five cations could be separated on the anion-exchange column and the cation-exchange column, respectively. The elution order was found to be F− < H2PO4− < NO2− < Cl− < Br− < NO3− < SO42− for the anions and Na+ < NH4+ < K+ < Mg2+ <Ca2+ for the cations. Complete separation of the above anions or cations was demonstrated within 35 min each. Detection limits calculated were 0.05–0.58 ppm for the anions and 0.05–0.38 ppm for the cations, whereas repeatability values were below 2.26, 2.76, and 2.90% for peak height, peak area and retention time, respectively.
Schematic diagram of the instruments used for simultaneous separation of anions and cations [
Bromate has been classified as a human carcinogen by both the IARC (International Agency for the Research on Cancer) and the USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) and is known to be toxic to fish and other aquatic life [11, 12]. Bromate could be produced in aquatic systems upon the oxidation of aqueous bromide. Controlled ozonation has been considered as an effective disinfectant tool in aquatic systems [13] but when sea water is subjected to ozonation, oxy-bromide ozonation by-products (OBP) are produced and these are important both in terms of their disinfection ability and also in relation to their potential toxicity. When seawater is oxidized, aqueous bromide (Br-) is initially converted to hypobromite (OBr¯) which can then either be reduced back to bromide or oxidized further to bromate (BrO3-) which is known to be toxic to fish and other aquatic life and classified as a human carcinogen. There has been thus a considerable interest in bromate analysis so that trace analysis of bromate in water has received considerable attention in recent years.
Zakaria et al. [12] used a multi-dimensional matrix-elimination ion chromatography approach, two-dimensional and three-dimensional configurations as described in Figure 6, for the determination of bromate in seawater samples. The designed configurations were used effectively to eliminate the interference caused by the high concentration of ubiquitous ions present in seawater such as chloride and sulfate. A two-dimensional approach utilizing a high capacity second dimension separation, comprising two columns connected in series, was applied successfully and permitted the determination of bromate in undiluted seawater samples injected directly onto the ion chromatography system. A three-dimensional method utilizing two 10-port switching valves (Figure 6b) to allow sharing of the second suppressor and detector between the second and third dimension separations showed better resolution and detection for bromate and reduced the limit of detection to 60 µg/L for spiked seawater samples. Experimentally, the analyzed ozonated seawater samples exhibited a non-linear increase in bromate level on increasing ozonation time. A bromate concentration in excess of 1770 µg/L was observed following ozonation of the seawater sample for 120 min. The developed method provides the elimination of high concentration of interfering species, such as chloride and sulfate, by taking specific fractions from each separation column and re-injecting onto a subsequent column.
Using this approach, the limit of detection for bromate was 1050 µg/L using a 500 µL injection loop. Good linearity was obtained for bromate with correlation coefficients for the calibration curves of 0.9981 and 0.9996 based on peak height and area, respectively. The limit of detection achieved was more than sufficient to determine levels of bromate known to be toxic to aquatic species of interest in aquaculture applications. The developed method is therefore applicable to aquaculture, especially where water is recycled and repeatedly ozonated, leading to the probability of accumulation of bromate. Furthermore the described method is generally applicable to other high ionic strength samples, although re-optimization of cutting times would be required. The system is also potentially applicable for the analysis of other low concentration ionic species, including other oxyhalides such as chlorate.
Schematic diagram of instrumentation used to perform the multi-dimensional IC. (a) 10-Port valve positions for detection of 2nd dimension separation (i.e. effluent from column 2 diverted through conductivity detector 2). (b) 10-Port valve positions for injection of 2nd dimension cut fractions onto 3rd dimension column with subsequent detection using conductivity detector 2 [
One of the problems of iodide estimation by conductivity detection is the expected interference from other ions and poor sensitivity of detection which rendered its estimation in complex samples difficult to apply. On the other hand, several methods have been developed for the estimation of iodate ion in water, however, one drawback of these methods is that it can give false estimation of iodate with oxidizing agents such as bleaching powder, which too can generate iodine from the reaction with I¯. It is therefore necessary to devise a sensitive and selective precise test for the separation and detection of iodate species in different samples matrices. Kumar et al. [14] applied successfully an ion chromatographic method with conductivity detection for iodate estimation in common salt after sample pretreatment with on-guard silver cartridge for the removal of the large excess of chloride ion. Unfortunately, fresh Ag cartridge is required for each sample which would render the method expensive for routine use.
Ion chromatography employing anion-exchange column with amperometric detection is demonstrated to be well suited for quantitative estimation of iodide and iodate in iodised salt [15].The success of the technique, which dispenses with the need for pre-treatment for chloride removal, hinges on the excellent resolution achieved and the high selectivity and sensitivity of detection of iodide by amperometry. The system consisted of a gradient pump with vacuum degas option, an electrochemical detector, liquid chromatography module, eluant organiser and rheodyne injection loop and PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) filters with pore size of 0.45 µm. The flow-through detection cell is made of a 1.0-mm diameter silver working electrode and a pH-Ag|AgCl combination reference electrode. The titanium body of the cell served as the counter electrode. Separations were accomplished on a 250 mm × 4 mm i.d. column coupled with a 50 mm × 4 mm i.d. guard column. Such a column contains a hydrophilic, anion-exchange resin that is well suited to the chromatography of the relatively hydrophobic iodide anion. Elution was carried out under isocratic condition using HNO3 (50 mM) at a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. The injection loop volume was fixed at 50 µL and the sample run time was 10 min. Ion chromatographic analysis with conductivity detection was undertaken on the same column using 22 mM NaOH as eluant and flow rate of 1 mL/minute. The injection loop volume was fixed at 10 µL and the sample run time was 10 min.
This technique is easy to use and its most important merit is that it can readily indicate absence of iodate in case adulterants that give false positive iodometric test are used in its place. The method also enables trace quantities of iodide to be detected even in the presence of large excess of chloride ion. Interferences from impurities normally present in salt were insignificant.
In chromatographic analysis, the highly retained species present a challenge for ion chromatographic analysis due to peak broadening which leads to low resolution between analytes of interest and to relatively poor detection limits. This problem is often more acute with monovalent anions than with monovalent cations because common anions are often large, and the greater radius to charge ratio facilitates partitioning to the hydrophobic stationary phase. The introduction of macrocycle-based ion chromatography has provided useful new techniques for analysis of both cations and anions. For example, capacity gradient ion chromatography [16] is beneficial in decreasing retention times and thus peak broadening for highly retained anions, making possible the analysis of a broad host of anions. Lamb et al. [17] focused on the introduction of macrocycles into ion chromatographic systems for increased versatility in the separation of both cations and anions. They described extensively the use of macrocycles based ion chromatography in the analysis of perchlorate ion.
