Characteristics of textile wastewater (Bisschops and Spanjers, 2003; Dos Santos et al., 2006)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"456",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Biometric Technologies",title:"Advanced Biometric Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The methods for human identity authentication based on biometrics - the physiological and behavioural characteristics of a person have been evolving continuously and seen significant improvement in performance and robustness over the last few years. However, most of the systems reported perform well in controlled operating scenarios, and their performance deteriorates significantly under real world operating conditions, and far from satisfactory in terms of robustness and accuracy, vulnerability to fraud and forgery, and use of acceptable and appropriate authentication protocols. To address some challenges, and the requirements of new and emerging applications, and for seamless diffusion of biometrics in society, there is a need for development of novel paradigms and protocols, and improved algorithms and authentication techniques. This book volume on "Advanced Biometric Technologies" is dedicated to the work being pursued by researchers around the world in this area, and includes some of the recent findings and their applications to address the challenges and emerging requirements for biometric based identity authentication systems. The book consists of 18 Chapters and is divided into four sections namely novel approaches, advanced algorithms, emerging applications and the multimodal fusion. The book was reviewed by editors Dr. Girija Chetty and Dr. Jucheng Yang We deeply appreciate the efforts of our guest editors: Dr. Norman Poh, Dr. Loris Nanni, Dr. Jianjiang Feng, Dr. Dongsun Park and Dr. Sook Yoon, as well as a number of anonymous reviewers.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-487-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5564-5",doi:"10.5772/969",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"advanced-biometric-technologies",numberOfPages:396,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Girija Chetty and Jucheng Yang",publishedDate:"August 9th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/456.jpg",numberOfDownloads:60902,numberOfWosCitations:66,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:75,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:180,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 18th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 15th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 22nd 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 21st 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 20th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"30495",title:"Dr.",name:"Girija",middleName:null,surname:"Chetty",slug:"girija-chetty",fullName:"Girija Chetty",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30495/images/5398_n.jpg",biography:"Girija Chetty, PhD is an Assistant Professor and Head of Software Engineering discipline in Faculty of Information Sciences and Engineering in University of Canberra, Australia. She received her Bachelors and Masters(Research) degrees in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science \nfrom India, and Doctorate in Information Sciences and Engineering from Australia. She has several years of research, teaching and industry experience from India and Australia, and has led several research, development and consulting projects in the related areas. She has published over 80 research papers in peer-reviewed International Journals and Conferences, and serves on editorial and review panels for several Journals and Conferences, including Biometrics, Multimedia Intelligence and Security, and Pattern Recognition and Computer Vision. Her research interests \ninclude biometrics, image and video coding, pattern recognition, computer vision and artificial intelligence.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Canberra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"36689",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"jucheng-yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/36689/images/1760_n.jpg",biography:"Jucheng Yang is a special professor of Haihe Scholar in College of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China. He is a special professor of Tianjin City, too. He received his B.S. degree from South-Central University for Nationalities, China, and M.S. and Ph.D. degree from Chonbuk National University, Republic of Korea. He did his post-doc at the Advanced Graduate Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology-BK21 (AGECJEIT-BK21), Republic of Korea. He was a professor in Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, China and was a visiting fellow in the University of New South Wales, Australia. He has published over 50 papers in related international journals and conferences. He has served as editors or reviews of international journals such as IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics & Security, Sensors, Science China, Information Technology Journal and so on, and as reviewers or PC members of many conferences such as ICNC\\'06-FSKD\\'06, IMPRESS’09, FIRM-EPECC’11. He is the publicity chair of ICMeCG’10-11. He has applied 9 Chinese patents and was awarded 2 Chinese patents of biometrics. 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These industries have created job opportunities to millions of people and have become one of the major incomes to many countries in the world. Unfortunately, the industry is also one of the major contributors to water pollution. The textile wastewater contains not only the colorant, which is one of the main pollutants, but also other chemicals that are added throughout the textile processing. The dye compounds present in textile wastewater are able to impose a major impact to a receiving water body even in small quantities.
Due to the non-biodegradable nature of textile wastewater, a conventional aerobic biological process is incapable of treating the wastewater. For a complete degradation of textile wastewater, a combination of anaerobic and aerobic reaction phases is necessary.
This chapter briefly reviews the characteristics of textile wastewater and available technologies. This is followed by an in-depth discussion on biogranulation technology and the application of a hybrid biogranular system in treating the textile wastewater.
The fabrics, either in the form of natural or chemical fibres, have reached millions of tonnes of production and have provided huge advantages to world economic values (Aizenshtein, 2004). In social terms it has provided benefits to more than 2.2 million workers through 114,000 textile-related companies. In 2001, the European textile and clothing industries contributed to about 3.4% of the EU manufacturing industrial revenue and granted 6.9% of the work opportunities to the citizens (IPPC, 2003). According to recent statistics, the global textile market is worth more than US$400 billions (Directory of Textile Manufacturers and Suppliers - http://www.teonline.com/industry-overview.html). It is predicted that the global textile production will grow up to 50% by 2014 as compared to the fabrication in 2005.
Globally, Malaysia is also known for its high quality textile and apparels. Since the early 1970s, when the country started to embark on being an export-oriented country, the growth of Malaysian’s textile and apparel industry has increased tremendously and now provides an export value of 3.5 billion USD. This has listed the textile industry as the ninth largest contributor to total earnings of the manufactured exports in 2007. The industry has provided more than 67,000 work opportunities through 637 licensed textile production companies with investments of 2.6 billion USD (MIDA, 2007).
In Malaysia and many other developing countries, most of the textile mills are of small and medium scale. For these mills, the full installation of a wastewater treatment plant is quite difficult due to economic reasons. Hence, the mills have been discharging significant quantities of pollutants into the streams with fiber manufacturing and dyeing sectors being the predominant ones (Haroun and Azni, 2009).
The textile industry consumes the largest portion of the colorant available in the world market. Due to the high customer demand, more than 100,000 commercial dyes exist in the market causing more than 700,000 tonnes of dyes to be produced annually (McMullan et al., 2001; Pearce et al., 2003). The result is a very high production of colored wastewater. The characteristics of textile wastewater (either quantitatively or qualitatively) vary greatly depending on the type of raw materials, chemicals, techniques or specific process operations at the mill, the equipment used and the production design of the textile processes (Bisschops and Spanjers, 2003; Dos Santos et al., 2006).
The textile industry consumes huge amounts of water in its wet processes. The average wastewater generation from a dyeing facility is estimated between 3800 and 7600 million m3 per day. Desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing and dyeing are the common wet textile process operations. Among these, the mercerizing and dyeing processes consume the biggest specific volumes of water with a water usage of 230-310 L/kg and 8-300 L/kg of textile processed, respectively (Dos Santos et al. 2007).
Due to inefficiency of the textile processing activities, only 10% of the chemicals in the pre-treatment and dyes in dyeing operations remain on the fabric. In other words, about 90% of chemical substances will be discharged as textile effluent (IPPC, 2003). Others have reported that between 50 and 95% of the dyes are fixed on the fiber while the remainder is discarded in the subsequent textile-washing operations (EPA, 1997; Trovaslet et al., 2007). The amount of dye lost into the wastewater depends upon the type of dyestuff used, as well as the methods and application routes of the textile processing operation. Additionally, it depends on the intended color intensity that is required for each particular design (Willmott et al., 1998).
Textile wastewater is characterized with high chemical and biochemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, high values of conductivity and turbidity and intense color. This is caused by the presence of dye residues or intermediates and auxiliary chemicals added in the many stages in textile processing (Mohan et al., 2007a; Miranda et al., 2009). Textile processes with natural fibers generate higher pollution load as compared to synthetic fibers mainly due to the use of pesticides for preservation of the natural fibers (Correia et al., 1994).
Textile dyeing wastewater is also characterized by high salt content, which also imposes potential environmental problems. Typical cotton batch dyeing operations use quantities of salt that range from 20 to 80% of the weight of goods dyed, with common concentrations between 2,000 mg/L and 3,000 mg/L. Sodium chloride and sodium sulfate constitute the majority of the total salts used. Magnesium chloride and potassium chloride are used as raw materials in lower concentrations (EPA, 1997).
Common characteristics of textile wastewater from cotton textile wet processing for different processing categories are shown in Table 1. The highest concentration of organic pollutants (in terms of COD) is generated from bleaching while the highest concentration of total solids comes from the desizing process. The highest concentration of color, ranging from 1450-4750 ADMI, is generated from the dyeing process (Bisschops and Spanjers, 2003; Dos Santos et al., 2007). Metals such as copper, cadmium, chromium, nickel and zinc are also found in textile effluents, as they are the functional groups that form the integral part of the dye molecule (IPPC, 2003).
At present, treatment of textile wastewater mainly involves physical and/or chemical processes. These include coagulation and flocculation (Harrelkas et al., 2009), precipitation (Solmaz et al., 2007), adsorption (Sayed and Ashtoukhy, 2009), membrane filtration and nanofiltration (Miranda et al., 2009), ion exchange (Wu et al., 2008), ultrasonic mineralization (Maezawa et al., 2007) and electrolysis (De Jonge et al., 1996). While these methods are often costly, they remove the pollutants by transferring them from one phase to another. Some of them generate highly concentrated sludge, hence creating disposal problems (Pearce et al., 2003) that may lead to soil contaminations. Excessive use of chemicals in dye treatment creates secondary pollution problems to the environment.
Desizing | 4.6-5.9 | 1.7-5.2 | 16.0-32.0 | - | - | - |
Scouring | 8 | 0.1-2.9 | 7.6-17.4 | - | 10--13 | 694 |
Bleaching | 6.7-13.5 | 0.1-1.7 | 2.3-14.4 | 4.8-19.5 | 8.5-9.6 | 153 |
Mercerising | 1.6 | 0.05-0.10 | 0.6-1.9 | 4.3-4.6 | 5.5-9.5 | - |
Dyeing | 1.1-4.6 | 0.01-1.80 | 0.5-14.1 | 0.05 | 5-10 | 1450-4750 |
Bleaching and Dyeing* | 0.2-5.5 | 2.0-3.0 | 0.1-5.0 | - | 2-10 | 280-2000 |
Characteristics of textile wastewater (Bisschops and Spanjers, 2003; Dos Santos et al., 2006)
Treatment using ozonation, Fenton’s reagent, electrochemical destruction and photocatalysis are some of the emerging techniques reported to have potential use for decolorization (Faouzi et al., 2006; Ay et al., 2009). However, such technologies usually involve complicated procedures and are economically unattainable (Chang and Lin, 2000).
