Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It produces biomethane with anaerobic-digestate as a byproduct that can be used as a biofertilizer. In the context of energy consumption, more than 85% of the total energy consumed currently comes from non-renewable fossil resources. A wide variety of biowastes can be used as feedstocks for biogas production. Biogas technology can provide sustainable, affordable, and eco-friendly green energy along with useful byproducts. This book discusses the basics of biogas production and aims to address the needs of graduate and postgraduate students as well as other professionals through further evaluation of biogas production via case studies.",isbn:"978-1-80355-109-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-108-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-110-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95674",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"biogas-basics-integrated-approaches-and-case-studies",numberOfPages:142,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5ae044532b8c1b30f5802c74ba76e1ae",bookSignature:"Abd El-Fatah Abomohra and El-Sayed Salama",publishedDate:"May 25th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10980.jpg",numberOfDownloads:341,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 1st 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 2nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 7th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 26th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 24th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186114",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatah",middleName:null,surname:"Abomohra",slug:"abdelfatah-abomohra",fullName:"Abdelfatah Abomohra",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186114/images/system/186114.jpg",biography:"Abd El-Fatah Abomohra is a professor of Environmental Engineering and the director of the New Energy and Environmental Laboratory (NEEL), Chengdu University, China. He is a DAAD fellow and performed postdoctoral research at Hamburg University, Germany, and Harbin Institute of Technology, China. He was named in the world’s top 2% of scientists for two consecutive years. His team is primarily working on green energy production from different biomass feedstocks.",institutionString:"Chengdu University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Chengdu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"347657",title:"Prof.",name:"El-Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Salama",slug:"el-sayed-salama",fullName:"El-Sayed Salama",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/347657/images/system/347657.png",biography:"El-Sayed Salama is a professor in the Public Health School,\nLanzhou University, China. He is also a director of the Green Environmental & Energy Laboratory (GEEL) and a distinguished\nexpert of science and technology in the ecological industry, Gansu Province. His GEEL research work focuses on bioenvironmental science and bioenergy. He has several journal publications to\nhis credit.",institutionString:"Lanzhou University, Gansu Academy of Membrane Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Lanzhou University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"890",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"environmental-sciences-waste-management-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"81327",title:"Introductory Chapter: From Biogas Lab-Scale towards Industrialization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104500",slug:"introductory-chapter-from-biogas-lab-scale-towards-industrialization",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"El-Sayed Salama and Abd El-Fatah Abomohra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81327",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81327",authors:[{id:"186114",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatah",surname:"Abomohra",slug:"abdelfatah-abomohra",fullName:"Abdelfatah Abomohra"},{id:"347657",title:"Prof.",name:"El-Sayed",surname:"Salama",slug:"el-sayed-salama",fullName:"El-Sayed Salama"}],corrections:null},{id:"79776",title:"Biogas Production: Evaluation and Possible Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101544",slug:"biogas-production-evaluation-and-possible-applications",totalDownloads:118,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biogas is an excellent example of renewable feedstock for energy production enabling closure of the carbon cycle by photosynthesis of the existing vegetation, without charging the atmosphere with excessive carbon dioxide. The present review contains traditional as well as new methods for the preparation of raw materials for biogas production. These methods are compared by the biogas yield and biogas content with the possible applications. Various fields of biogas utilization are discussed. They are listed from simple heating, electricity production by co-generation, fuel cell applications to catalytic conversions for light fuel production by the Fischer-Tropsch process. The aspects of carbon dioxide recycling reaching methane production are considered too.",signatures:"Venko Beschkov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79776",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79776",authors:[{id:"191530",title:"Prof.",name:"Venko",surname:"Beschkov",slug:"venko-beschkov",fullName:"Venko Beschkov"}],corrections:null},{id:"80192",title:"Resource Reclamation for Biogas and Other Energy Resources from Household and Agricultural Wastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101747",slug:"resource-reclamation-for-biogas-and-other-energy-resources-from-household-and-agricultural-wastes",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter’s goal is to highlight how the reclamation of household and agricultural wastes can be used to generate biogas, biochar, and other energy resources. Leftover food, tainted food and vegetables, kitchen greywater, worn-out clothes, textiles and paper are all targets for household waste in this area. Agricultural waste includes both annual and perennial crops. Annual crops are those that complete their life cycle in a year or less and are comparable to bi-annual crops, although bi-annuals can live for up to two years before dying. The majority of vegetable crops are annuals, which can be harvested within two to three months of seeding. Perennials crops are known to last two or more seasons. Wastes from these sources are revalued in various shapes and forms, with the Green Engineering template being used to infuse cost-effectiveness into the process to entice investors. The economic impact of resource reclamation is used to determine the process’s feasibility, while the life cycle analysis looks at the process’s long-term viability. This is in line with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), whose roadmap was created to manage access to and transition to clean renewable energy by 2030, with a target of net zero emissions by 2050.",signatures:"Donald Kukwa, Maggie Chetty, Zikhona Tshemese, Denzil Estrice and Ndumiso Duma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80192",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80192",authors:[{id:"245715",title:"Ms.",name:"Zikhona",surname:"Tshemese",slug:"zikhona-tshemese",fullName:"Zikhona Tshemese"},{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"323336",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",surname:"Tyoker Kukwa",slug:"donald-tyoker-kukwa",fullName:"Donald Tyoker Kukwa"},{id:"443095",title:"Mr.",name:"Ndumiso",surname:"Duma",slug:"ndumiso-duma",fullName:"Ndumiso Duma"},{id:"443096",title:"Mr.",name:"Denzil",surname:"Estrice",slug:"denzil-estrice",fullName:"Denzil Estrice"}],corrections:null},{id:"80783",title:"Role of Microbial and Organic Amendments for the Enrichment of Methane Production in Bioreactor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102471",slug:"role-of-microbial-and-organic-amendments-for-the-enrichment-of-methane-production-in-bioreactor",totalDownloads:44,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Studies were carried out on lab-scale levels for biogas production using two different wastewaters, that is, herbal pharmaceutical wastewater and food processing wastewater. A total of eight methane bacteria were isolated from cattle dung and mass culturing was carried out to study their feasibility in biogas escalation. Optimization of methane bacteria that could increase biogas production was identified. Among the methane bacteria, two species Bacillus sk1 and Bacillus sk2 were found to enhance the biogas production to a maximum level. Gas analysis showed CH4 content of 63% in the case of food processing wastewater and around 67% with herbal pharmaceutical wastewater. Bacillus sk1 was found to be more suitable for both wastewater and biogas production and was found to be 46.4% in food processing wastewater and 43.3% in herbal pharmaceutical wastewater. Amendment of Bacillus sk2 in food processing wastewater produces 39.7% and 30.3% of biogas in herbal pharmaceutical wastewater was observed. Enzyme Bacillidine™ (P-COG-concentrate aqueous base) was also tried but results were not very encouraging. Comparative studies on both the wastewater have been discussed in detail in this article.",signatures:"Sharda Dhadse and Shanta Satyanarayan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80783",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80783",authors:[{id:"427054",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharda",surname:"Dhadse",slug:"sharda-dhadse",fullName:"Sharda Dhadse"},{id:"427065",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanta",surname:"Satyanarayan",slug:"shanta-satyanarayan",fullName:"Shanta Satyanarayan"}],corrections:null},{id:"79771",title:"Global Fertilizer Contributions from Specific Biogas Coproduct",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101543",slug:"global-fertilizer-contributions-from-specific-biogas-coproduct",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The impact of Haber-Bosch process on modern agriculture is prodigious. Haber-Bosch process led to invention of chemical fertilizers that powered green revolution, minimized food scarcity, and improved human and animal nutrition. Haber–Bosch process facilitated agricultural productivity in many parts of the world, with up to 60% of crop yield increase attributed solely to nitrogen fertilizer. However, Haber-Bosch fertilizers are expensive, and their poor use efficiency exerts adverse external consequences. In European Union for example, the annual damage of up to € 320 (US$ 372.495) billion associated with chemical fertilizers outweighs their direct benefit to farmers, in terms of crops grown, of up to € 80 (US$ 93.124) billion. A substitute for chemical fertilizers is therefore needed. In this chapter, external costs of chemical fertilizers are highlighted. The capability of liquid fraction of cassava peeling residue digestate to supplant and mitigate pecuniary costs of chemical fertilizers required for production of cassava root is also analyzed and presented. Results indicate that about 25% of fund used to purchase chemical fertilizers required for cassava root production could be saved with the use of liquid fraction of cassava peeling residue digestate. The pecuniary value is estimated at US$ 0.141 (≈ € 0.121) billion for the 2019 global cassava root output. This saving excludes external costs associated with Haber-Bosch fertilizers such as ammonia air pollution, eutrophication, greenhouse gasses emissions, and contamination of potable water supply reserves. Consequently, liquid fraction digestate could reduce the cost of cassava root production, as well as minimize adverse health and environmental consequences attributed to chemical fertilizers.",signatures:"Sammy N. Aso, Simeon C. Achinewhu and Madu O. Iwe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79771",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79771",authors:[{id:"219927",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sammy N.",surname:"Aso",slug:"sammy-n.-aso",fullName:"Sammy N. 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These arrive directly to a landfill, wasting their potential to generate products and energy. To study the economic feasibility, an analysis was carried out on the investment, costs and income that make up the cash flow of the project evaluated at 15 years. The results gave an NPV of 214.099.637 CLP and an IRR of 15% at a real discount rate of 10%, with a payback period of 6 years. The research concluded that it is feasible to design a biogas plant that works from household organic waste in Panguipulli. This will contribute to the mitigation of climate change and will promote circular economy actions and the sustainable management of MSW in the south of Chile.",signatures:"Jean Pierre Doussoulin and Cristina Salazar Molina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81583",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81583",authors:[{id:"327931",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Jean Pierre",surname:"Doussoulin",slug:"jean-pierre-doussoulin",fullName:"Jean Pierre Doussoulin"},{id:"438855",title:"BSc.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Salazar Molina",slug:"cristina-salazar-molina",fullName:"Cristina Salazar Molina"}],corrections:null},{id:"79715",title:"Case Studies in Biogas Production from Different Substrates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101622",slug:"case-studies-in-biogas-production-from-different-substrates",totalDownloads:127,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present paper involves applicative research in the field of biogas production with the accent on small laboratory scale installations built for biogas production, preliminary testing of substrate for biogas production and combustion applications for biogas-like mixtures. The interconnected aspect of the presented material involves cumulative expertise in multidisciplinary fields of interest and continuous development of possibilities to determine the energetic potential of substrates subjected to biodegradable fermentation conversion for further applications. The research analyzed the combustion behavior of biogas with different methane/carbon dioxide ratio without and in the presence of specific catalysts. Also, laboratory analysis on biomass substrates for determining their physical and chemical potential for different applications was performed. The main conclusions are drawn revolve around the untapped potential of the different types of biomasses that are not commonly used in the production of renewable energy carriers, like biogas, and also the potential use of residual biomass in combustion processes for an enclosed life cycle from cradle to the grave. The study involving the use of catalysts in biogas combustion processes present possible solutions which can be developed and implemented for increasing the combustion quality by using relatively cost-effective materials for the production of catalytic materials.",signatures:"Adrian Eugen Cioabla and Francisc Popescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79715",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79715",authors:[{id:"426788",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Eugen Cioabla",slug:"adrian-eugen-cioabla",fullName:"Adrian Eugen Cioabla"},{id:"426791",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisc",surname:"Popescu",slug:"francisc-popescu",fullName:"Francisc Popescu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7608",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",subtitle:"Recent Trends and Future Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d3ab762a09c87e3f3fc697f9be6c1a39",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",bookSignature:"Abd El-Fatah Abomohra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7608.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186114",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatah",surname:"Abomohra",slug:"abdelfatah-abomohra",fullName:"Abdelfatah Abomohra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10096",title:"Biogas",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Integrated Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c35e651f5d64c617046f61edf71a1524",slug:"biogas-recent-advances-and-integrated-approaches",bookSignature:"Abd El-Fatah Abomohra, Mahdy Elsayed, Zuzeng Qin, Hongbing Ji and Zili Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10096.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186114",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatah",surname:"Abomohra",slug:"abdelfatah-abomohra",fullName:"Abdelfatah Abomohra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"325",title:"Alternative Fuel",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e6fd051beb23f469c73edd7bd22547bf",slug:"alternative-fuel",bookSignature:"Maximino Manzanera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/325.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27371",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximino",surname:"Manzanera",slug:"maximino-manzanera",fullName:"Maximino Manzanera"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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1. Introduction
\n
Orofacial cleft (OFC) anomalies may be unilateral or bilateral and involve the lip, the palate, or both. Due to similar phenotypic overlap and resulting health care needs of these patients, epidemiological studies usually group cleft lip, with or without cleft palate (CL/P), and cleft palate alone (CPO) even though the etiology of each may be unique. Whether or not CL/P and CPO have distinct etiology and should be combined in investigations is under debate.