As more information on the extent of the contamination and the dangerous effects of perchlorate consumption has become available, much concern has arisen over perchlorate contamination in public water systems. Furthermore, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has periodically reduced the acceptable limit for safe consumption. Currently, the limit stands at 0.7 μg/kg/day, which corresponds to 24.5 μg/L for a 70 kg human drinking 2 L of water per day. The method described by Lamb et al. [17] provides effective perchlorate determinations (shown in Figure 7) using standard conductimetric detection by combining an 18-crown-6-based mobile phase with an underivatized reversed-phase mobile phase ion chromatography (MPIC) column. One unique feature of this method is the flexibility in column capacity that is achieved through simple variations in eluent concentrations of 18-crown-6 and KOH, facilitating the separation of target analyte anions; perchlorate. Using a standard anion exchange column as concentrator makes possible the determination of perchlorate as low as 0.2 μg/L in low ionic strength matrices. Determination of perchlorate at the sub-ug/L level in pure water and in hardwater samples with high background ion concentrations can be achieved this way. However, like other IC techniques, this method is challenged to achieve analyses at the μg/L level in the demanding high ionic strength matrix described by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1000 mg/L chloride, sulfate and carbonate) [17]. This challenge was approached by use of the Cryptand C1 concentrator column to effectively preconcentrate perchlorate while reducing background ion concentrations in the high ionic strength matrix. The method makes possible the determination of perchlorate at the 5 μg/L level in the highest ionic strength matrix described by the EPA. In short, this method provides an alternative method for the analysis of perchlorate at concentration levels as low as 5 μg/L in high background samples and to well below 1 μg/L in pure water and low salt samples.
Optimal system configuration using AG4 guard column as the concentrator column. Five milliliters of Milli-Q water spiked with ClO4¯ was loaded onto the concentrator column at varying concentrations of perchlorate. Eluent: 0.5M 18-crown-6 and 5mM KOH. Injection: 5mL loaded onto concentrator column, flow rate: 1.0 mL/min, temperature: 20 oC [
There has been considerable interest in the determination of ions at trace levels as, for example, in applications need high-purity water as in semiconductor processing and the determination of trace anions in amine treated waters. For this investigation, we will define "trace" as determinations at or below 1 µg/l (ppb) levels. The Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International (SEMI) recommended the use of IC for tracking trace ionic contaminants from 0.025 to 0.5 µg/l [18]. In addition, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has established IC as the analytical technique for determining of trace level concentrations of sodium, chloride and sulfate down to 0.25 µg/1 in power plant water [19].
To determine ions at mid µg/l to mg/l (ppb to ppm) levels with IC, a sample size of 10 to 50/µl is sufficient. To determine ions at lower levels, then a preconcentration or trace enrichment technique has typically to be utilized [20]. With this method, the analytes of interest are preconcentrated on another column in order to "strip" ions from a measured sample volume. This process concentrates the desired species resulting in lower detection limits. However, preconcentration has several disadvantages, compared with a direct method, additional hardware is required. A concentrator column is used to preconcentrate the ions of interest, a sample pump is needed for loading sample, an additional valve is often required for switching the concentrator column in and out-of line with the analytical column and extra time is required for the preconcentration step. It was of interest to explore the development of a high-volume direct-injection IC method that would facilitate trace ion determinations without a separate preconcentration step. This would represent a significantly simpler and more reliable means of trace analysis.
Kaiser et al. [21] described the evaluation of on-column preconcentration for enhancing sensitivity and enabling trace ion determination in high-purity water. They developed a high-volume direct-injection method for trace level determinations (low to sub µg/l) of anions and cations by ion chromatography as shown in Figure 8. The chromatographic signal was enhanced by increasing the sample volume up to 1300/µl with no significant loss in peak efficiency. Total analysis times were less than 30 min and the method detection limits for most ions ranged from 10 to 400 ng/l (ppt). The methods described exhibit increased sensitivity and greater reliability than methods using conventional preconcentration. Lower detection limits were achieved by increasing sample size with no significant loss neither in peak efficiency nor in peak resolution. Trace levels (low to sub µg/l) were determined without the added complexity of a concentrator column or loading pump and valve.
IC system configuration for direct-injection sample loading [
Błazewicz et al. [22] investigated the basic validation parameters of determining the transition metal ions using ion chromatography. Moreover, they described the use of IC method together with the digestion conditions for the determination of heavy metals in different solid matrices. They designed an ion chromatography preceded by microwave-assisted acidic digestion of tissues samples in appropriate conditions for the determination of Co2+, Cu2+, Fe3+, Mn2+, and Zn2+ in human tissues (nodular goitre and healthy human thyroids). Microwave mineralization in a closed system, where the contamination problems are significantly reduced, is recommended for such samples. The chromatogram of heavy metals separation is represented in Figure 9.
Chromatograms of blank sample (a), standard mixture (b), sample of thyroid from the control group (c), and sample of thyroid of a patient with diagnosed nodular goitre (d) [
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Comparison of metal ions concentrations measured by IC and certified values [22].
* LOD—limit of detection; LOQ—limit of quantitation; LOQ= 10/3 LOD.
An evaluation of the obtained data indicated that the mean values found for iron, copper, and zinc are within the values presented in literature. The main assets of the presented method lie in its simplicity and the practicality of determining analytes from samples of various origins. Suitability of the developed IC method was supported by validation results as shown in Table 1. Generally, very good results of precision (RSD below 5%) and recoveries (above 90%) were evaluated.
On the other hand, in the framework of long-term management and recycling of nuclear wastes, the transmutation process has been identified as a promising option to decrease the radiotoxicity of radionuclides. A sample containing around 5 mg of 109Ag metal powder is one of the fission product transmutation targets which were irradiated. This sample was initially enriched in 109Ag (>99%). After irradiation, the theoretical evolution scheme predicts respectively the formation of 366 µg of cadmium and 1µg of palladium compared to 4636 µg of silver. Determination of cadmium isotopic compositions is of prime interest to validate neutron calculation codes and to obtain the integral capture cross section of 109Ag. Isobaric interferences occur at mass 108 between cadmium and silver, and at mass 110 between cadmium, silver and palladium. The mass resolution required to overcome 110Cd/110Ag/110Pd interference is about 100,000 which is beyond actual possibilities of mass spectrometers. Thus, a chemical separation step must be completed to isolate cadmium in a purified fraction before offline isotopic measurements. In the case of radioactive materials, the chemical separations performed with gravity flow on ion exchange resins induce drawbacks for analysts, such as increased handling time on samples. Moreover, in most proposed procedures, cadmium is generally eluted after silver, which lowers the separation factor between silver and cadmium and decreases decontamination factors because of silver peak tailing in cadmium fraction. A powerful way to reduce analysis time and to improve selectivity is high performance ion chromatography. However, no detector classically associated with a HPIC system can measure Ag, Cd and Pd with high specificity and sensitivity. Ion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (IC-ICPMS) can tackle those specifications: it can be used to detect trace elements at the exit of the chromatographic column. Because of the fast mass scanning ability of the quadrupole in peak jumping mode, this kind of spectrometer enables an easy handling of transient signals associated with high sensitivity. The separation procedure was achieved with a carboxylate-functionalized cation exchange CS12 column using 0.5 M HNO3 as eluent giving satisfactory results in terms of peak resolution and decontamination factors for example. The developed method demonstrates the possibility to obtain rapidly purified cadmium fractions which can be directly analyzed by multi collection inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC ICPMS). After the optimization of chromatographic conditions, the method was applied to the separation of non-radioactive solutions simulating the composition of the irradiated sample. This hyphenated technique minimizes sample pretreatment and shortens analysis time, which is of prime interest for nuclear applications. Moreover, the developed method displays a strong potential not only for nuclear issues but also for geological and cosmochemical applications where high accuracy and precision isotopic analyses are also needed [23].