Among the available techniques, the one that can offer effective pollutant removal at a lower cost is the desirable alternative. Of these, biological treatment is the obvious choice due to the relatively low operating cost.
While a conventional aerobic biological process is incapable of treating textile wastewater, studies have shown that the integration of anaerobic and aerobic processes are able to provide complete mineralization of colored substances (Knackmuss, 1996; Melgoza et al., 2004; van der Zee and Villaverde, 2005). It can be done by using either two separate anaerobic and aerobic reactors (Khelifi et al., 2008) or using integrated anaerobic/aerobic treatment in a single reactor (Frijters et al., 2006; Cinar et al., 2008). The wastewater is initially treated under an anaerobic condition followed by an aerobic condition. Under the anaerobic condition, the N=N bond of the azo dyes are cleavaged, leading to the production of amines, the colorless byproducts. This is followed by complete mineralization under the aerobic condition. Different forms of biomass (i.e. suspension, film and granules) have been used in different types of reactor in the studies.
The textile industry, in particular the wet industry, has been considered as one of the major water environment polluters. This is mainly due to the enormous amount of water and the complexity of the chemicals used in the manufacturing processes that end up in the wastewater. The poorly treated wastewater is still highly colored comprising of significant amounts of nonbiodegradable chemicals that are hazardous to the environment. Under anaerobic condition, some of the organics i.e. the azo dyes are transformed into more toxic chemicals (i.e. amines) that worsen the condition. The color will make a river inhabitable to a majority of aquatic plants and animals.
While there are many technologies available in treating the wastewater, a majority of them are relatively expensive to be applied by the small and mid-size industries. Furthermore, many of the physico-chemical technologies only transform the pollutants from one form or one phase to another and therefore do not provide any ultimate solution to the problem.
A conventional aerobic bioprocess fails to treat the wastewater due to the non-biodegradable nature of the wastewater. However, recent research and advancement in biological processes show that there is a huge potential of these new findings in providing low cost yet efficient technology to solve the textile wastewater problem.
Microbial granules form a self-immobilization community that is formed with or without support material. They are defined as discrete macroscopic aggregates containing dense microbial consortia packed with different bacterial species. Each biogranule consists of millions of microorganisms per gram of biomass (Weber et al., 2007), formed via biological, physical and chemical forces. According to Calleja (1984), microbial granulation is a multicellular association in a physiological state that is causing the mixture of cells into a fairly stable and contiguous structure.
The main advantages of biogranules systems are mainly due to the biogranules good settling property and the fact that biogranules are formed without the need of any biomass carrier. The relatively large size and high-density biogranules give them a rapid settling rate, which enhances the separation of the treated effluent from the biomass and results in high solid retention time (SRT) (Ahn and Richard, 2003; Liu and Tay, 2004). Due to a better settling rate, the system also shows low suspended solid content discharged in the effluent (Wirtz and Dague, 1996).
Within the biogranules, the microorganisms are closely lumped together, hence generating syntrophic associations between the cells. This relationship occurs due to optimum distances between the cells at appropriate substrate levels and such condition enables high and stable performance of metabolism activities (Batstone et al., 2004).
The granulation system is first recognized in an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) system characterized by anaerobic biogranules. Much research has been carried out using innovative upflow sludge bed (USB) type reactors (Bachman et al., 1985; Lettinga et al., 1997). The applications of anaerobic granulation systems have been successfully demonstrated particularly in removing biodegradable organic matter from industrial wastewaters (Lettinga et al., 1980; Schmidt and Ahring, 1996). Later the attention has also been diverted to the development and applications of aerobic biogranules. The reason has been several drawbacks that have been observed in the anaerobic biogranules system, including long start-up periods, relatively high temperature requirements and ineffectiveness in dealing with nutrient and low organic strength wastewater (Liu and Tay, 2004).
Aerobic granulation systems have been used for organics, nitrogen, phosphorus and toxic substances removal, especially high strength wastewater (Yi et al., 2008; Kishida et al., 2009). In most cases, the system is in the form of a sequencing batch reactor (SBR) (Beun et al., 1999; Kim et al., 2008). The reaction phase of the system has been carried out either in anaerobic, aerobic or anoxic conditions, with or without mixing, depending on the purpose of the treatment.
Bacteria normally do not aggregate naturally to each other due to repulsive electrostatic forces via the presence of negatively charged protein compounds of the cell wall (Voet and Voet, 2004). However, under selective environmental conditions, microorganisms are capable to attach to one another and thus form aggregates.
Development of biogranules involves integration of physical, chemical and biological processes occuring in multiple stages (Calleja, 1984; Liu and Tay, 2002; Linlin et al., 2005; Weber et al., 2007). The first stage of a biogranulation process is initiated by several forces, which include diffusion of mass transfer, hydrodynamic and gravitational forces, thermodynamic effects, as well as the tendency of cells to move towards one another. These forces result in cell-to-cell or cell-to-solid surface interactions. The second stage involves several physical forces (e.g. Van der Waals forces, surface tension, hydrophobicity, opposite charge attractions, thermodynamic of surface free energy, bridges by filamentous bacteria), and chemical and biochemical forces (e.g. cell surface dehydration, cell membrane fusions and signals among microbial communities). At this stage, the multicell connections are stabilized. The third stage is the maturing stage, which involves the production of substances that facilitate more cell-to-cell interactions; at this stage, highly organized microbial structures are formed. Several mechanisms of metabolite production will also change, such as higher production of extracellular polymer, growth of cellular cluster, metabolite change and environmental-induced genetic effects. The final stage involves shaping of the three dimensional granules by hydrodynamic shear forces.
Beun et al. (1999) have also described the path of aerobic granules formation in a reactor as illustrated in Figure 1. Immediately after inoculation, bacteria and fungi will be dominating the reactor system. At this early stage, mycelial pellets manage to retain in the reactor due to their good settling ability. Bacteria, which do not hold this characteristic, are discarded with the effluent. Due to the shear force imposed by air bubbles during the aeration phase, the filaments will be detached from the surface of pellets. The pellets then grow bigger until they reach a diameter of up to 5-6 mm. When the sizes of the pellets have grown even larger, self-defragmentation will take place due to the limitation of oxygen transfer in the inner parts of the grown pellets. The fragmented mycelial pellet will act as a matrix for bacteria to grow and form new colonies. The bacterial colonies grow larger and will form granules. As the granules are formed, the whole system will be governed by bacterial growth.
Schematic diagram of aerobic granulation developed without any carrier material (
Weber et al. (2007) have illustrated the involvement of several eukaryotic organisms in three consecutive phases. Microscopic analysis has revealed that eukaryotic organisms play a key role in aerobic granule formation. Stalked ciliates of the subclass
Development of biogranules seeded with anaerobic granular sludge in an SBR system has been demonstrated by Linlin et al. (2005). At the initial stage, the anaerobic granular seeds disintegrate into smaller flocs and debris due to the hydrodynamic shear force created by the air bubbles during the aerobic phase. Lighter and small sized flocs or debris will be washed out in the effluent during the decanting stage. The remaining heavier anaerobic granules remain and act as precursors that initiate the growth of new aerobic granules. The optimal combination of the shear force and the growth of the microorganisms within the aggregates govern the stable structur of the biogranules (Chen et al., 2008). The morphology of these aerobic granules is slightly different as compared to the aerobic granules as described by Beun et al. (1999).
Biogranules are known for their outstanding features of excellent stability and high removal efficiency making biogranulation an innovative modern technology for wastewater treatment. The size of the biogranules is an important aspect that may influence the stability and performance of the reactor system. Biogranules with bigger sizes can easily be defragmented under high shear force resulting in high biomass washout. Meanwhile, if the size is too small, the biogranules cannot develop good settling properties, resulting in higher suspended substances in the effluent. Bigger biogranules with loose structure will be developed in an SBR system supplied with low superficial air velocity. Smaller biogranules but with high strength structures are observed being formed in systems aerated at higher superficial air velocity (Chen et al., 2007). Granular sizes range from 0.3 mm to 8.8 mm in diameter possessing different granular characteristics (Dangcong et al., 1999; Zheng et al., 2005).
The hydrodynamic shear force imposed through the aeration rate of the reactor system will control the development of biogranules (Chisti, 1999). The size of biogranules is the net result of the balance between the growth and the hydrodynamic shear force imposed by superficial air velocity (Yang et al., 2004). For the optimal performance and economic purposes, the operational diameter range for effective aerobic SBR granular sludge should be in the range of 1.0-3.0 mm (Toh et al., 2003)
The usual structure of an aerobic granule is normally spherical in shape with smooth surface areas, which can be influenced by the concentration and type of substrate used in the media compositions (Zhu and Wilderer, 2003; Adav and Lee, 2008). Based on electron microscope (SEM) observations, glucose-fed granules appear with fluffy outer surface due to the predominance growth of filamentous bacteria. On the other hand, the acetate-fed granules show a more compact microstructure with smooth surface. The non-filamentous and rodlike bacteria were observed dominating the acetate-fed granules that are tightly linked together (Tay et al., 2001).
Settleability of a biogranular sludge shows the capacity of the biogranules to settle within a specified period of time. Such properties will allow fast and clear separation between sludge biomass and effluent. The settling velocity of aerobic granules is in the range of 30 to 70 m/h depending on the size and structure of the biogranules, which is comparable to the anaerobic granules. Settling velocity of activated sludge flocs is in the range of 8 to 10 m/h that is three times lower than to those of aerobic granules. Good settleability of sludge biomass is desirable in wastewater treatment plants to facilitate high percentage of sludge retention in a reactor system. Superior characteristics of settleability assist to maintain the stable performance, high removal efficiency and can handle high hydraulic loading of wastewater (Tay et al., 2001). Good settling property of biogranules is also shown by a low value of the SVI. The SVI of biogranules is lower than 100 mL/g (Peng et al., 1999 and Qin et al., 2004), much lower compared to the SVI of flocs (above 150 mL/g). The observed density of microbial aggregates is the consequence of balance interaction between cells (Liu and Tay, 2004). The density of the aerobic granule is reported to be in the range of 32 to 110 g VSS/L (Beun et al., 2002; Arrojo et al., 2006) and the specific gravity is in the range of 1.004 to 1.065 (Etterer and Wilderer, 2001 and Yang et al., 2004).