\n
It is often found in epidemiological studies that CL/P and CPO is considered underneath the umbrella of either “syndromic” or “nonsyndromic.” Furthermore, “nonsyndromic” CL/P and CPO cases can be subgrouped into those that are isolated or those that have additional malformations that do not form a recognizable syndrome. Relatively, the etiology of nonsyndromic cases of CL/P and CPO is lesser known compared to those found identified with a syndrome. Due to the poorly characterized etiology of CL/P and CPO, in general, there is still debate for the best method of grouping CL/P and CPO in epidemiological studies, but the most common current classifications are used to help determine associations and thus help the clinician with their diagnosis and subsequent treatment.
\n
The genetic basis for many syndromic cases of CL/P and CPO are well-described. Evidence for genetic factors underlying nonsyndromic CL/P and CPO has begun to materialize as well. While less well-described, it is also known that epigenetic modifications can play a role in the development of CL/P and CPO. Recently, the association between OFC and cancer has been explored, with evidence suggesting existence of a link between the presence of OFC in patients and risk of cancer in these patients and/or their families.
\n
2. Descriptive epidemiology
\n
2.1. Prevalence
\n
The overall prevalence of OFC is estimated to be approximately 1 in 700 live births, accounting for nearly one half of all craniofacial anomalies [1, 2]. As reported by the World Health Organization (WHO), the prevalence at birth of OFC varies worldwide, ranging 3.4–22.9 per 10,000 births for CL/P, and 1.3–25.3 per 10,000 births for CPO [3]. The incidence of CL/P and CPO can vary greatly between studies. The inclusion criteria, case definition, data sources, and selection bias contribute to the varying incidence estimates. Even though there are many different variables regarding the inclusion or exclusion criteria of in studies, the majority report a higher incidence of CL/P compared to CPO.
\n
Prevalence has been found to vary based on ancestry, with the highest incidence rates observed amongst Asian populations (0.82–4.04 per 1000 live births), intermediate rates amongst Caucasians (0.9–2.69 per 1000 live births), and the lowest rates amongst African populations (0.18–1.67 per 1000 live births) [1, 4]. Prevalence has also been found to vary further by subgroup, for example, with one study reporting lower rates of OFC amongst Far East Asians compared to Filipinos [5].
\n
2.2. Gender ratio
\n
Prevalence of OFC additionally varies according to gender and cleft pattern. Male predominance has been consistently identified in CLP, with a male/female sex ratio of 1.81 (CI 95%: 1.75–1.86). For CP, the opposite has been shown, with a reported sex ratio of 0.93 (CI 95%: 0.89–0.96) [3]; however, this may be due in part to sampling bias, as one Danish study could not find a significant predominance of females in individuals with CP after combining both surgically treated and nonsurgically treated cases [6].
\n
2.3. Laterality
\n
OFC may be unilateral or bilateral. According to the International Perinatal Database of Typical Orofacial Clefts (IPDTOC) working group, the proportion of bilateral cases is 10.3% for cleft lip without palate (CL) and 30.2% for cleft lip with palate (CLP). Amongst unilateral cases, 36.9% of CL and 41.1% of CLP occur on the right side, suggesting that unilateral cases of CL/P occur more frequently on the left [7].
\n
3. Classification
\n
It is often found in epidemiological studies that CL/P and CPO are classified as either “syndromic” or “nonsyndromic.” Cases of “nonsyndromic” CL/P and CPO are further categorized as isolated—those without an underlying syndrome or additional, nonsecondary malformations—or multiple—those that have additional malformations that do not form a recognizable syndrome. These distinctions are important epidemiologically, for identifying homogenous subgroups of cases, and clinically, for informing prognosis, recurrence risk, diagnosis, and treatment plan.
\n
3.1. Syndromic
\n
Individuals with “syndromic” CL/P or CP present with patterns of malformations and/or symptomatology that form a recognizable syndrome of known or unknown origin; hence, the CL/P or CP is part of a syndrome. Recognition of these syndromes is essential for assessing the risks faced by the child, providing the necessary treatment, and counseling the parents. Because the prevalence of associated anomalies varies across different populations of individuals with OFC, better understanding of the epidemiology of these anomalies could aid in the proper identification and characterization of the syndrome, leading to better care for the individual. Syndromes associated with OFC for which the underlying cause is known include chromosomal abnormalities, such as trisomy 13 or 18, Mendelian disorders such as Van der Woude Syndrome and teratogenic exposure.
\n
A guideline for identifying syndromes in individuals with CL/P or CP is outlined by Venkatesh as follows [8]:\n
Thorough clinical examination, preferably by geneticist or dysmorphologist.
Comprehensive medical history: description of the cleft, antenatal history, birth history, developmental history, and family history.
Physical examination: measurement of weight, length or height, and occipitofrontal circumference, identification of anomalies of eyes, ears, heart, extremities, and also to look for associated preauricular tags, lip pits, and epicanthal folds.
Documentation by photographs of all affected individuals and first-degree relatives.
Necessary laboratory and radiological evaluations.
\n
3.2. Multiple
\n
The multiple subset of CL/P and CPO includes those cases that are not a part of a recognizable syndrome and have major other malformations which may involve, but are not limited to, the eye, ear, head, neck, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and musculoskeletal system [5, 9]. Cases of “multiple nonsyndromic” CL/P and CPO may be classified as such simply by virtue of unrecognized syndromes or undocumented teratogenic exposures. Furthermore, wide variation exists in the classification of associated anomalies in cases of OFC [10].
\n
3.3. Isolated
\n
Cases of CL/P and CPO that are classified as “isolated” do not have an underlying syndrome or other secondary malformations. Most epidemiological studies of CL/P and CPO focus on those cases that are isolated in hopes to further gain insight into associations.
\n
4. Etiology
\n
Development of the head and face represents one of the most intricate events during embryonic development, synchronized by a network of transcription factors and signaling molecules together with proteins conferring cell polarity and cell-cell interactions. In mammals, the facial region develops from the facial primordia, which consists of the lateral and medial nasal prominences arising from the frontonasal process and the maxillary and mandibular processes arising from the first branchial arch. As demonstrated in Figure 1, fusion of medial nasal and maxillary prominences gives rise to the lip and primary palate, while fusion of separate palatal processes arising from the maxillary prominence gives rise to the secondary palate and occurs later during embryogenesis. These processes are known to be dependent, in part, on the migration and differentiation of neural crest cells from the neuroectoderm into the branchial arches [11].
Disturbance of this closely controlled cascade can result in a facial cleft where these facial primordia ultimately fail to meet and fuse or form the proper structures. Historically, OFCs have been classified as either CL/P or CPO [13, 14]. This broad subdivision is consistent with both the distinct developmental origins of the lip/primary palate and the secondary palate and the distinct cellular and genetic etiologies described for CL/P and CPO; cleft palate may occur secondary to or independently from cleft lip. However, there is some epidemiologic evidence suggesting that cleft lip only has distinct etiologic features from cleft lip with palate and should be classified accordingly [15, 16].
\n
5. Genetics
\n
Both genetic and environmental factors have been shown to influence the risk of CL/P and CPO. Approximately 70% of all cases of CL/P and 50% of cases of CPO are designated as nonsyndromic [17], with the rest comprised of a wide range of malformation syndromes with known genetic and/or cellular etiologies. A summary of syndromic forms of CL/O and CPO in which the underlying genetic mutation has been elucidated is provided by Dixon et al. (Table 1; see original article for references) [18].
\n
Cleft type
Syndrome
Gene
Cleft lip +/− cleft palate
Autosomal dominant developmental malformations, deafness, and dystonia
ACTB
Familial gastric cancer and CLP
CDH1
Craniofrontonasal
EFNB1
Roberts
ESCO2
Holoprosencephaly
GLI2
“Oro-facial-digital”
GLI3
Hydrolethalus
HYLS1
Van der Woude/popliteal pterygium
IRF6
X-linked mental retardation and CL/P
PHF8
Gorlin
PTCH1
CLP—ectodermal dysplasia
PVRL1
Holoprosencephaly
SHH
Holoprosencephaly
SIX3
Branchio-oculo-facial
TFAP2A
Holoprosencephaly
TGIF
Ectrodactyly-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting
TP73L
Ankyloblepharon-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting
TP73L
Tetra-amelia with CLP
WNT3
Cleft palate only
Oculofaciocardiodental
BCOR
CHARGE
CHD7
Lethal and Escobar multiple pterygium
CHRNG
Stickler type 1
COL2A1
Stickler type 2
COL11A1
Stickler type 3
COL11A2
Desmosterolosis
DHCR24
Smith-Lemli-Opitz
DHCR7
Miller
DHODH
Craniofrontonasal
EFNB1
Kallmann
FGFR1
Crouzon
FGFR2
Apert
FGFR2
Otopalatodigital types 1 and 2
FLNA
Larsen syndrome; atelosteogenesis
FLNB
Hereditary lymphedema-distichiasis
FOXC2
Bamforth-Lazarus
FOXE1
“Oro-facial-digital”
GLI3
Van der Woude/popliteal pterygium
IRF6
Andersen
KCNJ2
Kabuki
MLL2
Cornelia de Lange
NIPBL
X-linked mental retardation
PQBP1
Isolated cleft palate
SATB2
Diastrophic dysplasia
SLC26A2
Campomelic dysplasia
SOX9
Pierre Robin
SOX9
DiGeorge
TBX1
X-linked cleft palate and ankyloglossia
TBX22
Treacher Collins
TCOF1
Loeys-Dietz
TGFBR1
Loeys-Dietz
TGFBR2
Saethre-Chotzen
TWIST1
Midline cleft lip
Opitz G/BBB
MID1
Oro-facial-digital type I
OFD1
Table 1.
Clefting syndromes in which the mutated gene has been identified. Adapted from Ref. [18].
\n
In contrast, nonsyndromic CL/P is complex and multifactorial in origin. Both genetic and environmental risk factors have been shown to influence the probability of occurrence. Furthermore, there is evidence that the presence of environmental factors—in particular, maternal smoking—modulates the risk conferred by genetic factors and vice-versa, complicating the genetic analysis of nonsyndromic forms of CLP [19]. As such, multifactorial models of inheritance which allow for the evaluation of these risk factors both independently and in interaction with each other are preferred.
