\r\n\tEqually important are the consequences deriving from the extraordinary nature of the present times. The COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictive measures to contain the infection (lockdown and "physical distancing" in primis) have revolutionized the lives, and a distortion/modification of habits, rhythms, arrangements will continue to be necessary. \r\n\tGovernments have implemented a series of actions to mitigate the spread of infections and alleviate the consequent pressure on the hospital system. On the other hand, the Covid-19 pandemic has caused a series of other cascading effects that will probably be much more difficult to mitigate and which expose to complex consequences. The past two years have brought many challenges, particularly for healthcare professionals, students, family members of COVID-19 patients, people with mental disorders, the frail, the elderly, and more generally those in disadvantaged socio-economic conditions, and workers whose livelihoods have been threatened. Indeed, the substantial economic impact of the pandemic may hinder progress towards economic growth as well as progress towards social inclusion and mental well-being.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tAlthough in all countries the knowledge on the impact of the pandemic on mental health is still limited and mostly derived from experiences only partially comparable to the current epidemic, such as those referring to the SARS or Ebola epidemics, it is likely that the demand for intervention it will increase significantly in the coming months and years. The extraordinary growth of scientific research in the field of neuroscience now offers the possibility of a new perspective on the relationship between mind and brain and generates new scenarios in understanding the long wave of the pandemic and in the prospects for treatment. Moreover, the pandemic also has led to opportunities to implement remote monitoring and management interventions.
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tOverall this volume will address the complex relationship existing between COVID-19, mental health, acquired knowledge, and possible interventions taking a highly multidisciplinary approach; from physiological and psychobiological mechanisms, and neuromodulation through medical treatment, psychosocial interventions, and self-management.
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Devoted researcher of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Aging, appointed Assistant Specialty Chief Editor of Frontiers in Psychology -Neuropsychology and Scientific Director of the Italian National Institute of Philanthropy.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An academic and industrial investigator involved in basal research, drug discovery, and development of potential psychiatric drugs, covering depression, anxiety, OCD, schizophrenia, and sexual dysfunctions.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.png",biography:"Sara Palermo has an MSc in clinical psychology and a PhD in experimental neuroscience. 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1. Introduction
In rural and urban areas of most emergent countries, the application of sewerage and wastewater for irrigation is a regular practice. In these areas, polluted water is often the only supply of water for irrigation. Yet small farmers often prefer wastewater where other water sources are also available because wastewater has high nutrient content which may reduce or even eliminate the need for other costly chemical fertilizers [1]. The use of wastewater for crop growth is a centuries old practice in many arid and semi-arid regions of the globe [2]. Farmers often have no alternative, so they depend on unprocessed wastewater as there is no wastewater collection and treatment and freshwater is either out of stock or too expensive [3, 4]. The uses of wastewater in agriculture create key risks to the health of the community due to chemical and microbial contaminants. Wastewater use can also produce ecological risks in terms of soil and groundwater contamination. Irrigation with wastewater can have a number of benefits and environmental applications if appropriately planned, implemented, and managed [5].
Many wastewater irrigators are generally landless people who are not land-owning farmers; they lease small plots to grow income-generating crops like vegetables that flourish when watered with nutrient-rich sewage [6]. Across Africa, Asia, and Latin America, the micro-economies of sewage water support a large number of low-income individuals. Stoppage or overregulation of these practices could take away the only income source of numerous landless people. However, in these countries, the sewage water is not processed before use for irrigation. Wastewater treatment is generally carried out in developed countries, where major investment on wastewater treatment has been made over the past 40–50 years in order to achieve high treatment levels. Most sewage water is treated in North America, usually up to secondary and, in numerous cases, up to tertiary levels [7]. The USA has made improvement as a result of a financial support program in which 56 billion USD were allocated to local governments from 1972 to 1989 to construct secondary management amenities, but they changed these grants by state revolving funds for loans to municipalities [8].
Sewage treatment (Figure 1) is regarded as vital in affluent countries in order to guard human health and avoid pollution of rivers and lakes, but for the majority of developing countries, this solution is too costly. Therefore, in case of developing countries, application of wastewater in agriculture is a more reasonable option and economically sound than uninhibited removal of industrial and municipal effluents addicted to lakes and streams [4]. The sewage flows to a downstream location that is hazardous due to which the population inside the streams and water sources are at risk. Such risks can be decreased or proscribed by wastewater treatment in a wastewater treatment plant consisting of physical, chemical, and biological processes [9]. Wastewater treatment may also produce sludge, which is also risky for health because it is a polluted by-product and requires secure managing and removal [10].