When biogranules grow bigger, the compactness of the granules decreases. This can be detected via a less solid and loose architectural assembly (Toh et al., 2003). Biogranules with high physical strength can withstand high abrasion and shear force. The physical strength of the biogranules is expressed as an integrity coefficient. This coefficient is an indirect quantitative measurement of the ability of the biogranules to withstand the hydrodynamic shear force (Ghangrekar et al., 2005). A good granular strength is indicated by an integrity coefficient of less than 20.
Biogranules are also characterized by high cell hydrophobicity and high EPS content. The former aspect is postulated to be the main triggering force in the initial stage of the biogranulation process and is a measure of the cell-to-cell interaction (Liu et al., 2003). The latter characteristic is postulated to be responsible for the aggregation between cells (Liu et al., 2004).
The presence of the EPS will enhance the polymeric interaction, which is one of the attractive forces that can promote the adhesion of bacterial cells. The networking between cell and EPS will assist the formation of biogranules (Zhang et al., 2007).
The application of hybrid biogranular system in treating textile wastewater is reported in this section. In this study, the development of biogranules during the treatment of textile wastewater is investigated. The changes on the physical characteristics of the biogranules as well as the system performance in the removal of organic compound and color intensity of the textile wastewater are further discussed.
The schematic representation of the reactor design is given in Figure 2. The design of the reactor is based on Wang et al. (2004) and Zheng et al. (2005) with several modifications. The column of the reactor has a working volume of 4 L with internal diameter of 8 cm and a total height of 100 cm. The reactor is designed with a water-jacketed column for the purpose of temperature control. This can be achieved by allowing the circulation of hot water from a water heating circulation system to the water jacketed column of the system. The temperature of the heating system was set at 300C. Air was supplied into the reactor by a fine air bubble diffuser located at the bottom of the reactor column. The reactor system was equipped with dissolved oxygen and pH sensors for the continuous monitoring throughout the experiment. The wastewater was fed into the reactor from the bottom of the reactor. The decanting of the wastewater took place via an outlet sampling port located at 40 cm above the bottom of the reactor. The reactor system has been designed with volumetric exchange rate (VER) of 50%. This means that only particles with settling velocity larger than 4.8 m/h remained in the column. Particles having smaller settling velocity will be washed out in the effluent. All operations of peristaltic pumps, circulation of influent, air diffuser and decanting process were controlled by means of a timer.
Schematic layout of the hybrid biogranular system
During the start-up period, 2 L of mixed sludge and 2 L of synthetic textile wastewater were added into the reactor system giving the working volume of 4 L with 5.5 g/L of sludge concentration after inoculation. The system was supplied with external carbon sources consisting of glucose, sodium acetate and ethanol with substrate loading rate of 2.4 kg COD/m3∙d. The operation of the system started with 5 min filling of wastewater entering from the bottom of the reactor. The operation then continued with the react phase followed by 5 min settling, 5 min decanting and 5 min of idle time. The react time varies depending on the hydraulic retention time set for the system. Figure 3 shows the steps involved in one complete cycle of the hybrid biogranular system. During the biogranules development, the HRT of the reactor was set for 6 hours for one complete cycle. This will give a react time of 340 minutes. The react phase is divided into equal anaerobic and aerobic react periods. Table 2 shows the successive phase for one complete cycle of the reactor system.
One complete cycle of the Hybrid Biogranular System
The operation of the reactor system was designed with intermittent anaerobic and aerobic react phases. The reaction phase started with an anaerobic phase followed by an aerobic phase. The reaction phase was repeated twice. During the anaerobic react phase, the wastewater was allowed to circulate from the upper level of the reactor and returned back through a valve located at the bottom of the system. The circulation process was carried out using a peristaltic pump at a rate of 18 L/h. The circulation system was stopped at the end of the anaerobic phase. The circulation process is required to achieve a homogeneous distribution of substrate as well as a uniform distribution of the granular biomass and restricts the concentration gradient. The DO concentrations remained low during the anaerobic condition (0.2 mg/L) and reached saturation during the aerobic phase. The superficial air velocity during the aerobic phase was 1.6 cm/s. The system was operated without pH control causing variation in the range of 6.0 to 7.8 during the react phase.
Filling | 5 min | ||
React | Anaerobic | Aerobic | |
1st phase | 40 | 130 | |
2nd phase | 40 | 130 | |
Settling | 5 min | ||
Decant | 5 min | ||
Idle | 5 min | ||
Total cycle length | 360 min |
One complete cycle of the hybrid biogranule system
In order to observe the changes on the characteristics of the biogranules due to the variations of HRT during textile wastewater treatment, the development of biogranules with sizes in the range of 0.3-2.5 mm was inoculated into the bioreactor at a ratio of 1:4 of the working volume of the reactor system. 1 L of acclimated mixed sludge was also added into the reactor system. The MLSS and MLVSS concentrations during the start-up of the experiment were 23.2 g/L and 18.4 g/L respectively. The operation steps of one complete cycle of the reactor system are shown in Table 3.
Fill | 15 min | Off | Off |
Reaction | |||
Anaerobic | Varies* | Off | On |
Aerobic | Varies* | On | Off |
Settle | 5 min | Off | Off |
Decant | 5 min | Off | Off |
Idle | 5 min | Off | Off |
Operation steps during single cycle operation
The morphological and structural observations of the granules were carried out using a stereo microscope equipped with digital image management and analyzer (PAX-ITv6, ARC PAX-CAM). The microbial compositions of the biogranules were observed qualitatively with a scanning electronic microscope (FESEM-Zeiss Supra 35 VPFESEM). The biogranules were left dried at room temperature prior to gold sputter coating (Bio Rad Polaron Division SEM Coating System) with coating current of 20 mM for 45 s. The microbial activity of the biogranules was determined by measuring the oxygen utilization rate (OUR) following Standard Methods (APHA, 2005). The physical characteristics of the biogranules including settling velocity, sludge volume index, granular strength were measured throughout the experiment.
An initial value of 15 mL influent sample was taken from the influent tank before a new cycle operation started, while another 15 mL of the effluent sample was taken from the effluent tank after the effluent was released during the decanting phase as the final values. Samples were centrifuged for 5 min at 4000 rpm at 40C in order to pellet down all of the suspended particles from the samples. The supernatant was used to measure the removal performance of the COD, color and ammonia removal. All of the measurements for COD, color and ammonia were performed according to Standard Method (APHA, 2005).
10 mL of sample was taken from the top portion of the reactor about 10 minutes after the filling stage ended and 10 mL of sample was taken from the effluent after the decanting stage for the measurement of the suspended particles in the influent and effluent. Another 10 mL of sample volume was taken during the aeration phase for the analysis of MLSS and MLVSS, which were measured according to Standard Methods (APHA, 2005).
The bed height of the biomass in the reactor was measured twice a week in order to estimate the SVI. The bed height was determined immediately after the settling time ended and before the wastewater was drained out during the decanting time. The SVI value can be calculated by measuring the bed volume of the sludge biomass in the reactor divided with the dry weight of the biomass in the reactor. The bed volume is the bed height of the sludge biomass that settled in the reactor 5 minutes after the aeration phase stopped. The bed volume is obtained by multiplying the bed height with the surface area of the bed column. The measurement of the SVI and the sludge retention time were calculated according to Beun et al. (1999). The settling velocity was determined by recording the average time taken for an individual granule to settle at a certain height in a glass column filled with tap water (Linlin et al., 2005).
Determination of the biogranules’ strength was based on Ghangrekar et al. (1996). Shear force on the biogranules was introduced through agitation using an orbital shaker at 200 rpm for 5 minutes. At a certain degree of the shear force, parts of the biogranules that are not strongly attached within the biogranules will detach. The ruptured biogranules were separated by allowing the fractions to settle for 1 minute in a 150 ml measuring cylinder. The dry weight of the settled biogranules and the residual biogranules in the supernatant were measured. The ratio of the solids in the supernatant to the total weight of the biogranular sludge used for biogranular strength measurement was expressed as the integrity coefficient (IC) in percent. This percentage indirectly represents the strength of the biogranules. The higher the IC values the lesser the strength of the biogranules and vice versa.
Development of biogranules was obtained within 66 days of operation period with 6 hours HRT. Morphology of the biogranules was investigated via visual and microscopic observations. At the initial development stage, the biomass was composed more of loosely clumped sludge, which can easily break up into pieces under vigorous shaking. Within a week, the anaerobic seed granules underwent morphological changes from spherical in shape and black in color with average diameter of 1 mm into smaller grey granules due to exposure to the shear force during the aerobic react phase. On day 30, two different types of granules were clearly observed in the reactor as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4a shows mainly irregular-shaped with yellow colored biogranules (Type A) that are solely developed from the activated sludge. In Figure 4b, the anaerobic granules that have fragmented into smaller pieces have formed different sizes of biogranules (Type B) containing pieces of anaerobic granules. The outer layer of the latter were yellow in color indicating the domination of aerobic or facultative microorganisms while the darker spots within the granules indicate the presence of anaerobic fragments originated from the anaerobic granules. The formation of Type A biogranules can be elucidated by the mechanisms explained by Beun et al. (1999). The development was initiated from the mycelial pellets that were retained in the reactor due to high settling velocity. These mycelial pellets eventually become the support matrix for the bacterial growth. Bacteria that were able to attach to this matrix were retained and suppressed the growth of filamentous microorganisms and became the dominant species in the reactor.
The morphological development of biogranules (scale bar at steady-state equals to 1mm). Pictures were taken using a stereo microscope with magnification of 6.3X. (a) Biogranules developed from the activated sludge. (b) Biogranules developed from anaerobic granules patches.
The formation of Type B granules has been discussed by Linlin et al. (2005). These biogranules were formed through a series of physical and morphological changes. The anaerobic granules initially disintegrated into smaller size flocs and debris when exposed to aeration forces in the reactor column. Some of the granules and debris that were too small were washed out with the effluent while the heavier ones were retained in the column and acted as nuclei for the formation of new granules. Having these combinations of aerobic and anaerobic portions within the biogranules will increase the possibility of complete degradation through the anaerobic/aerobic degradation process. Figure 5 shows the obvious morphological differences between sludge particles with average sludge particles of 0.02 ± 0.01 mm (Figure 5a) during the initial stage of the experiment and matured biogranules (Figure 5b) at the final stage with average diameter of 2.3 ± 1.0 mm.