\n
Association studies such as candidate gene studies, which test correlation between a phenotype and prespecified genes of interest, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), which identify genetic variations across entire genomes that are associated with a phenotype, have been used to evaluate a variety of genetic polymorphisms associated with nonsyndromic OFC. Genes that have been examined through these studies for associations with nonsyndromic OFC exhibit a range of functions, including growth, DNA transcription, nutrient metabolism, immunity, and oncogenesis. A few such genes are described here.
\n
5.1. Growth factors
\n
Transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-α) is a growth factor encoded by the TGFA gene that serves as a ligand for the epidermal growth factor receptor, which is involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and development [20]. The first association study of genes associated with CL/P found an association with TFGA [21]; however, evidence of this linkage since then has been mixed [22, 23]. TGFA is currently viewed as a modifier, rather than a necessary or sufficient determinant, of risk for OFC.
\n
Proteins in the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) family bind various TGF-β receptors leading to recruitment and activation of the SMAD family of transcription factors. TGF-β is involved in processes including apoptosis, modulation of immune cell function, and wound healing; disruption of TGF-β has been implicated in cancer, Loeys-Dietz syndrome, and other conditions [20]. Knockout experiences in mice have shown the TGFB3 gene to be associated with OFC [24, 25], and subsequent association studies have identified these results in humans [26].
\n
5.2. Transcription factors
\n
The MSX1 gene, which is a part of the homeobox gene family, codes for a protein that is involved in transcriptional regulation during embryogenesis as well as limb pattern formation, craniofacial development (in particular odontogenesis), and tumor growth inhibition [20]. This gene has been implicated in the development of cleft in several candidate gene studies, and may even account for 1–2% of all isolated cases of OFC [27].
\n
Interferon regulatory factor 6 (IRF6) is a transcription factor protein that is involved in early development, especially of tissue in the head and face [20]. Mutations of the IRF6 gene at 1q32 causes Van der Woude syndrome, a Mendelian-inherited disorder which induces CL/P or CPO and accounts for about 2% of all CL/P cases [28, 29]. The overlap between phenotypic presentation of Van der Woude syndrome and isolated CL/P motivated further study into the role of IRF6 in development of OFC. Variation at IRF6 has been found to be strongly associated with CL/P and may account for up to 12% of the genetic contribution to CL/P at the population level [30–32]. Furthermore, the discovery of ILF6 as a risk factor for CL/P served as an important example of elucidating genetic variants associated with cases of nonsyndromic OFC, which are often excluded from genetic analyses [33].
\n
5.3. Nutrient metabolism
\n
Deficient maternal folate intake has long been implicated in risk of OFC in children, leading to suggestions that mutations of the enzyme 5,10-methyltetranhydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), which catalyzes the synthesis of 5-methylenetetrahydrofolate, play a role in the etiology of cases of nonsyndromic CL/P [34]. However, results from several association studies evaluating the role of MTHFR mutations in CL/P have been conflicting [35–37].
\n
Retinoic acid plays an important role during development. Its functions, mediated by retinoic acid receptor alpha (RAR-α), include regulation of development, differentiation, apoptosis, granulopoeisis, as well as transcription of genes involved in the circadian rhythm [20]. Transgenic and knockout mice studies have additionally proposed a role in facial development [38]. Mutations of the RARA gene have been associated with development of OFC [39].
\n
6. Epigenetics
\n
Due to the relative lack of success in identifying causal genetic factors involved in OFC despite the numerous association studies that have been performed, recent attention has been directed toward the role of epigenetic programming, or modifications that do not involve DNA sequencing. Commonly studied epigenetic events include histone modification, chromatin remodeling, posttranscriptional gene alteration via noncoding MicroRNAs, and DNA methylation. MicroRNAs and DNA methylation, in particular, have begun to demonstrate distinct roles in etiologies of OFC.
\n
6.1. MicroRNAs
\n
While protein-coding genes make up only about 1.2% of the human genome, recent estimates suggest that up to 93% of the human genome codes for RNA transcripts. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) represent the largest family of such noncoding RNAs in the human genome. They are involved in gene silencing and play important roles in cell and tissue differentiation, including development of the secondary palate [40–43]. miRNAs have been shown to orchestrate many of the processes that are central to palatal morphogenesis, including epithelial-mesenchymal transformation, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and TGF-β signaling, cell migration and proliferation, and collagen synthesis [44–48]. As such, further analysis of miRNA expression and gene networks will be key to elucidating mechanisms of palatal development as well as etiologies of OFC.
\n
6.2. DNA methylation
\n
DNA methylation, one of the most important epigenetic modifications in mammalian cells, is a process by which methyl groups are added to DNA in order to regulate gene expression. Methylation generally occurs at cytosines within the context of symmetrical CpG dinucleotide sequences, which are often concentrated in regions known as CpG islands and found in both gene bodies and promoter regions [49, 50]. Classically, methylation of CpG islands at gene promoters is thought to induce silencing of gene transcription; however, positive correlation between gene body methylation and gene expression has been observed [51, 52].
\n
DNA methylation was first identified as a potential mediator of palatal development after a series of studies in which DNA demethylating agents were used to induce cleft palate in mice [53–55]. Since then, failures in DNA methylation demonstrated involvement in craniofacial malformations including cleft palate [56, 57]. Despite the current lack of knowledge regarding the epigenetic mechanisms mediating palatal development, evidence strongly indicates that DNA methylation plays a central role in regulating this process, and may perhaps serve as future risk assessment and therapeutic targets for patients with OFC.
\n
7. Risk factors
\n
The role of environmental factors in the etiology of OFC has been extensively studied. Known and suspected risk factors for CL/P and CP include family history, maternal nutrition, and exposure to teratogenic agents. The upper lip and palate are developed by 7 and 9 weeks after conception, respectively. Therefore, risk factors must be present before these times to influence the risk of CL/P and CPO.
\n
7.1. Heredity
\n
Family history is one of the strongest risk factors for both CL/P and CP. The risk of CL/P and CP has been reported to be increased in the first-, second-, and third-degree relatives and the identical twins of individuals with CL/P and CP, with even nonsyndromic cases of CL/P exhibiting evidence of genetic components [58–61]. However, few cases demonstrate true Mendelian inheritance patterns [62]. Moreover, CL/P and CP are known to be influenced by environmental risk factors. Specifically, there is growing evidence of gene-environment interactions that may influence the risk of these conditions.
\n
7.2. Maternal drug use
\n
Maternal drug use seems to play only a small role for the origin of orofacial clefts, but studies have shown that maternal use of folate antagonists (valproic acid and carbamazepine), dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors (trimethoprim, triamterene, and sulfasalazine), benzodiazepines, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, retinoids, and corticosteroids is associated with a marked increase of cleft lip and palate [63–67].
\n
7.3. Maternal diseases
\n
The increased risk of having a child with CL/P or CP in women with nongestational diabetes or maternal hyperthermia is well-characterized [68, 69]. Additionally, a study conducted in Hungary found an increased risk of CL/P for children born to mothers with influenza, common cold, orofacial herpes, and gastroenteritis during pregnancy, posterior CP in mothers with influenza, sinusitis, and bronchitis, and OFC in mothers with epilepsy or angina pectoris [70].
\n
7.4. Nutrition
\n
The role of maternal nutrient intake in the development of congenital malformations in the child has long been studied with the aim of elucidating the etiologies of specific birth defects and informing effective prevention strategies. Evidence indicates that maternal nutrient intake affects the risk of giving birth to a child with CL/P or CP. In particular, a lack of vitamin B9, more commonly known as folate (or its synthetic form, folic acid), in the mother’s diet has long been linked to the risk of congenital malformations. An association between maternal folate intake and reduced risk of having a child with CL/P or CP has previously been demonstrated [71]. However, studies have not consistently linked folic acid with OFC as they have with neural tube defects [72, 73].
\n
Previous reports have shown maternal intake of vitamins other than folate, such as other B vitamins (e.g. riboflavin), iron, zinc, and the amino acids choline, methionine, and cysteine, to be associated with reduced risk of having a child with CL/P or CP [72, 74, 75].
\n
Vitamin A is known to play a crucial role in fetal development. Deficient and excessive intakes of vitamin A increase the risk of birth defects, including OFC, in animals as well as humans [76–79], but exact daily intake numbers have not been established [80].
\n
7.5. Maternal exogenous exposures
\n
Most of the CL/P and CPO epidemiologic studies support a role for environmental factors in the etiology of clefting. The most common risk factors reported were maternal exposure to tobacco products [81, 82], alcohols [83], some viral infections [70], pesticides [84], and teratogens in the workplace or at home in early pregnancy [85–87]. Recognized teratogens included rare exposures such as phenytoin, valproic acid, thalidomide, and herbicides such as dioxin. As mentioned previously, risk of CL/P or CPO conferred by these exposures—in particular tobacco—may be modulated by the presence or absence of certain genetic factors [19, 88, 89].
\n
8. Cleft palate and cancer
\n
Several studies from different countries (USA, Latvia, Denmark, and Brazil) have identified an association between cleft palate and cancer [90–95]. The first epidemiological studies addressed the presence of cancer in cleft lip/palate subjects and their families. Parents of kids with sporadic CL/P have a higher risk of developing cancer than control families [96], and increased risk of cancer in adulthood can be seen in a Danish population-based cohort of CL/P subjects [97]. Such studies suggested that the association was most frequent for breast cancer but also colorectal, gastric, prostate, and uterus cancers. In a large study, 313 families segregating cases of isolated CL/P, including information of 13,879 individuals, were analyzed by Vieira [93]. The study brings further evidence that individuals born with CL/P and their family members have a higher prevalence of cancer than the general population. This risk is three times higher in first- and second-degree relatives and decreases to 1.5 times in third-degree relatives.
\n
A possible genetic link was identified in two families with mutations in the E-cadherin gene CDH1 with CL/P and hereditary diffuse gastric cancer [98]. CDH1 is highly expressed in the palate. Vogelaar et al. also identified germline mutations multiple families with gastric cancer and orofacial clefts [99]. One concern in interpreting these studies is that cleft lip/palate patients tend to have a higher prevalence of behavioral risk factors, such as smoking and drinking because of their limited social interactions as adolescents, thus are at higher risk of tobacco and alcohol-related cancers independently from their initial malformation.
\n
What is lacking is a study of cancer cases and the risk of cleft palate in their family members. Such studies are limited by the fact that the genetic defect is still a rare event, and the number of cancer cases necessary to address the problem would be extremely large. A study conducted on family members of cancer patients (Taioli et al. [95]) involved an epidemiological questionnaire including family history of cancer and congenital oral cleft malformations that was administered to 168 cancer survivors and a population-based sample of 170 healthy subjects. In the control group, 1.2% reported a family member with CL/P; among cancer survivors, the figure was 4.2% (odds ratio: 3.7; 95% confidence interval: 0.75–17.8; p = .07). Among cancer survivors with a family member with CL/P, there was an apparent excess of testicular cancer and melanoma in comparison with the cancer survivors with no family history of CL/P. These preliminary results suggest a common etiologic background for cancer and CL/P.
\n
Taken all together, the data suggest that there are shared environmental and genetic factors in families that predispose to both cleft palate and cancer.
\n
9. Conclusion
\n
OFCs are the most common craniofacial anomalies, and one of the most common congenital anomalies worldwide. OFCs have historically been grouped as CL/P or CPO. However, existing evidence suggests that separate etiologies may exist for cleft lip alone versus cleft lip with palate. CL/P and CPO are classified as syndromic or nonsyndromic; nonsyndromic cases are further subclassified as multiple or isolated.