Use of sewage water for irrigation has many applications (Figure 2), including crop irrigation, aquaculture, irrigation of landscape, and fake groundwater recharge [11]. This is one of the longest and well-known traditions in most parts of the world. According to estimation, the total area under wastewater irrigation is about 20 million hectares throughout the world [12]. It has been found that the maximum number of crop plants viz. lettuce, mangoes, tomatoes, and coconut are irrigated with sewage water, and a large quantity of this water is unprocessed [12]. Sewage and industrial wastewater is commonly used to water farming fields in developing countries including Pakistan [13, 14]. Sewage irrigation has proven beneficial effects on plant health and soil quality in countries having low water resources such as Mediterranean Basin and the Middle East, for instance, Bahrain, Cyprus, Kuwait, Malta, Israel, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates [15]. Numerous investigations have reported positive impacts of sewage irrigation on plants and soil properties. Wastewater can be used as an important plant nutrient source for soils with low fertility. Municipal wastewater could possibly be used for crop irrigation with negligible environmental concerns if it does not contain excessive heavy metals. Use of wastewater for irrigation purposes can decrease the necessity for fertilizers [16]. For these reasons, both treated and untreated wastewaters have been used for irrigation worldwide. Earlier studies, carried out in areas irrigated with wastewater over a long period of time, have confirmed improved soil biological activity and nutrient cycling as a result of the resulting input of easily degradable organic material and nutrients [4].
Figure 2.
Impacts of sewage water irrigation on plants and freshwater reservoirs.
The application of wastewater to cropland and forests is a smart option for disposal because it can improve the physical properties and nutrient content in soils. Wastewater can often contain substantial concentrations of organic and inorganic nutrients, for example, nitrogen and phosphate, which are crucial for crop growth. One possible advantage is that the soil microorganisms have been observed to have increased metabolic activity when a sewage effluent is reused in irrigation [17]. Castro et al. [18] reported that dry and fresh weight, average height, and diameter were significantly higher in treated wastewater-irrigated plants. The highest values were observed in the second crop season. El-Nahhal et al. [18] investigated the effects of sewage water on the growth of Chinese cabbage and found that the sewage water was effective in supplying the necessary nutrients required for the normal growth of plants and noted higher biomass in plants irrigated with wastewater as compared to fresh water. Castro et al. [19] reported significant increase in fresh and dry weights, average height, and diameter of Lactuca sativa irrigated with sewage water when compared to control. Alghobar et al. [20] reported improved chemical properties and fertility status of soils irrigated with sewage water. They also found enhanced growth in grass crop after irrigation with sewage water.
Safary and Hajrasoliha [21] carried out experiments on plants irrigated with sewage water and noted that after 7 years of irrigation with sewage significantly enhanced carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus contents and decreased soil salinity and sodicity. Rattan et al. [22] reported the beneficial effects of sewage effluents when applied to cereals, vegetables, and fodder crops. Singh et al. [23] used sewage water for irrigation of several crop plants including wheat, gram, palak, methi, and berseem. They recorded improvement in physiochemical properties of soil, nutrient stats of soil, and yield of crops as compared to plants irrigated with normal groundwater. Wang et al. [24] also noted that long-term irrigation with sewage water significantly enhanced soil micro- and macronutrient content that in turn enhanced plant growth. Recently, Khan and Bano [25] reported the beneficial effects of sewage irrigation on the total chlorophyll and carotenoids content of maize plant. They also recorded increased nutrient content in plants and soil.
To fully understand the vital issue of wastewater reuse with regard to benefits and mitigate the risks, this chapter was aimed at determining the effects of sewage on the growth parameters of plants and to review the natural ecological and engineered approaches for the treatment of sewage water before its application to irrigation. Regulations of wastewater reuse in different countries are also reviewed and discussed.
2. Natural ecological and engineered sewage treatment
Sewage treatment (Figures 3 and 4) is the process of eradicating microorganism, heavy metal, and other types of contaminants from wastewater. The practice of wastewater treatment varies from one region to another across the world. In developed countries, a centralized aerobic wastewater treatment, consisting of plants, has been carried out for both industrial and domestic wastewater. Sewage treatment using natural ecological approach has been carried out throughout the world because certain terrestrial and aquatic plants have the ability to accrue large quantities of certain metals in their shoots [26]. The use of wetland and aquatic plants, such as water velvet and duckweed for the removal of contaminants from the sewage water, is considered the most effective method for the removal of heavy metals.