The microstructure of the biogranules was examined using SEM (Figure 6). The SEM observation of the mature biogranules shows the domination of non-filamentous coccoid bacteria. The bacteria are tightly linked and embedded to one another and form a rounded shape on the surface of the biogranule and covered with extracellular polysaccharides substances (EPS) (Figure 6a). Figure 6b shows the presence of cavities between the clumped bacteria. These cavities are anticipated to be responsible to allow a smooth mass transfer of substrates or metabolite products into and out of the granules (Tay et al., 2003 and Toh et al., 2003).
Pictures of sludge particles during the initial stage of the experiment (a) and matured biogranules at the 66 days of the experiment (b). Pictures were taken using a stereo microscope with magnification of 6.3X (scale bar equals to 1 mm)
FESEM microstructure observations on mature biogranules under the magnification of 10,000K. (a) Coccoid bacteria tightly linked to one another. (b) Cavities that appear between bacteria clumped inside the biogranules
The shear force imposed in the development of granules in this experiment, in terms of superficial upflow air velocity (i.e. 1.6 cm/s), resulted in the development of biogranules with an average diameter of 2.25 mm. The strong shearing force produced by aeration during the aerobic phase prevents the development of bigger aerobic granules. However, reduction in famine period may also lead to the formation of bigger aerobic granular sizes (Liu and Tay, 2006).
The average settling velocity of the sludge and anaerobic granular sludge used as the seeding were 9.9 ± 0.7 m/h and 42 ± 8 m/h respectively. The settling velocity of the biogranules increased from 17.8 ± 2.6 m/h to 83.6 ± 2.6 m/h at the end of experiment. The average settling velocity of the mature biogranules reached almost 80 ± 7.6 m/h, which was nearly three times greater than the settling velocity of the aerobic granules reported by Zheng et al. (2005).
The increase in settling velocity has given significant impact on the biomass concentration in the reactor. The relationship between the concentration of the MLSS and settling velocity of the granules is shown in Figure 7. Despite the short settling time (5 min), the high settling velocity possessed by the developed biogranules enabled the biogranules to escape from being flushed out during the decanting phase. Such conditions have caused more biogranules to retain in the reactor and resulted in the increase of biomass concentration.
The relationship between the biomass concentrations retained in the reactor with the settling velocity of the biogranules (■) Settling velocity; (○) Biomass concentration
The SVI value has also improved from 277 mL/g at the initial stage to 69 mL/g at the mature development of biogranules. This indicates good settling properties of the biogranules, which is favorable in wastewater treatment plant operation. Figure 8 demonstrates the SVI profile along with the settling velocity. As the SVI value improved, the granular settling properties increased from 50 m/h to about 80 m/h. The SVI of biogranules seems to vary depending on the settling time of the reactor system. McSwain et al. (2004) reported the SVI of biogranules improved from 115 ± 36 ml/g to 47 ± 6 ml/g when the settling time decreased from 2 to 10 min. Biogranules developed with anaerobic seeding, showed higher settling velocity and improved SVI.
The relationship between the SVI values and settling velocity of the biogranules (○) SVI, (■) Settling velocity
The granular strength of the biogranules was measured based on the integrity coefficient (IC) defined earlier. The smaller the value of IC, the higher the strength and ability of the biogranules to clump together and being prevented to break due to shear force of the aeration. Figure 9 shows the profile of IC of the developed biogranules as a function of time. The IC reduced as the biogranules developed. The initial value of IC was 30. Then the IC was reduced to about 9 as it reached a mature stage. According to Ghangrekar et al. (2005), biogranules with integrity coefficient of less than 20 were considered high strength granules. The reduction in IC value indicates the increase in the strength of the bond that holds the microorganisms together within the developed biogranules.
During the initial development, the microbes within the biogranules were loosely bounded to each other. At this stage, the biogranules may consist of more cavities causing the biogranules become less dense, as manifested by low settling velocity. As more microbes are linked together, the biogranules increase in size. Under certain selective pressures (i.e. short settling time, hydrodynamic shear force, starvation of the microbial cell), microbes may produce more extrapolysaccarides (EPS) (Lin et al., 2003; Qin et al., 2004). As reported by Zhang et al. (2007) and Adav and Lee, (2008), the EPS contribute greatly to the strength and the stability of aerobic granules. When microbial cells produce more EPS, they form a cross-linked network and further strengthen the structural integrity of the granules. The cavities within the biogranules will be filled with EPS as it is a major component of the biogranules matrix material. This caused the biogranules to become denser and stronger as shown by their high settling velocity and lower IC value. The physical characteristics of the seed sludge and the matured biogranules are summarized in Table 4. The developed biogranules possess desirable biomass characteristics in the biological wastewater treatment system.
The profile of integrity coefficient representing the granular strength of the biogranules
SVI (mL/g) | 277 | 69 |
Average diameter (mm) | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 2.3 ± 1.0 |
Average settling velocity (m/h) | 9.9 ± 0.7 | 80 ± 8 |
IC | 92 ± 6 | 9.4 ± 0.5 |
MLSS (g/L) | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 7.3 ± 0.9 |
MLVSS (g/L) | 1.9 ± 0.5 | 5.6 ± 0.8 |
Characteristics of seed sludge and biogranules
The profile of the biomass concentration (i.e. MLSS) after seeding with the anaerobic granules is shown in Figure 10. During the first few days, almost half of the sludge was washed out from the reactor causing a rapid decrease in the biomass concentration. The MLSS reduced from initial concentrations of 5.5 g/L to 2.9 g/L mainly due to the short settling time used in the cycle (i.e 5 min). During this initial stage, the anaerobic granules were also observed to disintegrate into smaller fragmented biogranules and debris resulted from shear force caused by aeration. These small fragments have poor settling ability and were washed out from the reactor causing an increase of suspended solids concentration in the effluent.
The profile of biomass concentration in the SBR. (●) MLSS, (□) MLVSS
The settling velocity profile in relation to mean cell residence time (SRT). (○) SVI, (■) SRT
As the experiment continued, the concentration of the biomass increased and reached 7.3 g MLSS/L on the 66th day. The profile of MLVSS follows the same trend of MLSS, ranging from 1.9 g/L to 5.6 g/L. The mean cell residence time (SRT) also increased from 1.4 days at the initial stage to 8.3 days on the 66th day, indicating the accumulation of the biomass in the reactor. As less biomass was washed out during the decanting period, the increase in SRT is another manifestation of good settling characteristics resulting from the high settling velocity. Nonetheless, the benefit of high SRT will depend on the goal of the treatment process (Tchobanoglous et al., 2004). The SRT is affected by the settling velocity. The profiles of the settling velocity and the SRT as functions of time are given in Figure 11.
Changes in the HRT of the reactor system caused variation of the anaerobic and aerobic react times. It also may affect the loading rate imposed to the system if the substrate concentration is maintained. These conditions will affect the microbial activity within the biogranules and may influence the performance of the reactor system. The details of the experimental conditions of the reactor system are shown in Table 5.
The microbial activity was measured based on the OUR of a complete one cycle operation. The OUR was measured several times before each of the stages ended and showed that most of the external substrate was consumed more or less within the first 30 minutes of each aerobic reaction phase. Figures 12 and 13 show the profiles of the OUR throughout the experiment from Stage I to Stage VI.
OLR (kg COD/ m3∙day) | |||||||
I | 49 | 1.42 | 1.42 | 1.42 | 1.42 | 6 | 2.5 |
II | 43 | 2.92 | 2.92 | 2.92 | 2.92 | 12 | 1.3 |
III | 51 | 5.92 | 5.92 | 5.92 | 5.92 | 24 | 0.6 |
IV | 43 | 5.92 | 5.92 | 5.92 | 5.92 | 24 | 0.8 |
V | 46 | 8.92 | 2.92 | 8.92 | 2.92 | 24 | 0.8 |
VI | 46 | 2.92 | 8.92 | 2.92 | 8.92 | 24 | 0.8 |
Details of experimental conditions of the reactor system
The OUR profile (Figure 12) shows that the initial measurement of the OUR was reduced as the HRT increased (Stage I to Stage III). This is due to the reduction in the OLR as the HRT increased. Less oxygen is required as the organic load concentration is reduced. After a sharp increase of OUR at the beginning of each cycle in all stages, the OUR measurement was consistently low until the end of the cycle. The low value of the OUR indicates that most of the external substrates have been consumed. It also means that the microorganisms in the reactor system are under starvation phase. At this phase, no further degradation was observed even though the HRT was extended. During the starvation phase, endogenous respiration will take place, except at the beginning of the second phase of aerobic reaction where there was a short increase in the OUR. This increase is caused by the mineralization of amines, the byproduct of dye degradation during the second anaerobic reaction phase. As the duration of anaerobic reaction phase increased, the short pulse increased as shown in Figure 13 (a and b) of Stage IV and V, respectively. Stage IV and Stage V were operated with the same HRT and organic loading but were different in the anaerobic and aerobic reaction phase ratio.
OUR profile of (a) Stage I (Aerobic phase 2.84 hours), (b) Stage II (Aerobic phase 5.84 hours) and (c) Stage III (Aerobic phase 11.84 hours)
The changes in the HRT will also affect the biomass accumulated within the reactor system. The HRT was increased from 6 hours in Stage I to 24 hours in Stage III, without the addition of any substrate. This resulted in the reduction of OLR supplemented into the reactor system from 2.5 to 0.6 kg COD/m3 day. The HRT for Stage III to VI was kept constant i.e. 24 hours, but the duration of anaerobic and aerobic react phases was varied. From Stage III onwards, the OLR was increased to 0.8 kg COD/m3 day by increasing the concentration of the carbon sources in the synthetic textile dyeing wastewater.
OUR profile of (a) Stage IV (Aerobic phase 11.84 hours), (b) Stage V (Aerobic phase 5.84 hours), (c) Stage VI (Aerobic phase 17.84 hours)
Table 6 shows the oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) values measured during the second phase of the anaerobic and aerobic reactions during the experiments. The ORP profile of all the stage corresponded very well with the dissolved oxygen. As the anaerobic react phase increased, more of negative values of the ORP were recorded. During the aerobic phase the ORP varies between +98 to +177 mV.