\n
Both genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in the etiology of OFC. The genes underlying a number of known syndromes associated with OFC have been identified. Furthermore, environmental factors such as alcohol and tobacco have been shown to modulate the risk of OFC conferred by certain genetic factors.
\n
Although nonsyndromic OFCs are not traditionally the subject of genetic analysis, a number of genomic association studies have evaluated the link between genetic variants and nonsyndromic OFC. Examples of genes that have been examined in such studies include those that code for growth factors, transcription factors, and nutrient metabolism proteins. In addition to genetic factors, studies have recently begun to explore the role of epigenetic modifications in palatal ontogeny and etiology of OFC.
\n
A number of environmental and maternal factors that influence the risk of having a child with OFC are well-described. In particular, family history, maternal drug use, nutrition, and exogenous exposures demonstrate strong links with development of OFC in the child.
\n
Several studies have shown a higher incidence of cancer amongst patients with CL/P and their families. Additionally, studies have begun to identify higher rates of CL/P in the families of patients with cancer, although less is known about this. Combined, these suggest that CL/P and cancer may be mediated by shared environmental and genetic etiologies.
\n',keywords:"cleft, epidemiology, etiology, genetics, epigenetics, environmental risk factors, cancer",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/53918.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/53918.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53918",totalDownloads:2906,totalViews:1809,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:6,impactScorePercentile:95,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 12th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 6th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 22nd 2017",dateFinished:"January 18th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Orofacial cleft (OFC) anomalies are amongst the most common congenital anomalies and the most common craniofacial anomalies. Despite their poorly characterized etiologies, cases of OFC are usually grouped by epidemiological studies as cleft lip, with or without cleft palate (CL/P), and cleft palate alone (CPO). Incidence of CL/P and CPO differs according to gender and ancestry and may vary widely across studies. Cases of OFC are characterized as either “syndromic” or “nonsyndromic,” with further classification of nonsyndromic cases into isolated cases and cases that present with additional malformations. The genetic bases for many syndromic cases of OFC have been previously elucidated. Genetic associations have been described for nonsyndromic OFC as well. Importantly, etiology of OFC is known to involve interaction between genetic and environmental factors, including maternal nutrition and exposure to teratogenic agents. Furthermore, evidence points toward epigenetic as well as genetic factors influencing OFC etiology. Recent studies have begun to explore the association between CL/P and cancer. These studies report higher incidence of cancer among patients with CL/P and their family members as well as identification of common genetic markers mediating this increased risk, although much remains unknown about this link.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/53918",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/53918",book:{id:"5428",slug:"designing-strategies-for-cleft-lip-and-palate-care"},signatures:"Mairaj K. Ahmed, Anthony H. Bui and Emanuela Taioli",authors:[{id:"188212",title:"Dr.",name:"Mairaj K.",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",fullName:"Mairaj K. Ahmed",slug:"mairaj-k.-ahmed",email:"mairaj.ahmed@mountsinai.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"194367",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuela",middleName:null,surname:"Taioli",fullName:"Emanuela Taioli",slug:"emanuela-taioli",email:"emanuela.taioli@mountsinai.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"203416",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Bui",fullName:"Anthony Bui",slug:"anthony-bui",email:"anthony.bui@icahn.mssm.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Descriptive epidemiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Prevalence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Gender ratio",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Laterality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Classification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Syndromic",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2. Multiple",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3. Isolated",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Etiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Genetics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.1. Growth factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.2. Transcription factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.3. Nutrient metabolism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"6. Epigenetics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.1. MicroRNAs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.2. DNA methylation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. Risk factors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.1. Heredity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"7.2. Maternal drug use",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"7.3. Maternal diseases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"7.4. Nutrition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"7.5. Maternal exogenous exposures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"8. Cleft palate and cancer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mossey PA, Modell B. Epidemiology of oral clefts 2012: an international perspective. Front Oral Biol 2012;16:1–18. doi:10.1159/000337464'},{id:"B2",body:'Gorlin RJ, Cohen MM, Hennekam RCM. Syndromes of the Head and Neck. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.'},{id:"B3",body:'Mossey PA, Castilla EE. Global Registry and Database on Craniofacial Anomalies: Report of a WHO Registry Meeting on Craniofacial Anomalies. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2001.'},{id:"B4",body:'Allam E, Windsor L, Stone C. Cleft lip and palate: etiology, epidemiology, preventive and intervention strategies. 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Prenatal multivitamin supplementation and rates of congenital anomalies: a meta-analysis. J Obstet Gynaecol Canada JOGC = J D’obstétrique Gynécologie Du Canada JOGC 2006;28:680–9.'},{id:"B73",body:'Ray JG, Meier C, Vermeulen MJ, Boss S, Wyatt PR, Cole DEC. Association of neural tube defects and folic acid food fortification in Canada. Lancet (London, England) 2002;360:2047–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11994-5'},{id:"B74",body:'Shaw GM, Carmichael SL, Laurent C, Rasmussen SA. Maternal nutrient intakes and risk of orofacial clefts. Epidemiology 2006;17:285–91. doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000208348.30012.35'},{id:"B75",body:'Carmichael SL, Yang W, Feldkamp ML, Munger RG, Siega-Riz AM, Botto LD, et al. Reduced risks of neural tube defects and orofacial clefts with higher diet quality. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012;166:121–6. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.185'},{id:"B76",body:'Rothman KJ, Moore LL, Singer MR, Nguyen US, Mannino S, Milunsky A. Teratogenicity of high vitamin A intake. 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Cleft Palate-Craniofacial J 2007;44:358–65. doi:10.1597/06-100.1'},{id:"B85",body:'Lin S, Herdt-Losavio ML, Chapman BR, Munsie J-P, Olshan AF, Druschel CM. Maternal occupation and the risk of major birth defects: a follow-up analysis from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2013;216:317–23. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.05.006'},{id:"B86",body:'Desrosiers TA, Lawson CC, Meyer RE, Richardson DB, Daniels JL, Waters MA, et al. Maternal occupational exposure to organic solvents during early pregnancy and risks of neural tube defects and orofacial clefts. Occup Env Med 2013;69:493–9. doi:10.1136/oemed-2011-100245.Maternal'},{id:"B87",body:'Cordier S, Garlantézec R, Labat L, Rouget F, Monfort C, Bonvallot N, et al. Exposure during pregnancy to glycol ethers and chlorinated solvents and the risk of congenital malformations. Epidemiology 2012;23:806–12. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e31826c2bd8'},{id:"B88",body:'Li L, Zhu G, Meng T, Shi J, Wu J, Xu X, et al. Biological and epidemiological evidence of interaction of infant genotypes at Rs7205289 and maternal passive smoking in cleft palate. Am J Med Genet Part A 2011;155:2940–8. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.34254'},{id:"B89",body:'Wu T, Fallin MD, Shi M, Ruczinski I, Liang KY, Hetmanski JB, et al. Evidence of gene-environment interaction for the RUNX2 gene and environmental tobacco smoke in controlling the risk of cleft lip with/without cleft palate. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2012;94:76–83. doi:10.1002/bdra.22885'},{id:"B90",body:'Dietz A, Pedersen DA, Jacobsen R, Wehby GL, Murray JC, Christensen K. Risk of breast cancer in families with cleft lip and palate. Ann Epidemiol 2012;22:37–42. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2011.09.003'},{id:"B91",body:'Steinwachs EF, Amos C, Johnston D, Mulliken J, Stal S, Hecht JT. Nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate is not associated with cancer or other birth defects. Am J Med Genet 2000;90:17–24.'},{id:"B92",body:'Menezes R, Marazita ML, Goldstein McHenry T, Cooper ME, Bardi K, Brandon C, et al. AXIS inhibition protein 2, orofacial clefts and a family history of cancer. J Am Dent Assoc 2009;140:80–4.'},{id:"B93",body:'Vieira AR, Khaliq S, Lace B. Risk of cancer in relatives of children born with isolated cleft lip and palate. Am J Med Genet A 2012;158A:1503–4. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.35359'},{id:"B94",body:'Lima LS, Silvério MO, Swerts MSO, Aquino SN, Martelli DRB, Martelli-Júnior H. Frequency of cancer in first-degree relatives of patients with cleft lip and/or palate in the Brazilian population. Braz Dent J 2013;24:200–3. doi:10.1590/0103-6440201302191'},{id:"B95",body:'Taioli E, Ragin C, Robertson L, Linkov F, Thurman NE, Vieira AR. Cleft lip and palate in family members of cancer survivors. Cancer Invest 2010;28:958–62. doi:10.3109/07357907.2010.483510'},{id:"B96",body:'Zhu JL, Basso O, Hasle H, Winther JF, Olsen JH, Olsen J. Do parents of children with congenital malformations have a higher cancer risk? A nationwide study in Denmark. Br J Cancer 2002;87:524–8. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6600488'},{id:"B97",body:'Bille C, Winther JF, Bautz A, Murray JC, Olsen J, Christensen K. Cancer risk in persons with oral cleft—a population-based study of 8,093 cases. Am J Epidemiol 2005;161:1047–55. doi:10.1093/aje/kwi132'},{id:"B98",body:'Frebourg T, Oliveira C, Hochain P, Karam R, Manouvrier S, Graziadio C, et al. Cleft lip/palate and CDH1/E-cadherin mutations in families with hereditary diffuse gastric cancer. J Med Genet 2006;43:138–42. doi:10.1136/jmg.2005.031385'},{id:"B99",body:'Vogelaar IP, Figueiredo J, van Rooij IALM, Simões-Correia J, van der Post RS, Melo S, et al. Identification of germline mutations in the cancer predisposing gene CDH1 in patients with orofacial clefts. Hum Mol Genet 2013;22:919–26. doi:10.1093/hmg/dds497'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mairaj K. Ahmed",address:"mairaj.ahmed@mountsinai.org",affiliation:'
Cleft/Craniofacial Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, NY, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Anthony H. Bui",address:null,affiliation:'
Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, NY, USA
Institute for Translational Epidemiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, NY, USA
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and Enhance Cell Bioactivity",slug:"treatments-to-optimize-dental-implant-surface-topography-and-enhance-cell-bioactivity",signatures:"Jaume Miranda-Rius, Eduard Lahor-Soler, Lluís Brunet-Llobet, David de Dios and Francesc Xavier Gil",authors:[{id:"180709",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaume",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Rius",fullName:"Jaume Miranda-Rius",slug:"jaume-miranda-rius"},{id:"185076",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Lahor-Soler",fullName:"Eduard Lahor-Soler",slug:"eduard-lahor-soler"},{id:"185077",title:"Dr.",name:"Lluís",middleName:null,surname:"Brunet-Llobet",fullName:"Lluís Brunet-Llobet",slug:"lluis-brunet-llobet"},{id:"185078",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"De Dios",fullName:"David De Dios",slug:"david-de-dios"},{id:"185080",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesc Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Gil",fullName:"Francesc Xavier Gil",slug:"francesc-xavier-gil"}]},{id:"50320",title:"The Role of Hydrophilic Sandblasted Titanium and Laser Microgrooved Zirconia Surfaces in Dental Implant Treatment",slug:"the-role-of-hydrophilic-sandblasted-titanium-and-laser-microgrooved-zirconia-surfaces-in-dental-impl",signatures:"Aleksa Markovic",authors:[{id:"180111",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksa",middleName:null,surname:"Markovic",fullName:"Aleksa Markovic",slug:"aleksa-markovic"}]},{id:"50386",title:"The Effects of Surface Roughening Techniques on Surface and Electrochemical Properties of Ti Implants",slug:"the-effects-of-surface-roughening-techniques-on-surface-and-electrochemical-properties-of-ti-implant",signatures:"Youssef Al Jabbari, Wolf Dieter Mueller, Abdulaziz Al-Rasheed and Spiros Zinelis",authors:[{id:"50171",title:"Prof.",name:"Wolf-Dieter",middleName:null,surname:"Mueller",fullName:"Wolf-Dieter Mueller",slug:"wolf-dieter-mueller"},{id:"113124",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Zinelis",fullName:"Spiros Zinelis",slug:"spiros-zinelis"},{id:"179969",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssef",middleName:null,surname:"Al 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
An important guiding principle of the revised forest and wildlife policy is that it recognizes and confirms the importance of local people in pursuing all other guiding principles of the policy, and therefore proposes to place particular emphasis on the concept of participatory management and protection of forest and wildlife resources and to develop appropriate strategies, modalities and programs in consultation with relevant agencies, rural communities and individuals [1]. The principles and strategies of the policy of participatory management recognizes the rights of local people to have access to natural resources for maintaining a basic standard of living and their concomitant responsibility to ensure the sustainable use of such resources. To this effect, since the adoption of the 1994 Forest and wildlife policy, several operations of the Forestry Commission (FC) have been revised to help meet its aim of achieving equitable sharing of benefits and improved efficiency in management, particularly, in Southern Ghana [1].