Figure 3.
Biological treatment of wastewater for reuse in agriculture. (http://saleemindia.blogspot.com/2017/01/constructed-wetlands-for-sewage.html).
Figure 4.
Reuse of sewage water for irrigation after treatment.
Zayed et al. [27] tested the potential of duckweed for the removal of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Se and found that duckweed was a good accumulator of Cd, Se, and Cu. Zhu et al. [28] reported the dominant role of water hyacinth in the sewage treatment as this plant possesses a very good fibrous root system and a large biomass. They found that the water hyacinth was excellent in accumulation of organic and inorganic nutrients and trace elements including Cd, Pb, and Ag. Dos Santos and Lenzi [29] carried out experiments with aquatic Eiochhornia crassipes and found it useful for the removal of Pb from contaminated water. Wang et al. [30] investigated the role of five different wetland species including duckweed, sharp dock, water hyacinth, calamus, and water dropwort for their possible use in treating the polluted waters. They reported that water hyacinth and duckweed were good accumulators of Cd, water dropwort accumulated Hg, calamus was the best for the accumulation of Pb, while sharp dock was a good accumulator of N and P. Li et al. [31] conducted hydroponic experiment in order to investigate the role of three hydrophytes, that is, Gladiolus, Isoetes taiwanensis and Echinodorus amazonicus for the accumulation of Cd from contaminated water. They found that the Gladiolus was the best Cd accumulator as compared to other two plants. Lone et al. [32] examined the efficacy of Cu elimination from the contaminated water by Elsholtzia argyi and Elsholtzia splendens in hydroponics. The results show that Elsholtzia argyi showed better Cu phytofiltration than Elsholtzia splendens, which was associated with better ability to absorb higher Cu concentrations and translocation to shoots. Tangahu et al. [33] investigated the role of different wetland plant species for the treatment of sewage water. They found that most of the wetland species were capable for accumulation of N, P, Cd, Pb, and Hg.
Among the ferns, Pteris vitta has been identified as hyperaccumulator of As-contaminated soils and waters. It can accumulate up to 7500 mg of As/kg on a contaminated site without showing toxicity symptoms [34]. Trees have been recommended as a low-cost and ecologically sound solution for the remediation of heavy metals from sewage water. This ability of the trees is due to their large biomass, which can absorb large quantities of contaminants present in wastewater [35]. Plants remove contaminants from sewage water by one of the following methods:
Phytoextraction: Plants remove heavy metals and other pollutants from the water and soil as well as groundwater and concentrate them into their harvestable parts [36]. These plants accumulate contaminants from the water in above-ground shoot.
Phytodegradation: In phytodegradation process, the pollutants present in contaminated water are degraded by plants and associated microbes [37]. Plant roots in conjunction with their rhizospheric microorganisms are utilized to remediate soils irrigated with sewage water.
Phytostabilization: In this case, the availability and mobility of pollutants present in sewage are reduced by plants, thus reducing the risk of leaching of pollutants into groundwater [38].
Phytovolatilization: Plants volatilize pollutants present in sewage water. Plants extract volatile pollutants added in the soil due to irrigation with sewage water and volatilize them from the foliage [39].
Rhizofiltration: It is the removal of pollutants from the contaminated waters by accumulation into plant biomass. Several aquatic species including sharp dock, duckweed, and so on, have been identified and tested for the phytoremediation of heavy metals from the polluted water [40].
Besides these natural ecological treatments, other engineered approaches are also widely carried out worldwide for wastewater treatment to remove pathogen and other harmful substances. These include”.
Oxidation Ponds: Oxidation ponds are used for reducing the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of wastewater. This is a very effective and simple technology, which consists of a ring-shaped channel equipped with mechanical aeration devices. The wastewater is screened and aerated through these devices which circulates at 0.25–0.35 ms−1 [41].
Anaerobic Ponds: It is a biological treatment of wastewater in which naturally occurring bacteria are utilized for breaking the biodegradable compounds present in wastewater. These bacteria under anaerobic condition may remove high concentrations of BOD and chemical oxygen demand (COD). The presence of anaerobic bacteria in these ponds break the organic matter present in the effluents and thus release methane and CO2 whereby sludge is deposited at the bottom, while crust is formed on the surface [42].
Aerobic Ponds: In aerobic treatment of wastewater, bacteria and algae are used that maintain aerobic condition throughout its depth. The aerobic ponds may be shallow or aerated [43].