The biomass profile at steady state with stepwise increment of HRT (Stage I to III) and variation of react phases (Stage IV to VI) are shown in Table 8. As shown in Table 7, it is apparent that the biomass concentration (MLSS) in the reactor decreased and the VSS in the effluent were also reduced with the increase in the HRT (Stage I to III). The reduction of the biomass concentration in the reactor may be due to the lower value of OLR applied in the reactor system as the HRT increased.
I | -124 ± 27 | 125 ± 19 |
II | -219 ± 33 | 129 ± 24 |
III | -358 ± 29 | 174 ± 34 |
IV | -355 ± 51 | 151 ± 17 |
V | -407 ± 21 | 112 ± 21 |
VI | -225 ± 28 | 177 ± 15 |
Oxidation Reduction Potential
Anaerobic (hours) | 2.8 | 5.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 17.8 | 5.8 |
Aerobic (hours) | 2.8 | 5.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 5.8 | 17.8 |
MLSS (g/L) | 35.3 ± 1.6 | 28.7 ± 0.6 | 25.2 ± 1.8 | 30.5 ± 3.4 | 31.6 ± 3.7 | 23.3 ±0.8 |
MLVSS (g/L) | 31.9 ± 1.8 | 24.5 ± 2.2 | 18.5 ± 2.2 | 26.0 ± 3.4 | 22.4 ± 2.0 | 20.2 ± 0.8 |
VSS/SS | 0.90 | 0.85 | 0.73 | 0.85 | 0.71 | 0.87 |
Effluent (VSS g/L) | 0.34 ± 0.16 | 0.31 ± 0.11 | 0.26 ± 0.19 | 0.34 ± 0.11 | 0.33 ± 0.10 | 0.55 ± 0.22 |
SRT (day) | 27.6 ± 13.4 | 42.4 ± 10.2 | 78.9 ± 23.9 | 70.1 ± 23.9 | 72.5 ± 23.3 | 41.6 ± 18.4 |
Biomass concentrations at different stages of the experiment
When the OLR was increased to 0.8 kg COD/m3∙day, there was an improvement in the biomass concentration where the biomass concentration have increased to 30.5 ± 3.4 g/L and 31.6 ± 3.7 g/L in Stage IV and Stage V as compared to 25.2 ± 1.8 g/L of biomass concentration in Stage III which run at the same HRT (24 hours) but with OLR 0.6 kg COD/m3∙day. The increase in OLR has caused an increment in the biomass concentration in the reactor. A slight increase in the biomass concentration was also observed along with the longer period of the anaerobic phase (Stage V), i.e. 18 hours.
The ratio of the volatile biomass (MLVSS) to total biomass (MLSS) reduced from Stage I to Stage III mainly due to decrease in the OLR as the HRT increased from 6 to 24 hours, whereas the MLVSS/MLSS ratio of the Stage III and Stage IV with 12 hours aerobic reaction phase was observed higher with the ratio of 0.73 and 0.85, respectively. The increment may be due to the increase of the OLR from 0.6 to 0.8 kg COD/m3 day (Stage III to Stage IV). Increase in the OLR means more carbon sources were supplied to the microorganisms in the reactor. When more food is available, more growth will take place and this is indicated by the increase in the MLVSS/MLSS ratio.
However, when the anaerobic period of the HRT is extended, the MLVSS/MLSS ratio decreased (0.71). Decrease in MLVSS/MLSS ratio may indicate an increase of inorganic accumulation within the granulation biomass. When the duration of aeration phase was increased up to 18 hours, the biomass started to reduce again (Stage VI) and increase of VSS in the effluent was once again observed. This may give an indication that too long of aerobic reaction phase is not suitable for granular biomass system. Prolong of aeration time may result in instability of the reactor performance. The profile of biomass concentration of the reactor system is given in Figure 14.
Profile of biomass concentration at different stages of the experiment. (●) MLSS, (□) MLVSS. Stage I: anaerobic (2.8 h): aerobic (2.8 h); Stage II: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage III and Stage IV: anaerobic (11.8 h): aerobic (11.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (17.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (17.8 h)
The SRT of the reactor system increased from 27.6 ± 13.4 to 78.9 ± 30.8 d when the length of the HRT increased from 6 to 24 hours (Stage I to Stage III). With HRT of 24 hours, increase of anaerobic reaction phase up to 18 hours (Stage IV to Stage V) has slightly increased the SRT from 70.1 ± 23.9 to 72.5 ± 23.3 d. The SRT value changes in each stage of the experiment. According to Wijffels and Tramper (1995), the favorable sludge age for high removal efficiency for COD and nitrification process is more than 4 days. Based on the SRT obtained, this biogranular system is capable of the simultaneous degradation of nitrification process and COD removal. Since the treatment goal is to remove recalcitrant dyeing compound, the SRT value of all stages evaluated in this experiment was in the acceptable range from degradation of xenobiotic compounds (Grady et al. 1999).
Anaerobic (hours) | 2.8 | 5.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 17.8 | 5.8 |
Aerobic (hours) | 2.8 | 5.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 5.8 | 17.8 |
SVI (mL/g) | 13.1 ± 0.4 | 18.8 ± 1.5 | 21.4 ± 1.6 | 16.8 ± 1.3 | 15.5 ± 1.3 | 24.8 ± 0.9 |
SV (m/h) | 41.3 ± 3.1 | 35.1 ± 0.8 | 24.5 ± 1.1 | 28.4 ± 1.3 | 33.4 ± 2.5 | 21.3 ± 0.5 |
Physical properties of the biogranules at different stages of the react phase
The SVI value of the biogranules was used to evaluate the biogranules settling ability. It is anticipated that bigger biogranules will have higher settling velocity and hence, reduce the SVI value, indicating good settling ability. The SVI value improved when the anaerobic react phase was prolonged in Stage V indicating such reaction pattern will help to develop granules with better settling profile. According to Panswad et al. (2001a), inert biomass increased as the anoxic/anaerobic condition was prolonged. It is possible that the accumulation of inert particles within the biogranules increased and resulted in improved SVI properties. Table 8 showed the physical properties of the biogranules at different stages of the react phase.
Figure 15 shows the profile of SVI of the reactor system. The SVI value in Stage V was reduced from 16.8 ± 1.3 mL/g (in Stage IV) to 15.5 ± 1.3 mL/g. This is expected to be due to the accumulation of more inert solids within the biogranules as shown with low levels of MLVSS/MLSS ratio in Stage V (0.71). Despite changes in HRT that caused decrease in the size of biogranules, the SVI values of the whole experiments were good except for Stage VI. During Stage VI, the prolonged of the aerobic phase (i.e. 17.8 hours), which was operated at high superficial air velocity (2.5 cm/s), cause the biogranules to rupture. At this stage, the size of biogranules becomes smaller causing the settleability of the particles to reduce and was demonstrated with increase in SVI value.
Hydraulic retention time is an important parameter that control the contact time between the biomass and the wastewater in a reactor system. The HRT of a system must be long enough for the degradation process to take place. However, in the application of biogranules in the treatment system, the HRT should not be too long as it may cause the disintegration of the granules. According to Tay et al. (2002) and Wang et al. (2005), a short HRT is favorable for rapid granulation process, while too long HRTs may lead to granulation system failure due to high biomass lost (Pan et al., 2004). An optimum HRT of biogranulation systems will be able to stabilize the reactor performance with good biomass retention and high removal performance. According to Pan et al. (2004), the optimum HRT for aerobic granulation systems ranging from 2 to 12 hours where stable aerobic granules with good settleability and microbial activities. However, the optimum HRT for treating different types of wastewater may vary depending on the type of wastewater and the targeted degradation compound.
Color removal was observed to increase from 66.7 ± 1.6 % to 76.5 ± 0.8 % as the HRT increased from Stage I to Stage III. Increase in the HRT allows longer contact time between the biogranules and the wastewater resulting in better color removal. Furthermore, when the OLR was increased from 0.6 kg COD/m3∙day (Stage III) to 0.8 kg COD/m3∙day (Stage IV), a significant improvement in color removal from 76.5 ± 0.8 % to 83.1 ± 1.4 % was observed. This may be due to the increase in the microbial population. Ong et al. (2005) reported that the percentage of color removal efficiency increased by 16% in anaerobic and 50% in aerobic SBR reactor systems when the OLR rate was increased from 2.66 to 5.32 g COD/L∙day. An increase of color removal efficiency from 82% to 90% was also observed by Talarposhiti et al. (2001) when the COD loading was increased in a two-phase anaerobic packed bed reactor from 0.25 to 1 kg COD/m3∙day.
Sludge volume index profile of biogranules. Stage I: anaerobic (2.8 h): aerobic (2.8 h); Stage II: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage III and Stage IV: anaerobic (11.8 h): aerobic (11.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (17.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (17.8 h)
Since more color removal took place in the anaerobic condition (Banat et al., 1996; Dos Santos et al., 2007), the percentage of color removal was once again increased from Stage IV (83.1 ± 1.4%) to Stage V (86.5 ± 0.5%) when the anaerobic reaction phase was extended from 12 to 18 hours of the 24 hours reaction cycle. Improved decolorization process that occurs during the anaerobic stage enhances the overall wastewater biodegradation since more readily biodegradable substances can be degraded in the following aerobic treatment (Stolz, 2001). Figure 16 shows the profile of the color removal performance.
With respect to the mechanisms that are involved in color degradation, the addition of electron–donating substrate can considerably improve the decolorization reductive rate (Bras et al., 2001, Dos Santos et al., 2005). In anaerobic and aerobic sequential wastewater treatment system, the anaerobic stage was the main step for color degradation while the aerobic phase acted as the polishing step and enhancement in COD removal. Higher initial COD concentration did not improve color removal but caused deterioration in COD removal in the anaerobic-aerobic SBR system (Kapdan and Oztekin, 2006).