\n
For instance, under the Forestry Sector Development Programme (FSDP II) and the High Forest Biodiversity Programme (HFBP), the FC has been providing support toward forest–based livelihood schemes such as grass-cutter rearing, seedling production and snail farming [2]. Although access to NTFP’s for domestic use had been enshrined in reserve settlement judgments, foresters had over the years not been fulfilling these rights to land owners. As such all current management plans reassert the rights of communities to harvest NTFP’s for domestic use, to have access to fetish sites and other rights as enshrined in original agreements.
\n
In addition to the above, the FC is promoting initiatives to assist forest fringe communities to add value to harvested products through processing and market promotion. This initiative known as Marketing Analysis and Development (MA and D) according to the report is being piloted in three districts of Cape Coast. These are Pra (Suhien forest reserve), Goaso (Bia Tano forest reserve) and Mpreaso (Esukawkaw forest reserve). The ultimate goal is to organize forest fringe communities to form co-operatives to produce items for the export market ([2], p. 7). In terms of integrated use of forest resources, Oduro [3] reports that the collaborative forest management unit (CFMU) of FC has initiated programs that involve helping communities to develop their capacity to manage forest resources in southern Ghana. For instance in Assin Fosu, the author reports that, CFMU has supported communities to manage ancestral forest groves. In the Esen forest reserve at Akyem Oda, the CFMU has involved local communities in devising improved management of NTFPs. The program involved experiments in developing nurseries for the propagation of various NTFPs, using different methods including seed planting, root and stem cuttings. This report has been affirmed by the Forestry Commission of Ghana [2]. Report by Oduro [3] also indicates that the CFMU has carried out a survey of people’s attitude in communities near forest reserves which have been proposed for different types of protection: special biological protection areas, hill sanctuaries, and convalescence and fire block areas. The report from the survey showed considerable local support for the continued protection of the forest reserves, particularly for the protection of drinking water supplies, rehabilitation of degraded forests and fire protection belts.
\n
One factor that is worth noting from the literature is that, all the initiatives and successes were recorded in southern Ghana where timber abounds. There are no records of such initiatives or operations by the FC for fringe communities in the timber-poor Northern Region. Being a timber—poor zone, presupposes that communities do not enjoy social responsibility agreement (SRA) as enjoyed by those in Southern Ghana. Ironically, among the challenges that the revised Ghana’s forest and wildlife policy sought to address are; the inadequate response to the domestic demand of timber and timber products which has led to increased illegal chainsaw operations in the supply of timber to the market, and the challenges to CFM strategy on how to achieve sustainability in forest management, to integrate local communities into planning and management whilst maintaining a profitable sector. Yet work by [4] found out that participation of fringe communities in the management of forest reserves is passive and tokenistic with local people having no control over access to resources and management. The critical question is, do the fringe communities in the Northern region and for that matter Northern Ghana have any user-rights or obligations to forest reserves at all? Answering this question is the main objective that this article sought to achieve.
\n
\n
\n
2. Theoretical framework interest
\n
Decisions of forest fringe communities may have positive or negative environmental, economic, and social impacts on sustainable development depending on whether it is managed sustainably or not. However, managing forest ecosystems sustainably requires knowledge of their main functions, and the effects of human practices, especially human practices or activities of the communities and/or settlements fringing the forest ecosystems including forest reserves. These practices are often perpetuated with the intension of meeting their needs or wants. Therefore it is important to consider the rights and responsibilities of people living around the forest ecosystems in forest management decisions so as to take onboard those practices that inure to the benefits of the society and the forest environment. This can only be done successfully if the frontiers of forest ecosystems and resource management understand the fringing communities and how they interact with the forest ecosystems. This is because, according to Metz et al. [5] even though over the years scientific literature shows there has been an increasing attempt to understand and integrate long-term effects of current practices of forest management on sustainable development, often, there is no sufficient understanding of the potential long-term impacts of current practices on sustainable development. According to the authors this may stem from the fact that often governing agencies fail to recognize the rights and responsibilities of key stakeholders whose actions and inactions define the forest practices, thereby defeating the purposes of collaborative forest management.
\n
Collaborative forest management (CFM) denotes collective action by multi-stakeholders including local communities for sustainable forest management (SFM) for all. It is premised on the fact that community participation will increase resource flows to local people and help reduce rural poverty by providing them with their livelihoods [6]. According to the principles of CFM, sustainable forest management is the long term aim of CFM. Therefore, aside meeting other aims such as fair benefits to partners and equity in benefit sharing within community, the key objective is sustainability. The Forest Principles adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992 specifically states that: “Forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations. In doing so the interests of Forest-Dependent Communities, security of tenure of forest resources and access to forest land to private and public land holdings, including the rights and obligations of forest owners and local communities must be regarded [7]”.
\n
Sustainable development (SD) on the other hand has been defined by FAO Forest Resources Assessment [8] as: “the management and conservation of the natural resources base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations” [9, 10].
\n
The essence of this form of development is a stable relationship between human activities and the natural world, which does not diminish the prospects for future generations to enjoy a quality of life as good as the present generation. This implies that, SD can only be achieved through SFM which hinges upon collaborative management of forest resources.
\n
However, because local communities living in or around forests and forest reserves have a traditional dependency upon same, their actions and inaction affects collaborative management decisions and the sustainability of the forest resources. Therefore, respecting the rights and obligations of forest owners and local communities, and enhancement of their well-being are critical to sustainable forest management and development. As emphasized by Metz et al. [5], significant economic, social, and environmental contributions to sustainable development can be gained by involving local people and stakeholders and developing adequate policy frameworks.
\n
Riding on the back of rational choice theory by Buchanan and Tullock [11], this article equates the rights and responsibilities of fringe communities to their expected benefits and costs from forest reserves and discusses these under the current practice of the concept of collaborative forest management in the study area.
\n
\n
2.1 The study area
\n
The region has a total land area of about 70,384 sq. km (7 million ha) which is 29% of the land area of Ghana. Of the total land area of 70,384sq km of the region, 3556.92 sq. km (5.05%) is under reservation [12]. Northern Region is located between latitude 8 30″ and 10 30″ N and lies completely in the savannah belt. It has Togo and La Cote D’Ivoire to the East and West, respectively, as its international neighbors. To the south, the region shares boundaries with Brong Ahafo and the Volta Regions, and to the north, it shares borders with Upper-East and Upper-West Regions. Results of the 2010 population and housing census gave the regional population as 2479, with an intercensal growth rate of 2.9% between 2000 and 2010 [13].
\n
The main vegetation is classified as vast areas of grassland, mainly Guinea savannah interspersed drought-resistant trees such as the acacia, baobab, shea dawadawa, mango, neem Ghana [14]. The region is drained by the Black and white Volta and their tributaries, such as Rivers Nasia and Daka www.ghana.gov.gh/.
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\n
\n
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3. Research methodology
\n
This study employed a mixed method which combined survey and in-depth interviews. The article is part of a larger study conducted on the fringe communities surrounding forest reserves in four forest districts in the Northern region of Ghana. Two reserves were randomly selected from each of the four forest districts, giving a total of eight sampled forest reserves. Proportionate sampling was then used to select communities whilst simple random sampling was employed in sampling household heads. With a target population of 14,343, a total of 370 households were sampled at 95% confidence level with a 5% margin of error. For detail methodology of the study, see Husseini et al. [4]. \nTable 1\n shows a summary of the sampled reserve and communities.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Forest districts
\n
\n
Forest reserves selected
\n
\n
Sampled communities
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Tamale
\n
\n
Water works F/R
\n
\n
Yohini, Zogbele, Choggu
\n
\n
\n
Sinsablegbini
\n
\n
Zakariyili, Zibogu,Tugu
\n
\n
\n
Walewale
\n
\n
Nasia Tributaries
\n
\n
Pigu, Pishigu, Sakpule
\n
\n
\n
Gambaga scarp West BLK I
\n
\n
Samini, Gbani, Langbinsi
\n
\n
\n
Yendi
\n
\n
Daka head water
\n
\n
Nakoa, Kpatili, Nawuni and Gushiegu
\n
\n
\n
Kumbo
\n
\n
Kpatugri, Juanayili, Pusuga
\n
\n
\n
Damongo
\n
\n
Yakumbo
\n
\n
Old Buipe and Lito
\n
\n
\n
Damongo scarp
\n
\n
Damongo and Soalepe
\n
\n
\n
Total
\n
\n
8
\n
\n
23
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Forest districts, sampled reserves and communities for the study.
\n
Key informants comprised 13 forestry staff, 21 assembly members, 23 women’s group leaders (magazias), 23 chiefs, 1 representative from stool lands and the head of the CFM Unit (CFMU) of the Resource Management Support Centre (RMSC) of FC, summing up to 82 key informants.
\n
Quantitative data was collected using structured interview schedule while qualitative data was obtained by in-depth interviews. The quantitative data was analyzed with Statistical Product for Service Solution (SPSS) version 16 software, using descriptive statistics such as frequency tables and percentages. The results from the in-depth interviews were categorized into appropriate themes and analyzed through discourse analysis.
\n
\n
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4. Results and discussion
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\n
4.1 Awareness of tenure rights and management of forest reserves
\n
Kowero et al. [15] assert that enabling policies, legislation and institutional instruments like clear tenure rights, are important in promoting sustainable management of natural resources. The study revealed that 310 household heads (representing 83.8%) interviewed (\nTable 2\n) are of the opinion that forest reserves are owned by the state or the government whilst only 38 (10.3%) respondents think that forest reserves are owned by the community.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
District
\n
Category of ownership
\n
\n
\n
\n
Community owned
\n
State owned
\n
NGO owned
\n
The chief
\n
Total
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nFrequency/percentage\n
\n
\n
\n
Damango
\n
7 (18.4%)
\n
60 (19.4%)
\n
1 (16.7%)
\n
3 (18.8%)
\n
71 (19.2%)
\n
\n
\n
Tamale
\n
22 (57.9%)
\n
175 (56.5%)
\n
3 (50.0%)
\n
9 (56.2%)
\n
209 (56.5%)
\n
\n
\n
Walewale
\n
4 (10.5%)
\n
35 (11.3%)
\n
1 (16.7%)
\n
2 (12.5%)
\n
42 (11.4%)
\n
\n
\n
Yendi
\n
5 (13.2%)
\n
40 (12.9%)
\n
1 (16.7%)
\n
2 (12.5%)
\n
48 (13.0%)
\n
\n
\n
\nTotal\n
\n
\n38 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n310 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n6 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n16 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n370 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Households’ awareness about ownership of forest reserves.