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is one of the major ciliatoxic components when tobacco products such as cigarettes are combusted and is thus classed to the “Hoffmann analytes” It is formed in cigarette smoke in the burning zone mainly from pyrolysis of various nitrogenous compounds such as protein and nitrate in tobacco at oxygen-deficient conditions. The quantitative determination of HCN in cigarette smoke is integral to proper assessment due to its potential impact on public health. However, there are many challenges in accurately determining its amount in cigarette smoke; these include the need for developing an efficient and rapid smoke collecting method and the technique to analyze it in complex smoke mixture. Recently, extensive efforts have been done on determining cyanide by IC through the development and application of electrochemical detection (especially pulsed amperometric detection) which endow this kind of method with a high selectivity and improved accuracy, which eventually enable them to be widely applicable to the ion chromatography. Zhang et al. [24] focused on applying ion chromatography in the determination of hydrogen cyanide in cigarette main stream smoke. Whole cigarette mainstream smoke was totally trapped by Cambridge filters, which are treated with sodium hydroxide/ ethanol solution as shown in Figure 10.
Schematic diagram of solution absorption method [
The chromatographic analysis (Figure 11) has been achieved by developing an ion chromatography integrated with pulsed amperometric detection (PAD) and optimizing some factors include sample treatment, matrix interference, composition of eluents and so on. The method possesses the advantage of fast analysis time over the widespread used solution absorption method. The possible co-existing interferents are evaluated under the optimized detection conditions and excellent recoveries of cyanide. The optimization of composition of eluents and evaluation of possible interferents make this method selective and reliable so that the cyanide content of absorption solution can be directly determined by the optimized IC-PAD method without any pretreatments. The linear range is 0.0147–2.45µg/mL with R2 value of 0.9997. The limit of the detection is 3µg/L for a 25µL injection loop. The overall relative standard deviation of the method is less than 5.20% and the recovery range from 94.3% to 101.0%. This developed method proves to be advantageous, due to expanded detection range with greater accuracy and is thus highly anticipated to find wide applications in cigarette smoke analysis.
Typical chromatograms obtained under the following eluent composition: A: 0.2M NaOH, 0.2M NaAC; B: 0.4M NaOH, 0.2M NaAC; C: 0.6M NaOH; D: 0.6M NaOH, 0.3M NaAC; E: 0.6M NaOH, 0.2M NaAC. Flow rate: 1.0 mL/min, injection volume: 25 µL, column temperature 30oC. Peak 1: unidentified, peak 2: cyanide [
IC can also be used in detection of some acids. Zhao et al. [25] proposed a simple and eco-friendly ion chromatographic method for the determination of Hippuric acid (HA) in human urine (see Figure 12). Hippuric acid is a kind of metabolite of toluene in human body, therefore, HA is a physiological component of human urine if toluene was inhaled. The content of HA in human urine actually is confirmed as a diagnostic marker of exposure to toluene [26]. It has been reported that exposure to high concentrations of volatile organic compounds such as toluene lead to a series of diseases such as acute and chronic respiratory effects, functional alterations of the central nervous system, mucous and dermal irritations, and chromosome aberrations.. In order to diagnose patients who are suffering from a series of diseases caused by elevated HA levels, the determination of HA in human urine is necessary. Comparing with other chromatographic methods such as GC and HPLC, the proposed IC method used eco-friendly mobile phase (not containing organic solvent), and avoided complicated sample pretreatment. The separation was carried out on an anion exchange column with 2.0 mmol/L NaHCO3 as mobile phase at the flow-rate 0.7mL/min. A suppressed conductivity detector was used and the detection limit was 1.0 µg/L (S/N = 3) for hippuric acid. The analysis time for one run was 30 min under the optimized IC condition. The recovery of hippuric acid was 93.2–98.0% while the relative standard deviation (RSD) was 1.4–2.3% by seven measurements. Furthermore the results shown that the proposed method has the advantages of easy operation, high sensitivity and accuracy. This method is suitable for routine clinical analysis of HA.
Chromatogram of a standard solution of HA (10mg/L) [
Erupe et al. [27] developed an ion chromatography method with non-suppressed conductivity detection for the simultaneous determination of methylamines (methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine) and trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) in particulate matter air samples. The method can be used to detect, quantify and determine whether TMAO and methylamines are quantitatively significant components of organic nitrogen aerosol in the atmosphere. This was done using aerosol collected from smog chamber reactions of trimethylamine with ozone and/or nitrogen oxide. The method was tested using a solution of laboratory-generated aerosol containing a mixture of the analytes. The analytes were well separated by means of cation-exchange chromatography using a 3 mM nitric acid / 3.5% acetonitrile (v/v) eluent solution and a Metrosep C 2 250 (250mm×4mm i.d.) separation column. The composition of the mobile phase was optimized and efficient separations between the analytes were achieved (Figure 13 and 14). Detection limits of methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine, and trimethylamine-N-oxide were 43, 46, 76 and 72 µg/L, respectively. The method described is simple and has low detection limits suitable for analysis of aerosols generated in smog chamber experiments and in ambient air where the concentration of these species is expected to be high.
Separation of methylamines and methylamine-N-oxides from standard solutions. Analytes: 1-sodium, 2-ammonium, 3-methylamine (195 µg/L), 4-dimethylamine (390 µg/L), 5-trimethylamine-N-oxide (465 µg/L), and 6-trimethylamine (615 µg/L) [
Chromatogram of smog chamber filter analysis from reaction of trimethylamine with ozone. Analytes: 1-sodium, 2-ammonium, 3-potassium, 4-dimethylamine (1.72 µg/m3), 5-trimethylamine-N-oxide (0.25 µg/m3), 6-magnesium, and 7- trimethylamine (0.57 µg/m3). The inset is a magnification of the trimethylamine-N-oxide peak (5) from the chromatogram [
Phenolic compounds have attracted great concern in recent years due to their high toxicity and bio-recalcitrant effect in the ecosystem water cycling process. Numerous techniques have been studied and developed to determine phenols. However, most of these detection techniques focuses on high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) equipped with various kinds of detectors such as UV, electrochemical, fluorescence, and mass spectroscopy [28,29]. Among these detection techniques, fluorescence detector is a better choice in terms of selectivity and sensitivity. HPLC combined with fluorescence detector (HPLC/FD) have been used in numerous applications in trace analysis. However, some phenols have weak fluorescent property and post-column derivatization is often required to convert these compounds into strong fluorescent substances that can then be efficiently detected by the fluorescence detector [30]. Using on line electrochemical derivatization, Karst et al. [30] presented a method to determine mono-substituted phenols via HPLC equipped with fluorescence detector (HPLC/ED/FD). This method addressed the problems on phenols that could not be detected via fluorescence detector. However, the separation was performed by common silica-based C18 separation column. Unfortunately, the silica column works well only in the pH range of 2–8 (pH < 3), whereas the optimum pH for producing the fluorescence of oxidized phenols is basic (pH ~10). Obviously, the separation condition could not match well with that of downstream detection. Therefore, buffer solution of NH3/NH4Cl at pH 9.5 had to be added to the effluent from the column to perform the electrochemical conversion to enhance the fluorescence signal. Polymer-based stationary phases (e.g. divinylbenzene/ ethylvinylbenzene, DVB/EVB) in IC dominate most of the applications due to their wide pH tolerance (0–14). Since the polymer-based column can work well in alkaline solution (e.g., pH ~10). The choice of alkaline eluent matching with the downstream fluorescence detection will not be a barrier if the phenols could be well separated by IC. Based on these considerations, a method to determine phenols, where their separation is performed using IC combined with online post-column, electrochemical derivatization and fluorescence detection (IC/ED/FD), has been developed [31] Six model phenols including 4-methylphenol (pMP), 2,4-dimethylphenol (DMP), 4-tert-butylphenol (TBP), 4-hydroxylphenolacetic acid (pHPA), 4-acetamidophenol (pAAP), and phenol (P) were well separated on an anion-exchange column under ion exchange mode using NaOH with small amount of acetonitrile added as eluent (as shown in Figure 15). The separation of phenols was carried out in the anion exchange column with basic eluent and the electro-oxidation of phenols is performed using a laboratory-made electrolytic cell (EC) consisting of porous titanium electrode and cation exchange membrane (CEM) which allows the oxidation products that are strongly fluorescent to be detected by the fluorescence detector. NaOH eluent used in the present method matches well with the maximal fluorescence intensity obtained at alkaline condition for oxidized phenols, thus the addition of specific buffer solution after oxidation could be eliminated. This method leads to a simplified procedure and eliminates the use of additional setup and greatly simplifies the operating procedures. The proposed method was sensitive to the limits of detection in the range of 0.4 µg/L and 3.8 µg/L and the limits of quantification between 1.2 µg/L and 13 µg/L due to the strong electro-oxidation capacity of porous titanium electrode, as well as the implementation of time-programmed potential over EC. The linear ranges were 2.0–1.0 × 104 µg/L for pAAP and DMP, and 10–1.0 × 104 µg/L for P, pMP, pHPA, and TBP, respectively. The relative standard deviations range from 0.9% to 4.8%. The utilization of the method was demonstrated by the analysis of real samples.