Profile of color removal performance of the reactor system at different stages of the experiment. (♦) Influent color, (■) Effluent color, (○) Color removal. (100 ADMI ≈ 1 Pt-Co). Stage I: anaerobic (2.8 h): aerobic (2.8 h); Stage II: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage III and Stage IV: anaerobic (11.8 h): aerobic (11.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (17.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (17.8 h)
Psukphun and Vinitnantharat (2003) reported that the duration of the anaerobic phase should be long enough to obtain better COD and color removal. An increase in the HRT will provide enough time of the COD and inter-metabolites of simulated textile wastewater in anaerobic or/and anaerobic/aerobic systems (Isik and Sponza, 2008). Biodegradation of the azo bonds may require a certain contact time in order to achieve high removal efficiency. Depending only on the filling stage to provide anaerobic condition for the cleavage of azo bond compounds may not be adequate for textile wastewater treatment. However, the time required for the cleavage of the azo bond may be affected by the complexity of the dye molecule structures. The suitable contact time of anaerobic and aerobic reaction phases may provide high removal performance for the cleavage of the N=N bond (anaerobic condition) and mineralization of aromatic amines (aerobic phase). Furthermore, the reduction of COD is more effective during the aerobic stage as compared to the anaerobic reaction condition (Smith et al., 2007). It shows that having longer anaerobic (18 hours) and shorter aerobic (6 hours) react phase resulted in the highest removal for color and a slight improvement in the efficiency of COD removal.
The time history of the COD concentration in the influent and effluent and the removal rate for all six stages is given in Figure 17. The biogranular system showed consistent COD degradation performance with 84.2 ± 0.9% removals after about 50 days of start-up period (acclimatization phase). The overall performance was almost consistent despite the fact that the duration of the experimental process was increased from 6 hours to 24 hours. This phenomenon may be due to the decreasing biomass concentration and reduction in the OLR as mentioned earlier. When the OLR was increased from 0.6 kg COD/m3∙day to 0.8 kg COD/m3∙day on the 194th day of the experiment (Stage III to Stage IV), the COD removal efficiency increased from about 84.4 ± 0.4% at the end of Stage III (day 193) to 90.7 ± 0.2% at the end of Stage IV (day 236).
Profile of COD removal performance of the reactor system at different stages of the experiment. (○) Influent COD; (■) Effluent COD, (▲) COD removal. Stage I: anaerobic (2.8 h): aerobic (2.8 h); Stage II: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage III and Stage IV: anaerobic (11.8 h): aerobic (11.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (17.8 h): aerobic (5.8 h); Stage V: anaerobic (5.8 h): aerobic (17.8 h)
At the final stage (Stage VI) of the experiment, a surge drop of COD removal efficiency was observed. As the aeration time was increased from 6 to 18 hours, the COD removal was reduced from 94.1 ± 0.6% to 82.6 ± 0.8%. The drop in the COD removal efficiency was due to the increase in biomass loss into the effluent. The MLSS in Stage VI was 23.3 ± 0.8 g/L as compared to 31.6 ± 3.7 g/L observed in the previous stages. The effect of HRT on the COD and color removal performance by the biogranules at different stages is given in Table 10.
An increase in the percentage of COD removal efficiency was also observed when the period of anaerobic phase was increased from 12 hours to 18 hours. As noted in Table 9 the removal increased from 90.7 % in Stage IV to 94.1% in Stage V. Psukphun and Vinitnantharat (2003) claimed that the increase in the non-aeration phase in the SBR system will cause an alteration in the population of anaerobic microorganisms in the system. The state is expected to produce good COD and color removal for textile wastewater. However, according to Kapdan and Oztekin (2006), when the duration of anaerobic phase is too long, the contribution of aerobic react phase can be decreased. This is possibly due to the toxic effect of aromatic amines produced during dye degradation.
Anaerobic (hours) | 2.8 | 5.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 17.8 | 5.8 |
Aerobic (hours) | 2.8 | 5.8 | 11.8 | 11.8 | 5.8 | 17.8 |
COD (%) | 84.2 ± 0.9 | 84.6 ± 1.1 | 84.4 ± 0.4 | 90.7 ± 0.2 | 94.1 ± 0.6 | 82.6 ± 0.8 |
Color (%) | 66.7 ± 1.6 | 74.3 ± 0.4 | 76.5 ± 0.8 | 83.1 ± 1.4 | 86.5 ± 0.5 | 75.4 ± 0.3 |
Profile of COD and color removal percentage at different stages of experiment
Owing to the condition in the reactor where different react phases occur in the same column, too long anaerobic reaction periods will cause high accumulation of aromatic amine in the same compartment. High concentrations of aromatic amines may inhibit the activity of aerobic microorganisms during the aerobic phase. In this study, even though the anaerobic react phase was extended up to 18 hours, there was no reduction in COD removal. This shows that there was no inhibition on the activity of aerobic microorganisms by the long accumulation of the byproducts produced from anaerobic degradation of the dye compound. The reason can be that the concentration of dye used was not sufficiently high to produce any toxicity effect on the microorganisms within the biogranules. Furthermore, the biogranules may not be affected by the dyestuff degradation byproducts due to the structural form of the biogranules. The biogranules structure, which consisted of EPS acts as a shield for microorganisms within the granules against any shock loading or toxic compound.
Stable biogranules can be cultivated in the SBR system with the application of intermittent anaerobic and aerobic reaction modes during the react phase. The matured biogranules showed the domination of non-filamentous bacteria that were tightly linked and embedded to one another and covered with EPS. The use of seed sludge in the development process affects the morphology of the developed granules. Matured biogranules had an average diameter of 2.3 ± 1.0 mm and a settling velocity of 80 ± 8 m/h and a low IC value of 9.4 ± 0.5. This indicates successful development of excellent settling properties of biogranules. The cultivation of biogranules seeded with anaerobic granules resulted in better granules formation. The OUR/SOUR and SMA analysis proved the presence of anaerobic and aerobic microorganisms activities in the biogranules. They are capable of performing degradation both in anaerobic and aerobic conditions. The size and the SVI of the biogranules were very much affected by the variations of the HRT. An increase in the aeration react time resulted in the disintegration of the biogranules. Too long aerobic reaction times exposed the biogranules under prolonged starvation condition causing instability of the granular structure that lead to disruption of the biogranules.
The percentage of COD removal was not likely affected by the increase in the HRT, but mainly caused by the decrease in the granular biomass and OLR. However, the COD removal was improved with the increase in the anaerobic reaction phase. The percentage of color removal has improved with the increase of the HRT. An HRT with a prolonged anaerobic react time and reduced aerobic reaction time is considered as the best condition for the removal of color and the organic compound, resulting in maximum color and COD removal.
AcknowledgementThe authors wish to thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI), Ministry of High Education (MOHE) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for the financial supports of this research (Grants No.: 79137, 78211 and 75221)
Rape, an unlawful carnal knowledge of man or woman is assuming a threatening dimension in Nigeria. While Nigeria has no reliable statistics which could show the extent and prevalence of the crime, media reportage and statement from law enforcement agency such as the police provides insight into the magnitude of the problem. Between January and May, 2020, Nigeria’s Inspector General of Police stated that the force arrested 799 suspects associated with 717 rape cases. Out of this figure, six hundred and thirty-one of these cases have been charged to court while 55 cases were still being investigated (
As a global concern, problems associated with rape have to do with how to prevent its occurrence or reduce it to its barest minimum and the challenge of low convictions of rapists [5]. These two problems of rape are exacerbated by the prevailing rape myths supporting attitudes. Kimberly and Fitzgerald [6] define rape supporting attitudes as beliefs and notions which tend to deny and justify male sexual aggression against women. Of course, this conception favours women and does not capture the interests of males who are also victims of rape from women. Even in Nigeria, the percentage of male victims captured by the media is small [4].
\nIn relation to convictions, behaviours of the Criminal justice actors (police, lawyers and jurors) influence the outcomes of a rape case. Whitey [5] argues that if rape myths are reduced or neutralised, there is the possibility of getting more rape convictions. What this implies is that when CJS actors are influenced by rape myths, their judgement and reactions to rape reduces conviction rates and vice versa. This is true as Whitey [5] notes that such myths legitimises offending behaviour and inhibits women from relating experiences as rape. While not all rape cases get reported to the police, the few ones reported may also suffer attrition [7]. This attrition may be caused by the decision of the handling officer who is to determine how far the case can go, the possibility of securing a conviction, or insufficient evidence. Worse still, the police may decide what should be recorded into the crime record or simply treat what is reported as mere information or intelligence. While rape attrition has been a major cause of concern in the past three decades [8], Stanko and Williams [9] unpacks how context of reported rape could impact on its outcomes. They show how social believability vulnerabilities (mental ill-health, under 18 years, under the influence of drugs/alcohol at the time of rape, were former partners of assailants or mental issues) could affect the outcomes of the rape. In particular, victims with mental health issues may suffer their allegations not being framed as rape and their cases are not likely to result into conviction.
\nIn South Africa, Rumney and van der Bijl [10] found that rape supporting culture exists and this is shared by CJS professionals. Where such rape supporting culture exists, victims of rape do not generally come out to report their victimisation. Indeed, Jewkes and Abrahams [11] describe South Africa has a climate tolerant of violence and rape. Rape is also a social problem in South Africa where significant law reforms have been made to arrest the menace. The reforms were thought as a way of protecting victims of rape. Indeed, South African Courts joins the condemnation of the legal system which fails to protect rape victims. Burt [12] did not absolve the complicity of parents, families and society in exerting pressure on males to discourage rape. Accordingly, Jewkes [11] notes that males are permitted to do anything they can get away with while coercion is only queried if it affects victims of higher social status in the society. Wood et al. [13] also found that women are blamed for their victimisation. They are accused women straying beyond expected boundaries of female behaviour such as being intoxicated. This social attitude and beliefs also influence CJS response to rape and the eventual outcomes. Temkin and Krahé [14], p. 209 argue that social definition of rape narrows the understanding of rape by law enforcement agents. To them: “rape stereotypes affect the judgements made by individuals dealing with rape cases, for example as police officers, judges or members of a jury, and thereby shape the understanding of rape as it is represented and dealt with in the criminal justice system”. Consequent upon these attitudes, the CJS utilises stereotypical notions to ascertain if a woman has been raped or not. Certainly, these erroneous assumptions surrounding rape affect the way victims or rape are treated along the Criminal justice system corridor. Shelley et al. [15] contend that the highly gendered nature of law enforcement organisations may have influence the situation where jaundiced notions about males and females influence the norms and practices in the agency. It remains inconclusive in literature whether women officers are more likely to believe the stories of rape victims or whether they will be more hostile to them [16, 17].