\n
It was also found that, of the 370 household heads interviewed, 306 of them (representing 82.7%) believe that forest reserves are managed by the Forest Services Division (FSD) staff while 64 of them (representing 17.3%) are of the opinion that forest reserves are either managed by community and FSD, district assembly or traditional rulers (\nTable 3\n).
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
District
\n
Category of stakeholders managing forest reserve
\n
\n
\n
\n
Forest service division
\n
Community and FSD
\n
District assembly
\n
Traditional rulers
\n
Total
\n
\n\n\n
\n
\nFrequencies/percentages\n
\n
\n
\n
Damango
\n
60 (19.6%)
\n
7 (25.9%)
\n
4 (17.4%)
\n
0 (0.0%)
\n
71 (19.2%)
\n
\n
\n
Tamale
\n
175 (57.2%)
\n
12 (44.4%)
\n
13 (56.5%)
\n
9 (64.3%)
\n
209 (56.5%)
\n
\n
\n
Walewale
\n
36 (11.8%)
\n
2 (7.4%)
\n
3 (13.0%)
\n
1 (7.1%)
\n
42 (11.4%)
\n
\n
\n
Yendi
\n
35 (11.4%)
\n
6 (22.2%)
\n
3 (13.0%)
\n
4 (28.6%)
\n
48 (13.0%)
\n
\n
\n
\nTotal\n
\n
\n306 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n27 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n23 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n14 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n370 (100.0%)\n
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Household awareness about who manages the forest reserves.
\n
The key informants’ interview with chiefs revealed that with the exception of three chiefs (Gulkpe-Naa, the Pusuga naa and Kpatugri naa) who knew that forest reserves are owned by the traditional authorities, 17 of the sampled chiefs believe that forest reserves within their communities are owned by the state and managed by the FSD. The other three chiefs are of the opinion that reserves belong to District Assembly and managed by the government. Similarly, with the exception of the women leader (magazia) for Pusuga and the assembly person for Damongo, who knew that forest reserves are owned by traditional authorities, the rest (22 magazias and 22 assembly person) are of the opinion that forest reserves are owned by the state and managed by the FSD.
\n
These responses are a manifestation of the processes of development planning in Ghana which have generally been top-down and highly centralized. According to Tandoh-Offin [16], while there has been four development plans under the so-called decentralized development planning in Ghana, majority of the decisions and activities that inform all of these plans since 1992 have followed similar approaches as those before, where central government agencies continued to have dominance in the processes and activities. This results affirms Adjei et al. [17] assertion that although Ghana’s decentralized forest management intervention recognizes local authorities and creates the requisite democratic space for community representation in forest governance, failure of Forestry Commission (FC) to transfer adequate decision-making power and resources among other factors have collectively undermine local authorities’ capacity to be responsive and accountable to the collaborative process in forest management. To the extent that chiefs and assembly members are unaware of the ownership of forest reserves in their localities, tells the un-participatory nature of our so-called decentralized system of development planning.
\n
The above responses on ownership also show that fringe communities of forest reserves in Northern region are unaware of their tenure rights. Forest reserves in Ghana according to Boakye and Baffoe [18], are communally owned, but are held in trust by Government on behalf of the stool or skin landowners through the Forest Ordinance of 1927. According to Asare [19] ownership of forest is closely linked to the indigenous system of landownership. Land is communally owned and held in trust on behalf of the people through the stools and skins. Landowners therefore exert substantial control in deciding whether an area should be set aside for reservation. Though the national law grants the government the authority to constitute a reserve on any land it deems appropriate, landowners must be consulted through an arbitration process to take their concerns into consideration. What this means is that landowners whether stools or skins have immense power on setting aside an area as permanent forest estate and always have rights to revenue from the exploitation of the resource.
\n
This was confirmed by the key informants interview with the head of operations of stool lands in the region, who revealed that, all the forest reserves in the region are situated on skin lands with the overlords being the Yaa Naa (Dagbon land), the Nayiri (Mamprugu land), the Yagbun-wura (Gonja land) and the Bimbila Naa (Nanumba land). Unfortunately, the reality is that almost all chiefs and community members believe otherwise as there is no legal framework to that effect. The perception of the fringe communities about tenure rights of forest reserves upholds Brown’s [20] report that Ghana’s forest policies have not any legislative or tenurial change to stimulate the process of community involvement in forest management. It also agrees with the findings of Ahenkan and Boon [21] that consultation processes that led to the 1994 forest and wildlife policy had limited involvement of local communities. Further, it confirms the assertion by Boakye and Baffoe [18] that, even though Ghana’s forest reserves are supposed to be managed by both public and communal property regimes, management is leaned more to the former. State control often deprives fringe communities of access to forest resources due to their bureaucratic and centralized processes which distance them from management decisions and access to benefits.
\n
The lack of knowledge of communities about the ownership or tenure rights is indirectly contributing to their exclusion from forest management activities [4]. This may affect their commitment and cooperation toward any collaborative efforts.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Socioeconomic importance of forest reserves to fringe communities
\n
Collective action in solving natural resource problems is more likely when users are dependent on the resource system for a major portion of their livelihood and when users have a common understanding of the problem [6, 22]. Gibson et al. [23] also assert that the value people place on their benefits and losses from development projects is critical in motivating and increasing their commitments to project sustainability. In this study therefore, we sought the opinions of respondents on the benefits derived by their communities from the forest reserves as well as their use- rights and responsibilities.
\n
The survey revealed major benefit derived from the forest reserve which include; wood for charcoal and firewood, bush meat, herbal medicine, protection from rainstorm and poles for roofing. The least mentioned benefits include ropes, provision of shade, esthetics, and chew stick. \nTable 4\n shows a summary of the common benefits that are derived from the forest reserves by the fringe communities.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Major benefits
\n
Least mentioned benefits
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Wood for charcoal and firewood
\n
Ropes
\n
\n
\n
Bush meat
\n
Provision of shade
\n
\n
\n
Herbal medicine
\n
Esthetics
\n
\n
\n
Protection from rainstorm
\n
Income
\n
\n
\n
Poles for roofing
\n
Chew stick
\n
\n
\n
Thatch grass
\n
Stimulation of rain or good weather
\n
\n
\n
Grazing grounds for animals
\n
Sand winning for building purposes
\n
\n
\n
Fodder
\n
Forest serving as a hideout for wee smokers
\n
\n
\n
Food (fruits)
\n
\n
\n
\n
Water
\n
\n
\n
\n
Farmland
\n
\n
\n
\n
Honey
\n
\n
\n
\n
Using the reserve as a place of worship
\n
\n
\n
\n
Using the forest as a place of convenience
\n
\n
\n
\n
Using the reserve as recreational grounds
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
Summary of benefits derived from the forest reserves.
\n
Given the statement by Odera’s [24] that, sustained forest benefits to community members guarantees a successful collaborative forest management implementation, the enjoyment of aforementioned benefits by fringe communities in the study area is likely to boost their interest and commitment to any collaborative effort for sustainable management of the forest reserves. Notwithstanding that, the survey also revealed that not all the above benefits are enjoyed legally. Some community members harvest quantities beyond what is enjoyed on them. The study therefore sought views of both household respondents and key informants on communities’ rights to use the forest reserves.
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Admitted rights of communities to the forest reserves
\n
Admitted rights are customary rights enjoyed by communities and individuals living close to forest reserve at the time of reservation when they are not seen as harmful to the forest. These rights include cultural and religious rights such as entry into the reserve to perform some cultural rites ([25], p. 29). The household survey revealed that majority 262 of the respondents (70.8%) admitted to having the right to freely enter the forest reserves whilst the remaining 108 (29.2%) said they do not have free access to forest reserves. The most common reasons given by the 29.2% (108) of household heads who said they are not allowed entry into the forest reserves are that, they are denied because:
\n
Some members destroy the forest by cutting down trees for fire wood; the forest reserve is not for the community; if people are allowed to enter the forest freely, they can destroy the reserve; forest staff feel unsafe to let local people enter freely due to past experience with encroachers; and finally that some members go into the forest reserves to sell illegal drugs like marijuana.
\n
These reasons by those who said they are denied entry into the reserves may suggest that some members are sometimes not allowed to enter the reserve not because they do not have the right, but due to the possible illegal activities they may carry out in the reserve. This is evident in the list of benefits (\nTable 4\n) enjoyed by communities which included harvesting of wood for charcoal and firewood for sale. As indicated by Marfo [26] the statutory law only recognizes “customary” access and use rights for domestic purposes. Therefore it is illegal for fringe communities to access non-timer forest products for commercial purposes. However, when respondents were asked about their admitted rights (\nTable 5\n) 78.4% of them admitted to their communities having rights to harvest medicinal plants, 70% admitted to collecting edible fruits like shea and dawadawa, 60.3% admitted to harvesting thatch grass for roofing and 54.6% admitted to harvesting firewood for domestic purposes. \nTable 5\n shows the admitted rights enjoyed by the fringe communities.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Harvest firewoodfor domestic use?
\n
Collect shea and dawadawa fruits?
\n
Harvest medicinal plants?
\n
Harvest thatch for roofing?
\n
\n
\n
\n
Yes (Freq/%)
\n
No (Freq/%)
\n
Yes (Freq/%)
\n
No (Freq/%)
\n
Yes (Freq/%)
\n
No (Freq/%)
\n
Yes (Freq/%)
\n
No (Freq/%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Damongo
\n
71 (35.1%)
\n
0 (0.0%)
\n
71 (27.4%)
\n
0 (0.0%)
\n
70 (24.1%)
\n
1 (1.2%)
\n
64 (28.7%)
\n
7 (4.8%)
\n
\n
\n
Tamale
\n
77 (38.1%)
\n
132 (78.6%)
\n
106 (40.9%)
\n
103 (92.8%)
\n
131 (45.2%)
\n
78 (97.5%)
\n
77 (34.5%)
\n
132 (89.8%)
\n
\n
\n
Walewale
\n
26 (12.9%)
\n
16 (9.5%)
\n
41 (15.8%)
\n
1 (0.9%)
\n
41 (14.1%)
\n
1 (1.2%)
\n
41 (18.4%)
\n
1 (0.7%)
\n
\n
\n
Yendi
\n
28 (13.9%)
\n
20 (11.9%)
\n
41 (15.8%)
\n
7 (6.3%)
\n
48 (16.6%)
\n
0 (0.0%)
\n
41 (18.4%)
\n
7 (4.8%)
\n
\n
\n
Total
\n
\n(54.6%)202 (100%)\n
\n
\n168 (100%)\n
\n
\n(70%)259 (100%)\n
\n
\n111 (100%)\n
\n
\n(78.4%)290 (100%)\n
\n
\n80 (100%)\n
\n
\n(60.3%)223 (100%)\n
\n
\n147 (100%)\n
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Responses on admitted rights enjoined by the fringe communities.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Response from Forestry Staff on Admitted Rights of Communities
\n
Like the household heads, the interviews with the district forest managers revealed that fringe communities in the study area have the right of access into the reserve (using the right paths) and the right to harvest non-timber forest products for domestic use such as thatch grass, medicinal plants, dry wood for firewood, controlled grazing, shea nuts, dawadawa fruits and canes. However, due to abuse of rights for controlled grazing, it is no more allowed in the reserves. Some forest guards believe that communities are entitled to harvest non-timber forest products, but these rights are sometimes abused. One of the forest guards replied as follows:
\n\n
\n“Community members are entitled to harvest dead wood, thatch grass, fodder, chew stick, and collect shea and dawadawa fruits without any conditions. These rights to some extent boost the interest of some good Samaritans to help in protecting the forest reserve but some community members sometimes abuse the rights” (Forest guard—Yendi district).\n
\n\n
In contrast to the views of the district managers and some forest guards, four of the eight forest guards interviewed are of the opinion that farmers do not have any right to collect any product from the reserves because those rights are confined to only off-reserve woodlands (woodlands outside reserves).