Chromatograms of phenolic compounds (~10 mg/L) at different potential [
This chapter deals with ion exchange chromatography, IC, as a subset of liquid chromatography. Due to the continuous growth, chromatography became one of the most widely used methods in different branches of science encompassing chemistry, physical chemistry, chemical engineering, biochemistry and cutting through different fields of analytical proposes.
Discovery and historical background on IC were mentioned. Steps of ion chromatography process were intensively discussed in addition to instrumental components of typical IC instrument including: pump, injector, column, suppressor, detector and recorder or data system.
The chapter emphasizes the superior analytical power of ion chromatography so that it can be used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of common cations, anions and halides in their different forms and matrices in trace and ultra-trace concentrations. Heavy metals separation and detection was also mentioned as well as hydrogen cyanide as an example of inorganic compounds. As examples of organic acid separation and detection using ion chromatography, the analysis of hippuric acid, amines and its derivatives and phenolic compounds were mentioned.
Due to intensification of small ruminant farming, there is increase in the number of disease outbreaks in the recent years. Among the various infectious diseases, diseases caused by bacterial pathogens contribute to severe economic loss to the goat farmers. Various factors like increase in herd size, reduced ventilation in farm and poor husbandry practices can predispose to diseases. Bacterial diseases like anthrax, enterotoxaemia, tetanus, gas gangrene, caseous lymphadenitis, listeriosis, tuberculosis, Johne’s disease, dermatophilosis, pasteurellosis/mannheimiosis, brucellosis, foot rot, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, colibacillosis, salmonellosis, etc., affect goats and can cause various ailments and some diseases can cause heavy mortality leading to huge economic loss to the farmer [1]. Different bacterial pathogens affect different organs of goat thereby eliciting various clinical signs based on which a tentative diagnosis can be made (Figure 1).
\nDifferent bacterial diseases of goat and the organ/ tissues affected. Brucellosis affects reproductive tract, dermatophilosis affect the skin, johne’s disease causes corrugation of intestine, pasteurellosis/ mannheimiosis, tuberculosis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia affects the respiratory system, caseous lymphadenitis affects the lymph nodes and tetanus affects the nervous system. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Antibacterial agents can be used to treat various bacterial diseases but these drugs should be used judiciously due to the risk of development of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccination is the best way to prevent infectious diseases and based on the pattern of the disease annual vaccination should be practiced to prevent disease outbreaks. Diseases like anthrax, brucellosis and tuberculosis pose threat to human since these diseases can be transmitted to human through direct or indirect route of transmission [2]. Due care should be taken while handling infected goats or dead goats in farm as the zoonotic diseases can cause severe aliments in human.
\nThis chapter is a comprehensive summary of important bacterial diseases of goats and this can be a guide to veterinary students, field veterinarians and goat farmers regarding the impact of these bacterial diseases. This chapter also highlights the preventive measures and zoonotic potential associated with the bacterial diseases of goats. Important bacterial diseases that are zoonotic and economically important like anthrax, brucellosis, tetanus, enterotoxaemia, Johne’s disease, Pasteurellosis/ Mannheimiosis, caseous lymphadenitis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, dermatophilosis and foot rot are discussed. Each disease is delt with various subsections like definition of the diseases, etiology, epizootiology, transmission clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, preventive measures and public health significance, if any.
\nAnthrax is a peracute, acute or subacute, often fatal disease of animals including goats. In goats the disease is mainly characterized by septicaemia, splenomegaly and gelatinous infiltration of subcutaneous or subserosal tissues. The disease is commonly known as woolsorter’s disease, splenic fever, charbon, and milzbrand.
\nThe disease is caused by
The disease is worldwide in distribution and is endemic in some countries, while occurs in defined regions of other countries. It was reported to be associated with heavy mortalities in goats and sheep of sub-saharan region in 1960–70s and in other countries. In recent days, through strict vaccination procedures the incidence reduced in most countries, however, sporadic cases are still being reported.
Goats are infected by ingestion of food, water or soil contaminated with spores. The infection can also occur through inhalation or abraded skin and oral mucosa. Mechanical transmission by biting insects is also reported. Wild animals acting as carriers makes the control programme challenging as it is least possible to vaccinate all wild animals.
\nThe incubation period ranges from hours to days. The disease is usually fatal, especially in sheep and goats, after 1–3 days. The peracute case is characterized by sudden death without any premonitory signs. However, there may be fever, dysponea, congestion of mucous membranes, muscular tremors and terminal convulsions in few animals. In acute cases, fever, anorexia, labored breathing, increased heart rate, ruminal stasis and reduce milk production may be observed. There may be bloody discharges from orifices like mouth, nostrils, anus and/or vulva. Diarrhea or dysentery and oedema and swelling of the tongue, throat, flank and perineum (anus, vulva) may be seen. Pregnant animal abort and blood-tinged milk is produced. Animals then collapse with terminal convulsions and die [4].
\nNecropsy of suspected carcass is not recommended, as the vegetative bacteria may get transformed into spore and hence contaminate the environment. The pathological features such as absence of rigor mortis and rapid putrefaction and bloating of the carcass are common clinical features. Oozing of unclotted dark, tarry colored blood from orifices, soft and enlarged spleen, blood-stained fluid in body cavities and widespread ecchymotic hemorrhages are frequently observed post mortem findings.
\nThough clinical signs are highly suggestive, the diagnosis based on clinical signs alone is difficult. Thin smears of blood from ear tip can be stained with polychrome methylene blue stain to reveal short chains of truncated blue color rods, surrounded by pink capsules (McFadyean reaction). The organism can be cultured on Sheep or Ox blood agar which shows flat, dry grayish colonies with ‘ground glass’ appearance after 24–48 hours of incubation (Figure 2). The selective media for the organism is PLET (Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA thallous acetate) medium. The Ascoli’s thermo-precipitation test is also commonly used test to detect antigens of
Ground glass appearance
Ailing animals in early stages of infection can be treated with penicillin or oxytetracycline or other long-acting antibiotics. An anthrax antiserum may result in recovery if used in early stages. Vaccination should follow 7–10 days after the conclusion of antibiotic therapy [4].