\nSince its birthing by Cohen and Felson [18], routine activity theory (RAT) has been variously deployed to explain how time and space are important factors in criminal victimisation. Their basic idea was that the convergence in time and space of a motivated offender, suitable or attractive target in the absence of capable guardianship would result in criminal victimisation. According to Cohen and Felson [18], p. 589 “the lack of any one of these elements is sufficient to prevent the successful completion of a direct contact predatory crime”. In other words, no criminal victimisation will take place if there is a motivated offender and there is no attractive target and vice versa. We are also unlikely to have a criminal victimisation take place where there is capable guardianship and attractive target because the presence of capable guardianship will neutralise any victimisation instinct. This is rightly captured by Pratt and Turanovic [19], p. 2, when they averred that “one gets victimised if the three key elements converge, if any of the three are missing victimisation does not happen and the probability has little or nothing to do with it”. In deploying this theory to understand how selected cases of rape occurred in Nigeria, I argue that rapists are masters of the routines of their victims, sufficiently knowledgeable of when their attractive targets will be unprotected and more vulnerable for their sexual predation. It follows therefore that rapists’ understanding of the routines of their victims and when they will be more vulnerable to attack makes sexual violence of rape to be successful.
\nThis paper adopts exploratory design and utilised secondary sources of data collection. Purposively, rape cases reported by the media during the COVID-19 lockdown in Nigeria formed the cases adopted for this study. During this lockdown, schools, offices and markets were shut down. While street crimes reduced, domestic violence and rape surged. Five cases of rape were selected for their uniqueness and the concern they generated both online and offline. They occurred between April 27 and June 6, 2020. They unveil different dimensions of victimisation and offenders’ use of space or mastery of routines of the victims and/or their guardians. We relied on the reported account of Nigerian national newspapers which covered the rape stories. In particular, The Punch, The Nation and the Vanguard newspapers provided account of relatives, parents and guardian of the victims on how the rape occurred. In analysing the data, I utilise the basic elements of routine activity theory: Motivated offender, attractive target and absence of capable guardianship.
\nUnder this section, attempt is made to analyse the data concerning each of the five cases and situated within the analytical framework of the routine activities theory. While studies have been looking for the personality of the rapists, looking for how rape occurs is capable of unveiling how to keep attractive female/male targets safe from motivated sexual predators. Felson and Cohen had maintained that crime could still occur even without the traditional notion of criminogenic factor like economic deprivation. Indeed as noted by Felson and Boba [20], crime and victimisation feature in everyday life of leaving home and going to work. Just like properties can be victim of motivated offender attacks, rape victims also become objects of sexual predators. It means that the dispersal of capable guardian from suitable target could provide a loophole for the motivated offender lurking around to strike. This is why Cohen and Felson [18], p. 591 posits that “daily work activities separate many people from those they trust and the property they value”.
\nEveryday activity that takes one away from the protective custody of guardians to the waiting or monitoring hands of motivated offenders could include being alone at home, visiting ‘evil’ peers and selling on the streets around motivated offenders. Case 1 is the case of Jennifer which happened on April 27 when she was joined a male friend who had called him to meet him at a place where she would later be gang raped by those whom her sister said ‘she trusted’. She would later drink alcohol, lost self-guardianship to resist sexual assault and was gang raped. It follows therefore that the ‘gang’ had planned to remove their victims from the location where she could be saved from being raped to a location where all three elements of rape victimisation was sure. While we could analyse how ‘trust’ could make one vulnerable to being raped, not leaving and staying back when the other girls were leaving was itself a risky choice. Pratt and Turanovic [19] posits that people tend to self-select into the risky behavioural routines such as behaving in such a way that makes them vulnerable to attacks. This includes falling for the trick to drink alcohol, a tool to make her lose consciousness and self-guardianship. It shows how being at home or outside can both expose one to victimisation in the absence of capable guardianship. What this implies is that anyplace can be site for victimisation provided the elements of attractive targets, motivated offender and the absence of capable guardian converge to make rape victimisation a success.
\n\n
A case of gang rape was reported in Kaduna state. The sister of the victim narrated what happened to the Punch reporter. “On April 27, 2020, one of the victim’s male friends called her to come and meet him somewhere. When she got there, she met two other girls and six boys. One of the boys had previously asked her for an intimate relationship and when it was time for the other two girls to leave, the victim also stood up to go, but one of the boys asked her not to leave yet that they wanted to talk to her on behalf of the young man asking her out. She trusted them and stayed back; they offered her alcohol, which she declined, but they coerced her into taking it after which she lost consciousness. Five of the boys raped her, while the sixth kept threatening his friends to stop or he would report them, but he never did. After they had raped her, the boys dropped her around 7 pm by the bridge close to the house and called her friends to come and get her, alleging that she had been sleeping since morning. As soon as she got home, she was taken to hospital, because she was unconscious and all necessary tests were conducted and the matter was reported at the Barnawa Police Station that same night. The case was transferred to the State Criminal Investigation and Intelligence Department and since then, the police have not arrested the three other boys or invite their parents to the station. The police are making no effort at all to arrest the suspects or question their parents. The police have been frustrating the case to the extent that the mother of the victim is already contemplating dropping the case. The parents of the two boys in custody are offering N15,000 each as damages for what their sons have done to the victim and the police have decided to release them on bail
\nPeriod of uncertainty or crisis could also provide opportunity for rape victimisation. Just like the case of Jennifer, Uwaila (see Case 2 narration) innocently moved away from home where she could have benefitted from the protective custody of relations who were at home during COVID-19 lockdown. However, her routine of going to the church to read had been mastered by her rapists. This is also made possible because the church did not have night guard to guide the church facility and to the victim, the church was a sanctuary where criminals ought not venture into but she was wrong. The rapists were sufficiently motivated by a woman who paid them money to get the blood of a lady for alleged ritual. From the narrations of the offenders after they were arrested, they positioned themselves to ensure that their operation was successful. They entered the church, initiated a conversation with their target, attacked her, raped her, cleaned her blood and escaped before they were later arrested. Certainly, the mastery of routine of the victim and the absence of capable guardianship within the precinct of the church made the motivated rapists successful with their victimisation.
\n\n
Late Uwaila Vera Omozuwa was a 22-year old microbiology student of University of Benin in Edo state. Following the lockdown of higher institutions due to coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), Uwa had to go back home to her family to continue to hold up while the COVID-19 pandemic is expected to reduce before returning to school. She was studious and a choir of the Church where she was raped and murdered. Due to the lockdown which brought many people home, Uwa had complained about the disturbance of family members to her reading because of their noise and sought to continue using the Church to read. This became a normal way to her. On May 27, she was met inside the church in the pool of her blood. She was raped, beaten and hit with fire extinguisher on her head. She would later die in the hospital. The church security officer had gone to collect the key to the church from its keeper when he was told someone was in the church already. The security officer was to alert them of the incident in the church. The police paraded her killers on August 26, 2020. They confessed to raping and killing Uwa since they understood her movement. They were paid one million naira to kill her by suspected woman ritualist to use white handkerchief to clean her blood. The Police stated that post-mortem showed she was raped. (Vanguard newspaper June 12,020: How 22-year old UNIBEN student was raped inside church, murdered. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/06/how-22-year-old-uniben-student-was-raped-in-church-murdered/)
\nSite of victimisation can be home or outside the home on the street. Pratt and Turanovic [19] posited that it is theoretical to assume that home is a safe location for victimisation. They argue that victimisation such as child abuse, domestic violence, intimate partner violence all occur within the home.
\n\n
On June 1, 2020, 18-year old student of Federal College of Animal and Production Technology in Ibadan was raped and murdered for suspected ritual purpose. Her father narrated “I was not at home when the incident happened. The victim’s younger sister was not at home too; she went for Quaranic lessons, but when she returned home, she saw Barakat at the back of the house with deep cuts all over her body. She had been raped and killed. Somebody called me on phone that I should come home but he refused to tell me what happened. When I got home, I saw that my daughter had been raped and hacked to death.” The victims’ mother too was not at home while the incident happened. She was the only one at home in an isolated and bushy environment where the incident occurred
\nIn the case of Barakat, the victim was home alone with no one around her. They also live in isolated place where help was far. The house was surrounded by bush. Understanding this terrain, the motivated offender would later attack her, raped her and killed her.
\nCase 4 presents another dimension to dangerous spaces where motivated offenders lurks and awaits attractive targets before they strike. For sexual predators, timing of attack is vital. What set the capable guardianship apart from the attractive target is the time the guardian is away from the attractive target. Therefore, leaving home to eke out a living on the streets becomes a risky routine which increases the susceptibility of the hawker to be attacked.
\n\n
A 17-year old sachet and soft drinks hawker was attacked by three hoodlums around 7 pm and raped her. She was threatened with broken bottles and was with them for 45 minutes.
\nTiming of economic activity contributed to the victimisation. Selling at odd hour in the neighbourhood of anti-social elements presents opportunities for defilement since guardianship and visibility to poor.
\nThe fifth case for our analysis is that which also happened during the lockdown of Lagos state which is the epicentre of Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) infections in Nigeria. Children and their parents were restricted to their residence except for those on essential services duty. Schools had started series of online classes to keep their pupils busy learning. The father was at home as a capable guardian, at least with potential to protect her daughter against attacks. However, that the rapists could attack their victim while the father (guardian) rushed to buy fuel for his daughter to continue online learning unpacks and lay credence to the important of routine activity in understanding sexual predation.
\n\n
A 12-year old girl was defiled while playing alone in her compound. Her parents were not around when the masked men came in to defile her. Her mother narrated that ‘I went to the office and was called (on the phone) and told that my daughter was raped in our house. I learnt she was having her online class when suddenly, there was a power outage. My husband rushed out to get fuel at a filling station so that she could participate in the class seamlessly. Blessing (not her real name) told us that while she was in the compound, four masked men jumped into the house through the fence. They took her inside and took turns to have sex with her, leaving her with multiple injuries. Immediately I received the call, I became so mad. I headed for the hospital where my daughter was rushed to. When I got there, I was told she suffered ‘vaginal trauma’. The underneath of her clitoris was bruised and she had a deep tear that made her bleed severely, She could have passed out if not that her dad got back home early. She lost a lot of blood. The bleeding stopped after the tear was stitched; although, she is still experiencing very severe pain. I do not think we are secure anymore because it seems like we are being monitored. They perpetuated their evil within the few minutes it took my husband to buy fuel. They could not enter through the gate because of an ongoing construction at a building opposite ours. The site was crowded and that made them avoid entering through the front door. They scaled the fence. Some policemen followed us to the house and saw how the attackers scattered our things around
\nThe rapists scaled the fence, avoided where crowd was and violated the underage before the father returned. This rape defilement follows this order: motivated offender, absence of capable guardian, attractive target attack and defilement and disappearance after the defilement. This finding aligns with the Cohen and Felson [18] who explained how dispersion for legitimate activities away from home could lead to the victimisation of valued object or material.