\n
In reality, the responses from these four forest guards only imply that they do not understand what user-rights are, or are unaware of the user-rights of communities over forest reserves. The lack of awareness of forest guards may serve as the basis for abuse of use-rights of communities (by way of access restriction to forest reserves) and that can be a source of conflict between them and community members.
\n
A chi- square test of independence on household responses on admitted rights gave p-value of 0.000. Being smaller than the alpha value of 0.05, a p-value of 0.000 indicate that there is significance differences between the forest districts with regards to respondents’ views on their rights over the forest reserves. For instance, \nTable 5\n shows that for harvesting of fruits and medicinal plants, almost all the respondents in Damongo, walewale and Yendi answered in the affirmative whilst for Tamale 37.3% think otherwise. The trend is different with regards to harvesting of firewood for domestic use, where all the respondents from Damongo district answered in the affirmative with only 36.8% (77) of the respondents in Tamale district answering in the affirmative. This differences are probably because some community members do not know their rights. It may also be due to the over protective attitude of forest guards in the Tamale district as compared to those in other districts. Tamale Metropolis is the most concentrated in terms of population density and also the most urbanized district in the region, it has the highest proportion (14.3%) of the economically active population in the Northern region [13]. As such there is a likely need for more land for development, hence the need for tight precautions against encroachment. This could be a good reason to make forest guards in the Metropolis over protective of the forest reserves.
\n
\n
\n
6. Views of chiefs, magazias and assembly persons on admitted rights
\n
The key informant interview with chiefs partly confirms the responses from the household survey. Sixteen out of the 23 chiefs admitted to their communities having user-rights though sometimes with difficulties. The remaining seven chiefs (six from the Walewale district and one from Tamale district) indicated that their communities do not have any use- rights to the reserves. Similarly, 16 out of the 23 “magazias” (women leaders) interviewed admitted to their community members having rights to collect some firewood and some non-wood forest products for domestic purposes. It was revealed by the “magazias” that the rights of women differ from that of men. Whereas women usually fetch water from the streams in the reserves, gather vegetables and fruits and harvest firewood for domestic use, men are allowed to hunt, harvest termites (for fowls), poles, thatch, as well as harvest firewood for sale.
\n
The responses from some household heads, chiefs and magazias who indicated their communities do not have user-rights to the reserves show they are ignorant of their rights. Their responses could be attributed to their exclusion from management decisions or due to lack of awareness of communities’ rights by the forest guards who blatantly restrict communities’ access to the reserves. This is manifested in the responses of some forest guards about their knowledge on communities’ right to the reserves in the following paragraph.
\n
When asked about the knowledge on user-rights of communities the following were some of the responses from the forest guards:
\n\n
\n“Community members do not have any rights to the reserves. Farmers only have right to apply for land to farm through the plantation programme” (Forest guard—Walewale district)\n
\n\n\n
\n“There is no user-rights for communities apart from farming under the national plantation programme. They should go outside the reserve for whatever they want until such a time that it may be possible for us to allow them into the reserve for some resources” (Forest guard-Tamale district).\n
\n\n
The above responses from some forest guards point to the fact that administration of forest reserves in the study area is not participatory. To the extent that frontline staffs of FSD believe that fringe communities do not have any user-rights to forest reserves, shows FSD is still holding onto the “command and control” system of management as was reported by Husseini et al. [4]. Moreover, because some community members are unaware of their rights over the forest reserves, they have come to accept the denial of their rights as the norm and so they do not challenge the status quo. The likely result of this denial is illegal access of the forest resources by community members since there is no motivation for them to protect the forest reserves. A situation which downfalls one of the purposes of the revised Forest and Wildlife policy (2012) as stated in its policy strategic direction Section 4.1 Subsection 4.1.2, clause f, which seeks to define forest and tree rights in all kinds of forests and ownership systems (2012, p. 28).
\n
\n
6.1 Social responsibility agreement (SRA)
\n
A social responsibility agreement (SRA) may be defined as an agreement capable of being enforced in a court of law which imposes a duty on a timber contractor to provide certain acceptable social amenities to the communities whose forest the contractor operates to the tune of 5% of the annual royalties payable by the contractor. These agreements are ways of ensuring that all Timber Utilization Contract activities are done in a more socially responsible way that respect the rights of the land owners. It is usually attached as a schedule to the contract, which is legally binding. SRAs are negotiated by the FSD with the affected communities in advance of the contract being advertised ([25], p. 33).
\n
When respondents were asked whether they enjoy social responsibility benefits from the reserves, 342 of them (representing 92.4%) admitted they do not benefit whilst 28 (7.6%) indicated they benefit. The reasons given by the 28 (7.6%) respondents, who answered in the affirmative, are that it is their social responsibility to protect the forest from intruders and fire outbreaks. Others think that their SRA is the benefits they get from the reserve like firewood, grazing fields, hunting and football pitches. Certainly, it is clear from the reasons given by the few (7.6%) who claim their communities enjoy SRA that, they do not understand the concept of SRA or the facility does not exist at all as indicated by the majority.
\n
For the 342 (92.4%) who answered in the negative, some of them indicated that it was the first time they were hearing about SRA. Others said that the tree species in the Northern region are not attractive enough for exploitation due to the unfavorable climate, to warrant such social responsibility benefits. Obviously, the latter reason affirms the climate and vegetation of the region, ie. relatively dry with a single rainy season and Guinea savannah [14], which does not support the growth of tall timber tree species. Further, the interview with the forestry staff revealed that, forest reserves in the region were gazetted mainly for protective purposes and so little or negligible exploitation goes on in them. This result also agrees with Mashall [27] that the functions of forest reserves in the Northern territories were for the conservation of water supplies, shelterbelts, and prevention of erosion, shelterbelts and domestic supply of fuel wood, poles and possibly the production of a limited amount of sawn timber. This implies that production of commercial timber was from the unset not the main objective for forest reservation in the study area.
\n
Similar to the views of household heads and the forestry staff, response chiefs, assembly persons and Magazias revealed that fringe communities do not enjoy any social responsibility benefits from the forest reserves. These responses were further confirmed by the head of operations of stool lands in the region, who revealed that due to the non-productive nature of forest reserves in the region, land owners do not receive any royalties or SRA from the reserves. According to him, most revenue from the skin lands in the region come from ground rents, compensation and annual rents. These are fees taken for use of land for farming, residential, commercial and other uses related to physical development. The head of operations of stool lands in the region believes that this situation derails the interest of the chiefs in the reserves.
\n
His response confirms Oduro’s [3] observation that the current forest and wildlife policy is silent on how to reward owners of forests, zoned for permanent protection. The author argues that although owners of production forests receive royalties, those whose forests have been designated for permanent protection and for environmental benefits do not receive any. The lack of social responsibility benefits for fringe communities is a hindrance to their allegiance to any effort toward CFM. Among the reasons for community participation in CFM is to secure access to a given forest and use rights as well as create new sources of income for communities [6]. Therefore, the rights of fringe communities in Northern region have to be secured if their commitment in the collaborative management of forest reserves is to be guaranteed.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Responsibilities of communities to the management of forest reserves
\n
Fringe communities do not only have rights but also have the duties and roles in protecting forests within their areas, under the law and Constitution of Ghana. Section 19 of the LI 1649 places upon the land owner a responsibility not to allow the use of unregistered chainsaw for cutting trees or sawing timber on his or her land. As such, communities have the obligation to control the extent of forest exploitation so that the very important roles played by the forest resources can continue [25]. Households views were therefore sought on what they think are the responsibilities of community members to the management of forest reserves. \nTable 6\n shows the responses on what households perceive as responsibilities of their communities toward management of forest reserves.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
District
\n
Weeding as a responsibility of community members
\n
Boundary clearing as a responsibility of community members
\n
Nursing seedlings as a responsibility of community members
\n
Boundary patrolling as a responsibility of community members
\n
Fire control as a responsibility of community members
\n
Boundary planting as a responsibility of community members
\n
Planting trees as a responsibility of community members
\n
\n
\n
Yes (%)
\n
No (%)
\n
Yes (%)
\n
No (%)
\n
Yes (%)
\n
No (%)
\n
Yes (%)
\n
No (%)
\n
Yes (%)
\n
No (%)
\n
Yes (%)
\n
No (%)
\n
Yes (%)
\n
No (%)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Damango
\n
32 (19.5%)
\n
39 (19.0%)
\n
54 (24.2%)
\n
17 (11.6%)
\n
12 (11.8)
\n
59 (22.0%)
\n
22 (15.4%)
\n
49 (21.6%)
\n
71 (24.1%)
\n
0 (0.0%)
\n
26 (17.0%)
\n
45 (20.7%)
\n
67 (24.5%)
\n
4 (4.2%)
\n
\n
\n
Tamale
\n
78 (47.6%)
\n
131 (63.6%)
\n
103 (46.2%)
\n
106 (72.1%)
\n
49 (48.0%)
\n
160 (59.7%)
\n
68 (47.5%)
\n
141 (62.1%)1
\n
136 46.3%)
\n
73 (96.1%)
\n
72 (47.1%)
\n
137 (63.1%)
\n
123 (44.9%)
\n
86 (89.6%)
\n
\n
\n
Walewale
\n
24 (14.6%)
\n
18 (8.7%)
\n
29 (13.0%)
\n
13 (8.8%)
\n
16 (15.7%)
\n
26 (9.7%)
\n
22 (15.4%)
\n
20 (8.8%)
\n
40 (13.6%)
\n
2 (2.6%)
\n
24 (15.7%)
\n
18 (8.3%)
\n
39 (14.2%)
\n
3 (3.1%)
\n
\n
\n
Yendi
\n
30 (18.3%)
\n
18 (8.7%)
\n
37 (16.6%)
\n
11 (7.5%)
\n
25 (24.5%)
\n
23 (8.6%)
\n
31 (21.7%)
\n
17 (7.5%)
\n
47 (16.0%)
\n
1 (1.3%)
\n
31 (20.3%)
\n
17 (7.8%)
\n
45 (16.4%)
\n
3 (3.1%)
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Household perception about communities’ responsibilities to forest reserves.
\n
The study showed that only three management activities namely boundary clearing, fire control and planting of trees in the reserves were admitted by the majority of households’ respondents as the responsibilities of their communities toward the management of forest reserves (\nTable 6\n).
\n
Similarly, responses from the key informants’ interviews with the district forest managers, Forest guards, chiefs, assembly members and magazias revealed fringe communities’ roles in the management of forest reserves to be provision of labour for plantation establishment and contract boundary clearing. These results are not surprising since these are the activities that FSD usually involves community members as reported by Husseini et al. [4].
\n
Communities seeing these activities as their responsibilities are a positive condition that can be used as a means to awaken their interest and commitment to the collaborative management of forest reserves. That notwithstanding, it can be realized from \nTable 6\n that majority of the households do not regard the remaining four activities (Weeding, nursing of seedlings, boundary patrol and boundary planting) as their community responsibilities. This mind set defeats the very purpose of the revised forest and wildlife policy (2012, p. 27) which has in its policy strategic direction 4.1 Subsection 4.1.1 clause d; to “support local communities, non-governmental Organizations including women and youth to receive training that allow them meet their objective and assume optimal management responsibilities.”