\nIn endemic areas, annual vaccination is advisable. The goat should be vaccinated with ‘Sterne strain’ live spore vaccine one month before the anticipated outbreaks. In non-endemic areas, movement of animals and their products should be restricted; feed and bedding materials etc., should not be transferred from affected herds. Disinfection of the premises with 5% formalin, 5% sodium hydroxide or 3% peracetic acid and placing foot-baths containing these sporicidal disinfectants at the entrances of the affected farms will help to control the spread of infection. Contaminated building should be fumigated with formaldehyde before removing the bedding materials [5]. Proper disposal of carcasses and the infected materials should be done either by deep burial or incineration.
\n\n
Caprine brucellosis is an infectious zoonotic disease having substantial economic impact on both livestock and human. Caprine brucellosis is reported since ancient days; Hippocrates II first described the human brucellosis in 400 B.C. which was most likely to be associated with consumption of raw milk or derivatives of infected sheep or goats.
\nThe causative agent is
The disease is prevalent worldwide and it remains a major burden in parts of Mediterranean region, the Middle East, Central and Southeast Asia (including India and China), sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America [8]. Goat herds from USA, Canada, Colombia, Chile, and Uruguay are reported to be free from
Infection occurs primarily through ingestion of the organisms. Goats acquire infection by licking the aborted fetuses, placentas, newborn kids, vaginal discharges, or by consumption of feed contaminated with these infectious materials [9]. Milkers can also spread the infection through unsanitary milking practices.
\nThe disease is more severe in goats and is protracted than in sheep. Clinical manifestations include high abortion rates particularly during the fourth month of pregnancy and retained placentas, orchitis in bucks, arthritis and hygromas. In goats, mastitis and lameness may also be seen. The abortion rate can be high when this bacterium first enters a naive flock or herd [10]. The abortion rates are usually much lower once
Diagnosis is made based on clinical signs, direct examination of MZN-stained smears of fluids or tissues, isolation and identification of
\n
Test and slaughter policy of the infected herd is generally implemented in countries where the disease is considered exotic. This can also reduce the prevalence of disease in endemic areas. In most countries where
\n
Tetanus (Lockjaw) is an acute, highly fatal intoxication of all domestic animals and humans caused by neurotoxin produced by the bacteria
The etiological agent,
Tetanus is worldwide in distribution and occurs sporadically. The organism is normal inhabitant of intestinal tract of animals and persists as resistant spores in soil, manure [16].
\nThe toxemia in tetanus is caused by a specific neurotoxin produced by
The incubation period is usually of 4 days to 3 weeks. The initial signs include muscle stiffness, tremors and prolapse of the third eyelid. This is followed by rigidity and extension of the limbs leading to a stiff gait and abnormal flexion of the joints. Tetany of masseter muscles causes drooling of saliva (lock jaw) and regurgitation through nostrils [17]. The animals may exhibit bloat, an inability to chew, and hyperthermia. Retracted lips, hypersensitivity to external stimuli, and a ‘saw-horse’ stance are frequent signs. The spasms of alimentary and urinary tract muscle may cause constipation and retention of urine [17]. The abnormal muscular contracture may result in opisthotonus, curvature of the spine and bending of the tail. The disease is highly fatal and death occurs within 3–10 days with mortality nearing 100%, primarily as a result of respiratory failure. Necropsy features usually are nonspecific except for the inflammatory reaction associated with the wound.
\nDiagnosis can be made based on clinical features such as muscular spasms, prolapse of third eyelid and based on history of trauma or surgery. The Gram-positive rods with terminal spores can be demonstrated in the smears prepared from necrotic tissue or wound [18]. Anaerobic culture of the bacteria from necrotic tissue may be attempted but is often unsuccessful. PCR and real-time PCR techniques can be employed for the detection of neurotoxin genes of the organism. Mouse inoculation test can be performed to demonstrate circulating neurotoxin from the serum of affected animals.
\nTreatment mainly aimed at wound management, antibiotic therapy, antitoxin administration and vaccination. Wound management consists of surgical debridement of infected wounds and removal of debris, flushing with hydrogen peroxide to produce aerobic condition that helps to inhibit replication of the bacteria at the site of infection. The antibiotics (large doses of Penicillin) can be given both parenterally and flushed into the cleaned wound to prevent further replication of the bacteria and production of toxin [19]. Affected animals must be kept in a quiet and dark environment. Fluid replacement therapy, sedatives and muscle relaxants can minimize clinical discomfort and maintain vital functions. To neutralize unbound toxin, the tetanus antitoxin must be administered on time, either intravenously or into the subarachnoid space for three consecutive days. Vaccination with tetanus toxoid may be given subcutaneously to promote an active immune response even in those animals that are treated with antitoxin.
\nTetanus can be controlled by following good sanitation measures, aseptic surgical and management procedures and vaccination. Goats in a herd must be vaccinated routinely with tetanus toxoid which is very effective for stimulating long-term immunity. They can be vaccinated 2–3 times during the first year of life followed by booster vaccination before parturition to ensure colostral antibodies [20]. Further, a booster dose may be advisable if a vaccinated animal sustains a deep wound.
\nEnterotoxaemia in goats is caused by
\n
The
The peracute condition is characterized by sudden death of younger and healthy kids. This is occasionally preceded by other signs such as loss of appetite, lack of rumen activity and rumination, bloat, depression and a drunken appearance; the animals may show neurological signs such as incoordination, inability to stand, and convulsions. There may be watery diarrhea and glucosuria. In goat’s acute disease is mainly characterized by dysentery, abdominal discomfort and convulsions.
\nIn acute cases of goats, the necropsy findings include pulmonary edema, necrosis of intestinal walls and scattered hyperaemic areas of intestine. Intestinal contents may be green, blood-stained or mucoid, and fibrinous casts may be present in the lumen of the large intestine [22]. Mesentric lymph nodes may be edematous. Fluid accumulation in the pericardial sac, extremely necrotic, soft kidneys (‘pulpy kidneys’), focal encephalomalacia, and petechiae of serosa of the brain, diaphragm, gastrointestinal tract and heart are common findings.
\nDiagnosis of enterotoxaemia depends on epidemiological features, type of diet, clinical and pathological features. Gram positive rods can be demonstrated in the smears of intestinal contents or in the lesions of intestine. The culture of bacteria from fecal samples in cooked meat media may be suggestive of the disease (Figure 4). Organism on blood agar plates show double zone of hemolysis which is suggestive of
Double zone hemolytic colonies of
Treatment generally is ineffective as most cases are acute in nature. A hyperimmune serum, if available, can be used and a combination of hyperimmune serum along with sulphadimidine has been found useful in goats. Chelating agents can be used to neutralize toxins [21].
\nVaccination before the anticipated outbreaks is the primary method of control. Alum precipitated formalin killed whole culture toxoid vaccines are commercially available. In ruminants, maternal antibodies last about 5–6 weeks postpartum and hence, the young animals must be vaccinated at this time. Kids are usually vaccinated twice at 4 weeks interval and then re-vaccinated at once in 6 months. However, several anaphylactic reactions have been reported in Sannen kids re-vaccinated with toxoids [24]. Sudden dietary changes and other predisposing factors to enterotoxaemias must be managed. Feeding regimens and feeding of concentrates even to adult goats should be monitored carefully.
\nA chronic, contagious, granulomatous disease affecting small intestine of adult ruminants and the affected animals show weight loss and intermittent diarrhea [25].