\nMaume [25] posited that inequality may contribute to rape indirectly through lifestyle. This partly explains the rape of the 12-year old where the father had to rush to buy fuel for generating power. It is assumed that if generating set were to be available without having to wait for a time to buy fuel, victimisation would not have been possible. This undoubtedly contributed to the victimisation since the guardian had to move away from the attractive target of the rapists, his daughter.
\nIn terms of target suitability, Franklin and Menakar [26], p. 2 posited that individual variation in routine activities may enhance or diminish the chances that someone will be viewed as vulnerable and be selected as target. This is useful in explaining Jennifers’ exposure to sexual predatory gang who pulled her away from save zone to their territory. Scholars [27] underscore how women’s selective routine may heighten their victimisation by sexual predators. They list 1) increasing sexual vulnerability through target attractiveness and exposure to would-be perpetrators and 2) decreasing the capacity to avoid unwanted sexual contact by limiting self-guardianship. It follows therefore that self-guardianship is important regulate movement in and to dangerous places. Target suitability, according to Shwartz and Pitts [28] includes availability, vulnerability, intoxication, and friendship or relationship with men who use alcohol to extort sex. Jennifer’s intoxication reduced self-guardianship and paved way for rape. Studies have shown how being present at alcohol events impairs self-guardianship and increases target attractiveness and sexual assault [27]. According to Felson [18], men would deploy physical force only when other methods fail. This may explain why they lured her to their comfortable space.
\nUnderstanding how rape victimisation occurs may be helpful in checking its future occurrence by simply increasing guardianship and neutralising distractions which may displace the guardian from protecting the vulnerable attractive targets. The five cases we examined showed how the mastery of routines by the rapists contributed to successful victimisation of their targets. Home is also not safe where predators are lurking around. Spontaneous behaviour like buying fuel could remove guardianship from a treasured human being who becomes victimised in the absence of the guardianship. It is important that attention is paid to issue of guardianship, self or social guardianship which would be active and capable of dislodging sexual predators from actualising rape victimisation. Mounting capable guardianship may be one of the possible ways of reducing rape victimisation at individual, family, communal and societal levels.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. 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His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. 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This chapter approach completely the hardware and software implementation topics of the on-board GPR system given first a comprehensive background of the software-defined radar technology and second presenting the main features of the Tx and Rx modules. 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Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1971,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. Moreover, the practical results coincided with the results of the simulation results.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"22",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82223",title:"Biomechanical Design Principles Underpinning Anthropomorphic Manipulators",slug:"biomechanical-design-principles-underpinning-anthropomorphic-manipulators",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105434",abstract:"The biomechanical design of an artificial anthropomorphic manipulator is the focus of many researchers in diverse fields. Current electromechanical artificial hands are either in the research stage, expensive, have patents, lack severely in function, and/or are driven by robotic/mechanical principles, which tend to ignore the biological requirements of such designs. In response to the challenges addressed above this chapter discusses the potential of current technology and methods used in design to bridge the chasm that exists between robot manipulators and the human hand. This chapter elucidates artificial anthropomorphic manipulator design by outlining biomechanical concepts that contribute to the function, esthetics and performance of artificial manipulators. This chapter addresses joint stabilization, tendon structures and tendon excursion in artificial anthropomorphic manipulators.",book:{id:"11455",title:"Recent Advances in Robot Manipulators",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11455.jpg"},signatures:"Mahonri William Owen and Chikit Au"},{id:"82056",title:"Learning Robotic Ultrasound Skills from Human Demonstrations",slug:"learning-robotic-ultrasound-skills-from-human-demonstrations",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105069",abstract:"Robotic ultrasound system plays a vital role in assisting or even replacing sonographers in some cases. However, modeling and learning ultrasound skills from professional sonographers are still challenging tasks that hinder the development of ultrasound systems’ autonomy. To solve these problems, we propose a learning-based framework to acquire ultrasound scanning skills from human demonstrations1. First, ultrasound scanning skills are encapsulated into a high-dimensional multi-modal model, which takes ultrasound images, probe pose, and contact force into account. The model’s parameters can be learned from clinical ultrasound data demonstrated by professional sonographers. Second, the target function of autonomous ultrasound examinations is proposed, which can be solved roughly by the sampling-based strategy. The sonographers’ ultrasound skills can be represented by approximating the limit of the target function. Finally, the robustness of the proposed framework is validated with the experiments on ground-true data from sonographers.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Miao Li and Xutian Deng"},{id:"82057",title:"An Episodic-Procedural Semantic Memory Model for Continuous Topological Sensorimotor Map Building",slug:"an-episodic-procedural-semantic-memory-model-for-continuous-topological-sensorimotor-map-building",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104818",abstract:"For humans to understand the world around them, learning and memory are two cognitive processes of the human brain that are deeply connected. Memory allows information to retain and forms an experiences reservoir. Computational models replicating those memory attributes can lead to the practical use of robots in everyday human living environments. However, constantly acquiring environmental information in real-world, dynamic environments has remained a challenge for many years. This article proposes an episodic-procedure semantic memory model to continuously generate topological sensorimotor maps for robot navigation. The proposed model consists of two memory networks: i) episodic-procedural memory network (EPMN) and ii) semantic memory network (SMN). The EPMN comprises an Incremental Recurrent Kernel Machines (I-RKM) that clusters incoming input vectors as nodes and learns the activation patterns of the nodes for spatiotemporal encoding. The SMN then takes neuronal activity trajectories from the EPMN and task-relevant signals to update the SMN and produce more compact representations of episodic experience. Thus, both memory networks prevent catastrophic forgetting by constantly generating nodes when the network meets new inputs or updating node weights when the incoming input is similar to previously learned knowledge. In addition, idle or outlier nodes will be removed to preserve memory space.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Hong Chin, Naoyuki Kubota and Chu Kiong Loo"},{id:"81922",title:"Skill Acquisition for Resource-Constrained Mobile Robots through Continuous Exploration",slug:"skill-acquisition-for-resource-constrained-mobile-robots-through-continuous-exploration",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104996",abstract:"We present a cognitive mobile robot that acquires knowledge, and autonomously learns higher-level abstract capabilities based on play instincts, inspired by human behavior. To this end, we (i) model skills, (ii) model the robot’s sensor and actuator space based on elementary physical properties, and (iii) propose algorithms inspired by humans’ play instincts that allow the robot to autonomously learn the skills based on its sensor and actuator capabilities. We model general knowledge in the form of competencies (skills) of the mobile robot based on kinematic properties using physical quantities. Thus, by design, our approach has the potential to cover very generic application domains. To connect desired skills to the primitive capabilities of the robot’s sensors and actuators, it playfully explores the effects of its actions on its sensory input, thus autonomously learning relations and dependencies and eventually the desired skill. KnowRob is used for knowledge representation and reasoning, and the robot’s operation is based on ROS. In the experiments, we use a millirobot, sized 2 cm2, equipped with two wheels, motion, and distance sensors. We show that our cognitive mobile robot can successfully and autonomously learn elementary motion skills based on a playful exploration of its wheels and sensors.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Markus D. Kobelrausch and Axel Jantsch"},{id:"81693",title:"The Neo-Mechanistic Model of Human Cognitive Computation and Its Major Challenges",slug:"the-neo-mechanistic-model-of-human-cognitive-computation-and-its-major-challenges",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104995",abstract:"The neo-mechanistic theory of human cognition is currently one of the most accepted major theories in fields, such as cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. This proposal offers an account of human cognitive computation, and it has been considered by its proponents as revolutionary and capable of integrating research concerning human cognition with new evidence provided by fields of biology and neuroscience. However, some complex cognitive capacities still present a challenge for explanations constructed by using this theoretical structure. In this chapter, I make a presentation of some of the central tenets of this framework and show in what dimensions it helps our understanding of human cognition concerning aspects of capacities, such as visual perception and memory consolidation. My central goal, however, is to show that to understand and explain some particular human cognitive capacities, such as self-consciousness and some conscious informal reasoning and decision making, the framework shows substantial limitations. I conclude the chapter by suggesting that to fully understand human cognition we will need much more than what the neo-mechanistic framework is actually able to provide.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Diego Azevedo Leite"},{id:"81719",title:"Service Robots in Healthcare Settings",slug:"service-robots-in-healthcare-settings",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104640",abstract:"Robots will play a part in all aspects of healthcare. The presence of service robots in healthcare demands special attention, whether it is in the automation of menial labour, prescription distribution, or offering comfort. In this chapter, we examine the several applications of healthcare-oriented robots in the acute, ambulatory and at-home settings. We discuss the role of robotics in reducing environmental dangers, as well as at the patient’s bedside and in the operating room, in the acute setting. We examine how robotics can protect and scale up healthcare services in the ambulatory setting. Finally, in the at-home scenario, we look at how robots can be employed for both rural/remote healthcare delivery and home-based care. In addition to assessing the current state of robotics at the interface of healthcare delivery, we describe critical problems for the future where such technology will be ubiquitous. Patients, health care workers, institutions, insurance companies, and governments will realize that service robots will deliver significant benefits in the future in terms of leverage and cost savings, while maintaining or improving access, equity, and high-quality health care.",book:{id:"10657",title:"Advances in Service Robots",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg"},signatures:"Rohit Singla and Christopher Nguan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:245,paginationItems:[{id:"196707",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa Numan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucak",slug:"mustafa-numan-bucak",fullName:"Mustafa Numan Bucak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196707/images/system/196707.png",biography:"Mustafa Numan Bucak received a bachelor’s degree from the Veterinary Faculty, Ankara University, Turkey, where he also obtained a Ph.D. in Sperm Cryobiology. He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. 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My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. 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