\n
The implication is that in the absence of contract boundary cleaning or fire outbreak, and in the absence of plantation programs like the Modified taungya system in the reserves, communities do not bear any responsibility toward the management of forest reserves. Lack of shared responsibilities among the communities and forestry department coupled with communities’ perception that forest reserves belong to the state, is likely to hinder any effort toward collaborative management. Collaborative forest management is most beneficial if both parties take on responsibilities that maximize their capacity ([28, 29], pp. 55–77).
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion and Recommendations
\n
We conclude that fringe communities enjoy some benefits and limited access to the forest reserves, but they do not know their tenure rights, user-rights and responsibilities to the reserves. Most front-line staff of FSD are unaware of the user-rights of fringe communities which is the reason for denying access of the reserves to community members. Improving collaborative management means changing the perceptions and attitudes of communities and frontline staff of FSD, respectively, and securing communities rights to the reserves.
\n
\n
8.1 Recommendations
\n
To serve the interest of fringe communities and secure their commitment to responsible collaborative management of forest reserves, we recommend the following: The forestry department should educate community members on their tenure, rights and responsibilities to the reserves and involve them in the processes of decision-making. FSD in collaboration with collaborative forest management Unit (CFMU) of the Ghana forestry commission, should improve the capacity of their frontline staff on the rights and responsibilities of communities in CFM so as to avoid the unlawful denial of fringe communities of what rightfully belong to them.
\n
Forest Fringe communities in the Northern region are not enjoying social responsibility benefits and royalties because the forest reserves were gazetted mainly to protect major rivers within the region. Meanwhile the beneficiaries of these rivers are the Ghana Water Company and the Volta River Authority who are making huge financial gains against the restrictions of right to communities. It is thus recommended that Government ensures that the two beneficiary companies give at least 0.5% of their revenue to FC, fringe communities and land owners as their social responsibility contributions. The part given to the FC could be used to develop the forest reserves through plantation development and to facilitate their activities with communities. That of the communities could be used to provide social amenities for them while the part for the land owners will boost their interest and motivate them to support their communities in sustainable management of forest reserves. This will, in the long term, benefit the two companies since the continuous protection of the rivers depends on the sustainable management of these forest reserves; the success of which in turn depends on the continuous support and cooperation of the fringe communities.
\n
\n
\n\n',keywords:"collaborative forest management, rights, responsibilities, sustainability, northern region",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73178.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73178.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73178",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73178",totalDownloads:356,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 21st 2020",dateReviewed:"August 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 8th 2020",datePublished:"May 27th 2021",dateFinished:"September 11th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The goal for collaborative forest management (CFM) is to attain sustainable management of forest resources for sustainable development. Securing rights and responsibilities of forest fringe communities is central to achieving effective and sustainable management of forest reserves. This article discusses the rights and responsibilities of the forest fringe communities under Ghana’s collaborative Forest Management (CFM) in the Northern region and explores the levels of awareness of communities of these rights and responsibilities. The survey employed a mixed method research design with community members and forestry staff as key respondents. We found that although Forest fringe communities are entitled to some admitted rights including access to the reserves and the right to harvest nontimber forest products such as thatch, medicinal plants, dry wood for firewood and edible fruits mainly for domestic use; in reality, access to such rights is somehow restricted by the forestry staff. Fringe communities have limited knowledge about their rights and responsibilities to the forest reserve. For sustainability, educating fringe communities on their rights and responsibilities to forest reserves and involving them in management decisions is recommended as the surest ways of securing their interests in CFM.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73178",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73178",signatures:"Rikiatu Husseini, Stephen B. Kendie and Patrick Agbesinyale",book:{id:"9664",type:"book",title:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",slug:"environmental-issues-and-sustainable-development",publishedDate:"May 27th 2021",bookSignature:"Suriyanarayanan Sarvajayakesavalu and Pisit Charoensudjai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9664.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-917-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-916-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-928-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"237021",title:"Dr.",name:"Suriyanarayanan",middleName:null,surname:"Sarvajayakesavalu",slug:"suriyanarayanan-sarvajayakesavalu",fullName:"Suriyanarayanan Sarvajayakesavalu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"321797",title:"Dr.",name:"Rikiatu",middleName:null,surname:"Husseini",fullName:"Rikiatu Husseini",slug:"rikiatu-husseini",email:"rikihuss@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"321801",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen B.",middleName:null,surname:"Kendie",fullName:"Stephen B. Kendie",slug:"stephen-b.-kendie",email:"stephenkendie@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Cape Coast",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"321802",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Agbesinyale",fullName:"Patrick Agbesinyale",slug:"patrick-agbesinyale",email:"agbesi38@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Cape Coast",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theoretical framework interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The study area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Research methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Awareness of tenure rights and management of forest reserves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Socioeconomic importance of forest reserves to fringe communities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.3 Admitted rights of communities to the forest reserves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Response from Forestry Staff on Admitted Rights of Communities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Views of chiefs, magazias and assembly persons on admitted rights",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1 Social responsibility agreement (SRA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Responsibilities of communities to the management of forest reserves",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"8. Conclusion and Recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"8.1 Recommendations",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nMinistry of Lands and Forestry. Ghana Forest and Wildlife Policy: Accra Ghana. 2012. Available from: https://www.fcghana.org/library_info.php?doc=43&publication:Forest%20&%20Wildlife%20Policy&id=15 [Accessed: February 5, 2020]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nForestry Commission of Ghana. Forestry Sector Programmes: Savannah Resources Management Project. 2007\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nOduro KA. Multi-purpose Rainforest Management in Ghana: An Exploratory Study2002. p. 63\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nHusseini R, Kendie SB, Agbesinyale P. Community participation in the management of forest reserves in the northern region of Ghana. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology. 2015;23(3):245-256. DOI: 10.1080/13504509.2015.1112858\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nMetz B, Davidson OR, Bosch PR, Dave R, Meyer LA, editors. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press; 2007\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nCarter J, Gronow J. Recent Experience in Collaborative Management. A Review Paper. 2005. 57 p. Published by Center for International Forestry Research. Available from: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org\n\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Guidelines For the Management of Tropical Forests 1. The Production of Wood (FAO Forestry Paper 135). Based on the Work of Ian Armitage. Forest Resources Division FAO Forestry Department. Food and Agriculture Organiation of the United Nations Rome; 1998\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nFood and Agriculture Organization. (a) FAO Forest Resources Assessment 2000 definitions; (b) Reports related to Elements discussed by the Inter-Governmental Panel on Forests at its Second Meeting (Geneva, 11–12 March 1996) and Aird, Paul (compiled by). 1994. Conservation for the Sustainable Development of Forests World-wide: A Compendium of Concepts and Term. The Forestry Chronicle Vol. 70(6):666-674; 2000\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nForestry Commission of Ghana. Forest and Wildlife Policy, 1994. Accra: Forestry Commission; 1994. pp. 1-7\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nKrejcie RV, Morgan DW. Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1970;30:607-610\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nBuchanan JM, Tullock G. The Calculus of Consent. Michigan: University of Michigan Press; 1962\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nNsenkyire EO. Forestry Department’s Strategies for Sustainable Savannah Woodland Management1999. p. 11\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nGhana Statistical Services (GSS). 2010 Population and Housing Census Regional Report. 2013. Available from: www.statsghana.gov.gh on 26/07/2016 at 13:15 pm\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nGhana Statistical Service. Population Dynamics—2010 Population and Housing Census. 2010. Available from: http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/pop_stats.html [Accessed: December 16, 2018]\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nKowero G, Campbell BM, Sumaila UR. Policies and Governance Structures in Woodlands of Southern Africa. Bogor: CIFOR; 2003. p. 438\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nTandoh-Offin P. Development planning in Ghana since 1992: Implications for the decentralization process. International Relations and Diplomacy. ISSN: 2328-2134. 2013;1(2):93-107\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nAdjei PO, Agyei FK, Adjei JO. Decentralized forest governance and community representation outcomes: Analysis of the modified taungya system in Ghana. Environment, Development and Sustainability. 2020;22:1187-1209. DOI: 10.1007/s10668-018-0243-7\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nBoakye KA, Baffoe KA. Trends in Forest Ownership, Forest Resource Tenure and Institutional Arrangements: Case Study from Ghana. 2010. 23 p. Available from: www.fao.org/forestry/12505.01d [Retrieved: October 10, 2011]\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nAsare A. Operational Guidelines on Community Forest Committee. Ghana: Resource Management Support Centre; 2000. pp. 3-23\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nBrown D. Principles and Practice of Forest Co-Management: Evidence from West Central Africa. European Union Tropical Forestry Paper 2. London; Brussels: ODI; European Commission; 1999\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nAhenkan A, Boon E. Assessing the impact of forest policies and strategies on promoting the development of non-timber forest products in Ghana. Journal of Biodiversity. 2010;1(2):85-102\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nOstrom E. Self-Governance and Forest Resources. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 20. Bogor: CIFOR; 1999\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nGibson C, Williams JT, Ostrom E. Local enforcement and better forests. World Development. 2005;33(2):273-284\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nOdera JA. Changing forest management paradigm in Africa: A case for community based forest management systems. Research programme of sustainable use of dry land biodiversity (RPSUD). Discovery and Innovation. 2009;21:35\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nCenter for Public Interest Law (CEPIL). Handbook for Paralegals in Forest Communities in Ghana. Prepared by Center for Public Interest Law (CEPIL), Accra, Ghana. London, United Kingdom: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED); 2009. pp. 1-42\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nMarfo E. Security of Tenure and Community Benefits under Collaborative Forest Management Arrangements in Ghana. A country Report. CIFOR/RRI Research Report; 2009\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nMashall RC. Forestry in the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast. 1945\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nDiez JJ, Martín-García B. Sustainable Forest Management: Case Studies. BoD—Books on Demand, 11 Apr 2012—Technology & Engineering. 2012. 272 p\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nScott P. Collaborative Forest Management—The Process. A Paper at the National Workshop on Community Forestry. Kampala, Uganda. 2000\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rikiatu Husseini",address:"rikihuss@yahoo.com;, rhusseini@uds.edu.gh",affiliation:'
Department of Forestry and Forest Resources Management, Faculty of Natural Resources and Environment, University for Development Studies, Ghana
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Department of Integrated Development Studies, Cape Coast-Ghana, Ghana
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DORA is a worldwide initiative covering all scholarly disciplines which recognizes the need to improve the ways in which the outputs of scholarly research are evaluated and seeks to develop and promote best practice. To date it has been signed by over 1500 organizations and around 14,700 individuals.
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Amazon is the world’s largest online retailer and cloud services provider. IntechOpen books have been available on Amazon since 2017, guaranteeing more visibility for our Authors and Academic Editors.
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River Valley Technology
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River Valley Technology is the world’s first XML-based publishing solution from submission to peer review to production and to final hosting, giving full control to publishers, with full transparency of data.
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Figshare
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Figshare is an online open access repository where researchers can preserve and share their research outputs, including figures, datasets, images, and videos. It is free to upload content and free to access, in adherence to the principle of open data.
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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"82751",title:"Mitochondria-Endoplasmic Reticulum Interaction in Central Neurons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105738",signatures:"Liliya Kushnireva and Eduard Korkotian",slug:"mitochondria-endoplasmic-reticulum-interaction-in-central-neurons",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82716",title:"Advanced glycation end product induced endothelial dysfunction through ER stress: Unravelling the role of Paraoxonase 2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106018",signatures:"Ramya Ravi and Bharathidevi Subramaniam Rajesh",slug:"advanced-glycation-end-product-induced-endothelial-dysfunction-through-er-stress-unravelling-the-rol",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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