\nJD is caused by
The organism is present in the environment and animals at young are affected either through ingestion of contaminated milk or direct contact. Infected goats may excrete the bacteria in the feces thereby contaminating the environment [26].
\nThe incubation period is usually months to years. Chronic wasting is a characteristic sign in goat and at times pasty feces or diarrhea (in advanced cases) can be witnessed. In advanced cases the animals may lose weight rapidly and will have a hide and bone condition. During PM examination intestine of the affected animals have a corrugated appearance [27].
\nAffected animals can be identified in the herd by intradermal skin testing using Johnin purified protein derivative (PPD). Alternatively, Interferon gamma assay (IGRA) can also be used to assess the cellular immunity. Lymph nodes (Ileal and ileocecal) aspirates, intestinal scrapping can show acid fast bacilli in staining (Figure 5). Organism my shed intermittently in feces and hence, bacilli can be found by acid fast staining [27]. Organism can be detected intestinal tissues, lymph node and feces by culture and PCR. Detection of antibody in the later or final stages of the disease can also be attempted for diagnosis.
\nAcid fast bacilli in intestinal scrapping. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Treating animals with antimycobacterial agents are not fruitful.
\nDue to its chronic nature, it is difficult to identify the disease early hence, it is advised to test a newly purchased animal before letting into the farm. Test and cull policy is better to break the chain of infection. Suspected animals should be separated from the herd and affected animals milk should not be fed to neonates [25]. The organism may survive longer in the pasture hence, once an animal is found positive it is best to change the pasture land.
\nA similar condition in human named as Crohn’s disease has been suspected to be caused by
Pasteurellosis and Mannheimiosis is an acute fatal disease characterized by pneumonia and septicemia.
\n\n
\n
Acute rhinitis or pharyngitis is the common sign noticed in animals. Animals may have high fever, anorexia, and rapid breathing along with profuse mucopurulent nasal/ ocular discharges. Kids are more susceptible than adult goats and death may occur without any clinical signs [30]. PM changes include marbling of lungs, pleural adhesion, sero-fibrinous fluid in the thorax, frothy exudate in trachea and also in bronchi.
\nBipolar organisms of
Bipolar organism in lung impression smear. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Use of antibiotics based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing can be used to control the bacterial propagation and anti-inflammatory agents can be used to control fever [30].
\n\n
Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is contagious, subclinical and chronic suppurative condition of sheep and goats, occasionally in cattle and is characterized by the formation of abscesses in lymph nodes and visceral organs [33].
\nCLA is caused by
CLA is worldwide in distribution and the probable dissemination of the disease throughout the world occurred through importation of infected animal [34]. This disease is found in parts of North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, the Middle East, Asia and Africa and is being reported more often in Britain and other European countries.
\nThe bacteria can survive in the environment for about 6 months or more. Transmission can occur either through direct or indirect contact or through wounds contaminated with pus from the abscesses of infected animals. The organism enters through contamination of skin wounds arising from castration, ear tagging or tattooing, docking or shearing operations. Arthropod bites or contaminated dips can also be the source of infection [34]. Goats having traumatized buccal mucosa have more chances of taking the bacterium from contaminated feed. The organism has also been isolated from the milk of affected goats.
\nThe incubation period varies from weeks to months; usually is about 3 months. CLA may be manifested in two forms: in its superficial form it is characterized by infection of peripheral lymph nodes, such as the submandibular, parotid, pre-scapular and supramammary lymph nodes (Figure 7). These peripheral lymph nodes enlarge, may erode and eventually leads to formation of abscess in chronic cases. Visceral form is characterized by abscessation of internal organs, such as lungs, liver, kidneys, uterus, spleen and internal lymph nodes (mainly mediastinal and bronchial lymph nodes) that may not be detectable antemortem [35]. These two forms can co-exist; however, the visceral form is more common among sheep, while superficial form is more frequent among goats with external abscesses in the lymph nodes particularly of the head and neck regions.
\nLymph node enlargement in goats noted in caseous lymphadenitis. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Eventually, the affected animal become exercise-intolerant, anorectic, ill-thrift and debilitated (often known as thin-ewe syndrome in sheep). Fever, increased respiratory rates, and pneumonia may also be noticed. Morbidity up to 15% is common, and morbid animals will often eventually succumb to the disease. The infection can also lead to abortion in doe and orchitis and/or epididymitis in bucks. Though less common, orchitis can be acute in which the buck develops fever, reduced appetite, lack of walking ability and loss of libido. The infected testes appear swollen, hot and painful to touch.
\nDiagnosis is based on clinical signs and lesions and abscessation of both superficial and visceral lymph nodes is typical. Radiographs may be useful in identifying affected central nodes which also must be confirmed by culture of tracheal washings. Gram and Giemsa staining can be used for identification of the bacteria. Isolation of organism from purulent material from abscessed lymph nodes in case of live animals and /or from abscesses of internal organs from dead animals. ELISA tests which detect antibodies directed against either cell wall antigens or the exotoxin (Phospholipase D - PLD) are available [34]. Further, the detection of INF-γ by ELISA, an indicator of cell-mediated immunity, has also been potentially used for demonstration of CLA in eradication programs. Molecular techniques such as PCRs targeting 16S rDNA,
Though
As CLA is contagious in nature, the animals with draining and punctured lesions should be kept isolated until healed. Reducing the environmental contamination, proper sanitation and biosecurity of facilities and instruments and safety measures to prevent injuries are all important in control. The causative agent is sensitive to common disinfectants such as hypochlorite, formalin and cresol; however, the surfaces should be cleaned before disinfection, as organic matter usually interferes with the action of these agents. The control measures vary with the prevalence of infection. In countries with a high incidence, rigorous sanitary procedures must be implemented, along with vaccination. Disease eradication can be achieved in endemically-infected herds by test and disposal policy [36].
\nMost of the commercially available vaccines contain inactivated PLD of either
Human beings are rarely affected, some cases of human infections have been documented as occupational infection in veterinary doctors and assistant as well as farm experts.
\nContagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a highly contagious and rapidly spreading mycoplasmal disease of goat, occasionally sheep and wild ruminants. CCPP is characterized by severe sero-fibrinous pleuropneumonia, very high morbidity (100%), and mortality (80–100%) and results in heavy economic losses.
\nCCPP is caused by
CCPP is becoming a novel emerging and rapidly spreading disease in most parts of the world and at present, goat populations in more than 40 countries are affected with CCPP and sporadic cases of CCPP are also being reported from many more countries [37]. It mostly occurs in countries of Africa, Middle East and Asia.
\nThe disease is highly contagious and main mode of transmission is through inhalation of infected aerosols. The direct contact with affected animals is the main source of transmission. Airborne transmission can result in distant spread of about 50 m distance. However, the shorter survival time (3–14 days) of the organisms in external environment limits transmission of Mccp [38]. Yet under cold, moist and overcrowded environment these bacteria can persists for longer durations and may lead to severe outbreaks mostly in winter.
\nCCPP is strictly a respiratory illness and is characterized by severe dyspnea, nasal discharge, cough, and fever. This can occur in peracute, acute and/or chronic forms in endemic areas. In peracute form, affected goats may die within 1–3 days without premonitory clinical signs. In acute infection, the initial signs are high fever (41–43°C), lethargy and anorexia, followed within 2–3 days by coughing and laboured breathing. The cough is frequent, violent and productive. In the final stages of infection, the goat may not be able to move and stands with its front legs wide apart and its neck stiff and extended [37]. Saliva can drip continuously from the mouth, and the animal may exhibit grunt or bleat in pain. Frothy nasal discharge and stringy saliva may be seen terminally. Pregnant goats may abort. Acutely affected goats generally die within seven to 10 days. In the chronic cases, there is chronic cough, nasal discharge and debilitation. These forms with resembling clinical signs in goats were also reported from captive wild goats.
\nPathological features during necropsy are also limited to respiratory system. Acute form is characterized by unilateral pneumonia and sero-fibrinous pleuritis with straw colored fluid in the thorax. The lung is granular with copious straw-colored exudates oozing out on cut section. Pea-sized, yellow-colored nodules may be noticed in lungs and these nodules are surrounded by areas of congestion. Varying degrees of lung consolidation or necrosis may also be noticed [37]. The regional lymph nodes mainly bronchial lymph nodes are enlarged. Some long-term survivors reveal chronic pleuropneumoniae or chronic pleuritis, with encapsulation of acute lesions and numerous adhesions to the chest wall. The interlobular septa are not usually thickened in domesticated goats.
\nCCPP can be diagnosed based on cultural, biochemical, serological, and molecular methods following a tentative clinical diagnosis. Ultrasonography and X-rays may help in diagnosis and CCPP-associated changes may be evident in lungs, pleura, thorax, and associated structures. Cultural isolation and identification (‘fried egg-like appearance’ of the colonies under microscope), though is conventional but is still considered as standard method for detection of Mccp from lung tissue and/or pleural fluid at necropsy. Due to the difficulty in isolation, PCR is the technique of choice for the diagnosis of CCPP. The agglutination tests, ELISA, FAT, CFT (most widely used), passive or indirect haemagglutination tests (IHT) are the immunological methods employed for diagnosis of CCPP [38]. Latex agglutination test is being increasingly used in diagnostic laboratories as a pen side test. It can used to test whole blood as well as serum.
\nTylosin is considered the drug of choice against Mccp. Further, oxytetracycline is also found effective when administered in early stages of infection. However, some infections are slow to resolve.
\nIn endemic areas, proper care should be taken while introducing new goats into the flock. Flock testing, slaughter, and on-site quarantine may be helpful in controlling the spread of disease. Vaccines available in some areas may help in prevention of the disease. The commercially available CCPP vaccine containing inactivated Mccp suspended in saponin provides protection for over 1 year [37].
\nDermatophilosis is a chronic, exudative and sometimes proliferative dermatitis occurs in domestic ruminants, wild animals and occasionally in human beings. Also known as Cutaneous streptothricosis, Strawberry foot rot or Lumpy wool.
\nDermatophilosis is caused by
The disease occurs worldwide and is more common in tropics and subtropics. The organism is believed to be a saprophyte of soil and persists in dry scabs and crusts, to survive for up to 42 months. It has been reported from many countries, but occurs particularly in humid climates and areas where ticks of the genus
Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals. The infection can be transmitted indirectly by mechanical vectors (ectoparasites) and also through intradermal inoculation by contaminated thorny bushes. The pathogenesis may be influenced by factors such as mechanical injury to the skin, rainfall, tick infestation, concurrent diseases and/or stresses that compromise the host’s immune system.
\nThe disease is painful but non-pruritic, and is characterized by exudative, proliferative or hyperkeratotic dermatitis, accompanied by the production of crusts and folliculitis. In sheep, it may be seen in two forms: mycotic dermatitis (lumpy wool) and strawberry foot rot. While in goats and cattle, similar signs of crusty, suppurative dermatitis are seen and are often referred as cutaneous streptothricoses. The skin lesions appear raised, thick, yellow-brown colored discrete or confluents crusts containing matted hair. Sometimes may be seen in nodular form also with discrete encrustation of scab. The whole body may be affected but less hairy parts such as ears, axilla, scrotum, prepuce, ventral abdomen, limbs etc., show severe lesions [40]. Lesions in younger goats are mostly seen along the tips of the ears and under the tail. Most affected animals will recover within 3–4 weeks and lesions have little effect on overall health. In severe generalized infections, the animals often loose condition. If there are lesions at the feet, lips and muzzle, the movement of animals and eating become difficult.
\nDiagnosis of dermatophilosis is mainly based clinical signs particularly based on the appearance of the characteristic skin lesions. The same can be confirmed by the demonstration of the organism from the lesions beneath the scabs. The softened scab materials stained by the Giemsa method, reveal the characteristic branching filaments containing zoospores. The organism can be cultured on blood agar at 37°C under 2.5–10% CO2 for up to 5 days and Haalstra technique based on chemotaxis of the zoospores to CO2 can be employed for efficient recovery of the organism.
\nAnimals can be treated with antibiotics such as high doses of penicillin or long acting tetracyclines. Topical applications alone are ineffective. Antibiotic therapy is augmented by topical treatment with lime sulfur as well as control of ectoparasites and biting flies. Povidone iodine shampoos or chlorhexidine solutions also help in clearing the disease.
\nControl measures are based on minimizing the effects of predisposing factors and prompt treatment of affected goats. Animals with skin lesions must be isolated and treated at the earliest. Minimizing moist conditions (such as providing shelter during rainfall) is helpful in control and prevention. Grazing management especially removal of thorny bushes in pasture land that damages skin will also help. Prophylactic antibiotic therapy can also be given.
\n\n
A contagious, either acute or chronic dermatitis of the hoof and its underlying tissues leading to lameness [41].
\nFoot rot is caused by
The organism
Interdigital region will be moist and will have a foul odor due to necrosis (Figure 8). Lameness is the common sign of foot rot. Based on the severity of the infection animals may lose weight due to anorexia and there will be decrease in production [43].
\nMoist, necrotic interdigital region seen in foot rot condition. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and isolation of organism from the foot lesions. Since the organisms are anaerobic isolation is tricky and hence molecular diagnosis like PCR can be used for diagnosis.
\nHooves of the animals should be trimmed so as to remove the necrotic material thereby eliminating the anaerobic environment. Local antibiotics may be applied to the affected hoof after trimming. 10% zinc or copper sulfate or 10% formalin can be used for footbath [44].
\n\n
Goat is called as poor man’s cow but there are various bacterial diseases that cause economic loss to the goat farmers. Serval bacterial diseases cause acute infection hence there will be sudden onset of infection leading to huge mortality. Measures like use of vaccines before onset of disease, good management practices, etc., are essential to prevent the disease outbreaks. Animals with infection or clinical signs should be separated from rest of the animals so that infectious pathogens do not transmit to naïve animals and it is also recommended to quarantine newly purchased animals before admitting them into the farm. These practices can curtail the spread of infectious agents. It is also advisable to screen for diseases before purchasing the animals to the farm. Diseases like TB, JD and brucellosis should be screened before the purchase since these diseases are chronic in nature hence can remain undiagnosed. Animals infected with diseases that can affect human like anthrax, brucellosis, etc., should be handled carefully and better bio-security measures should be followed to prevent spread of disease within herd and also to human beings. Most of the bacterial infection can be treated with antimicrobial agents but these agents should be used judiciously because in the recent times antimicrobial resistance is a major problem.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12461,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10177,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:78,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"51065",doi:"10.5772/63499",title:"Role of the Biofilms in Wastewater Treatment",slug:"role-of-the-biofilms-in-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:6856,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Biological wastewater treatment systems play an important role in improving water quality and human health. This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4727,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. El- Zairy",authors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"},{id:"175694",title:"Dr.",name:"Enas",middleName:null,surname:"El- Zairy",slug:"enas-el-zairy",fullName:"Enas El- Zairy"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5429,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6226,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83067",title:"Multiplicity in the Genes of Carbon Metabolism in Antibiotic-Producing Streptomycetes",slug:"multiplicity-in-the-genes-of-carbon-metabolism-in-antibiotic-producing-streptomycetes",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106525",abstract:"Streptomycetes exhibit genetic multiplicity, like many other microorganisms, and redundancy occurs in many of the genes involved in carbon metabolism. The enzymes of the glycolytic pathway presenting the greatest multiplicity were phosphofructokinase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and pyruvate kinase. The genes that encode citrate synthase and subunits of the succinate dehydrogenase complex are the ones that show the greatest multiplicity, while in the phosphoenolpyruvate-pyruvate-oxaloacetate node, only malic enzymes and pyruvate phosphate dikinase present two copies in some Streptomyces. The extra DNA from these multiple gene copies can be more than 50 kb, and the question arises whether all of these genes are transcribed and translated. As far as we know, there is few information about the transcription of these genes in any of this Streptomyces, nor if any of the activities that are encoded by a single gene could be limiting both for growth and for the formation of precursors of the antibiotics produced by these microorganisms. Therefore, it is important to study the transcription and translation of genes involved in carbon metabolism in antibiotic-producing Streptomyces growing on various sugars.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Toshiko Takahashi, Jonathan Alanís, Polonia Hernández and María Elena Flores"},{id:"82972",title:"Actinomycosis: Diagnosis, Clinical Features and Treatment",slug:"actinomycosis-diagnosis-clinical-features-and-treatment",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104698",abstract:"Actinomycosis is a filamentous bacterium that forms part of the normal human flora of the gastrointestinal, oropharynx and female genitalia. This indolent infection is characterized by abscess formation, widespread granulomatous disease, fibrosis, cavitary lung lesions and mass-like consolidations, simulating an active malignancy or systemic inflammatory diseases. It is subacute, chronic and variable presentation may delay diagnosis due to its capability to simulate other conditions. An accurate diagnostic timeline is relevant. Early diagnosis of pulmonary actinomycosis decreases the risk of indolent complications. Proper treatment reduces the need for invasive surgical methods. Actinomycosis can virtually involve any organ system, the infection spread without respecting anatomical variables as metastatic disease does, making malignancy an important part of the differential diagnosis. As it is normal gastrointestinal florae, it is difficult to cultivate, and share similar morphology to other organisms such as Nocardia and fungus. It is often difficult to be identified as the culprit of disease. Its true imitator capability makes this infectious agent a remarkable organism within the spectra of localized and disseminated disease. In this chapter, we will discuss different peculiarities of actinomycosis as an infectious agent, most common presentation in different organ systems, and challenging scenarios.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Onix J. Cantres-Fonseca, Vanessa Vando-Rivera, Vanessa Fonseca-Ferrer, Christian Castillo Latorre and Francisco J. Del Olmo-Arroyo"},{id:"82412",title:"Potential of Native Microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon on the Removal of Pollutants",slug:"potential-of-native-microalgae-from-the-peruvian-amazon-on-the-removal-of-pollutants",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105686",abstract:"Environmental pollution is a severe and common problem in all the countries worldwide. Various physicochemical technologies and organisms (e.g., plants, microorganisms, etc.) are used to address these environmental issues, but low-cost, practical, efficient, and effective approaches have not been available yet. Microalgae offer an attractive, novel, and little-explored bioremediation alternative because these photosynthetic organisms can eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and remove heavy metals and toxic organic compounds through processes still under study. Our research team has conducted some experiments to determine the bioremediation potential of native microalgae on some pollutant sources (i.e., leachate and wastewater) and its ability to remove hazardous chemical compounds. Therefore, in this chapter, we provide the results of our research and updated information about this exciting topic. Experiments were conducted under controlled culture conditions using several native microalgae species, variable time periods, different pollutant sources, and hazardous chemicals such as ethidium bromide. The results indicated that native microalgae can remove pollutants (i.e., phosphorus, ammonia, etc.) of wastewater, leachate, and some hazardous chemical compounds such as ethidium bromide. In conclusion, native microalgae have an excellent potential for removing several pollutants and, consequently, could be used to develop bioremediation technologies based on native microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"Marianela Cobos, Segundo L. Estela, Carlos G. Castro, Miguel A. Grandez, Alvaro B. Tresierra, Corayma L. Cabezudo, Santiago Galindo, Sheyla L. Pérez, Angélica V. Rios, Jhon A. Vargas, Roger Ruiz, Pedro M. Adrianzén, Jorge L. Marapara and Juan C. Castro"},{id:"81859",title:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus",slug:"respiratory-syncytial-virus",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104771",abstract:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)-driven bronchiolitis is one of the most common causes of pediatric hospitalization. Every year, we face 33.1 million episodes of RSV-driven lower respiratory tract infection without any available vaccine or cost-effective therapeutics since the discovery of RSV eighty years before. RSV is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the pneumoviridae family of viruses. This chapter aims to elucidate the structure and functions of the RSV genome and proteins and the mechanism of RSV infection in host cells from entry to budding, which will provide current insight into the RSV-host relationship. In addition, this book chapter summarizes the recent research outcomes regarding the structure of RSV and the functions of all viral proteins along with the RSV life cycle and cell-to-cell spread.",book:{id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg"},signatures:"Sattya Narayan Talukdar and Masfique Mehedi"},{id:"82148",title:"Mosquito Population Modification for Malaria Control",slug:"mosquito-population-modification-for-malaria-control",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104907",abstract:"Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that kills millions of people every year. Existing control tools have been insufficient to eliminate the disease in many endemic regions and additional approaches are needed. Novel vector-control strategies using genetic engineering to create malaria-resistant mosquitoes (population modification) can potentially contribute a new set of tools for mosquito control. Here we review the current mosquito control strategies and the development of transgenic mosquitoes expressing anti-parasite effector genes, highlighting the recent improvements in mosquito genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 as an efficient and adaptable tool for gene-drive systems to effectively spread these genes into mosquito populations.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Rebeca Carballar-Lejarazú, Taylor Tushar, Thai Binh Pham and Anthony James"},{id:"81934",title:"Lactobacillus Use for Plant Fermentation: New Ways for Plant-Based Product Valorization",slug:"lactobacillus-use-for-plant-fermentation-new-ways-for-plant-based-product-valorization",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104958",abstract:"Today, plant production is increasing, but most industrial processes generate a lot of waste and by-products for which, in the current context, it is a priority to recycle or valorize them. One of the cheapest valorization routes is fermentation, in particular lactic fermentation by Lactobacillus species, which produces lactic acid and other molecules of industrial interest such as bioactive compounds such as anthocyanin, organic acid, peptides, or phenol, which are widely found in the plant matrix, mainly in cereals, grass, fruits, and vegetables. Bioactive compounds may exert beneficial health effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, or prebiotic activities. In addition, lactic acid fermentation can improve existing products and lead to new applications in food, livestock feeding and biotechnology, such as the production of lactic acid, protein, or silage. This chapter reviews the use of Lactobacillus strains in the fermentation process of many plant bioresources or by-products through their different bioactivities, active molecules, and applications.",book:{id:"11372",title:"Lactobacillus - A Multifunctional Genus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11372.jpg"},signatures:"Morgan Le Rouzic, Pauline Bruniaux, Cyril Raveschot, François Krier, Vincent Phalip, Rozenn Ravallec, Benoit Cudennec and François Coutte"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:102},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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