Trickling Filter: This technique is used to remove or reduce pathogen and level of nitrogen in the wastewater as pathogens present in wastewater may cause serious threats to humans mostly in developing countries of the world. This trickling filter is composed of some porous material like rocks, sledge, or plastic medium having large surface area and permeability. The microorganism in the wastewater gets attached with the filter media [44].
Activated Sludge System: This is a biological wastewater treatment, which is mainly used for the removal of biodegradable compounds and pathogens present in wastewater. Its efficiency depends on retention time, temperature, pH, and the presence of other biological flora present in wastewater [43, 45].
3. Regulations in the use of sewage water
The World Health Organization (WHO), the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the World Bank have reviewed the public health aspects concerning the use of sewage water for crop irrigation and prepared recommendations for the microbiological quality of treated wastewater used for this purpose. The limit of microorganism in sewage water used for irrigation of crop plants should not be more than 1000 fecal/100 ml of bacteria [46]. Similarly, the amount of other harmful substances in sewage water should be under minimal range. Rules and regulations in the use of sewage water vary from state to state and from country to country. In Pakistan, there is no national policy for the reuse of sewage water for crop irrigation. Furthermore, the industries do not follow the government guidelines, and there are also no government economic incentives for these industries. In Pakistan, the sewage water is used straightaway for agricultural purpose without any purification treatment. Only Islamabad and Karachi treat a minor portion (10%) of sewage water before disposal. All the effluents are discharged in Kabul River from various industries in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province [47]. In Lahore, a major city of Punjab province, only three industries have wastewater treatment plants. In some regions of the country, laws and regulations have been developed for the treatment of wastewater prior to use in irrigation, but their enforcement in reality is an issue due to the absence of resources and experience.
Problems in the disposition of wastewater tend to stem from distortions due to economy-wide policies, miscarriage of directed environmental policies, and failure of institution. Inefficient water pricing worsens the problem in urban areas, where water is provided free of charge, a policy that encourages the use of wastewater for irrigation. Similarly, environmental committees have been established, but their ability to deal with specified cases is very limited due to deficiency of staff [48].
In the USA, standards are set for the reuse of wastewater in agriculture. These standards vary from state to state. In California, strictest standards have been developed for the reuse of wastewater [49]. California, with the lengthiest history about the regulating of reclaimed wastewater in agriculture, which only permits high-quality effluents to be used on crops. Similarly, Arizona, Florida, Hawaii, and Texas have also active water reuse programs. These states developed comprehensive, numerical water quality criteria for different water uses, including crop irrigation. Florida usually has the limits of the reuse of reclaimed water for irrigation of crop plants that are skinned and cooked before consumption [50]. Billions of dollars are being spent on recycling of wastewater and reused in large quantities in different countries of the world (Figures 5 and 6).
Figure 5.
Expenditures on recycling and reuse technologies used for wastewater treatments (https://recycling.conferenceseries.com/).
Figure 6.
Reuse of wastewater per day in different countries of the world (http://nas-sites.org/waterreuse).
There have been no reports of contagious disease linked with agricultural reuse projects, and current criteria are considered to be acceptable in most states of the USA. Most states differentiate between produce from crops that are commercially treated or cooked before consumption, and need more strict water quality levels for produce crops. Yet, states differ in the manner in which wastewater irrigation can be implemented.
Microbiological standards for the harmless reuse of wastewater for irrigation in Latin America are varied as, for example, Brazil has no legislation. Argentina has a general reuse water law, which aimed to prevent surface water contamination which did not mention wastewater specifically [51]. Chile, introduced guidelines for the discharge of domestic and industrial effluents into rivers, lakes, and the sea; however, use of wastewater for irrigation has not been included in the legislation. Peru established roles for the reuse of wastewater after primary and secondary treatments; however, it has not established any bacterial nor nematode treatment. The Saudi Standards for effluents are strict and inadvertently enforce needless limitations on disposal and reuse of wastewater, which prevent its application for irrigation [52]. Some countries of the world have developed standards for wastewater reuse that only permit the controlled reuse of wastewater for irrigation of crop plants. Many of these are based on the WHO guidelines, including Mexico, France, Spain and Andalusia Province. Microbiological standards for wastewater reuse in agriculture have been established in Mexico over the last 20 years. In France, the Ministry of Health delivered a provisional regulation on the reuse of wastewater for irrigation. The WHO guidelines for the reuse of wastewater for agriculture and aquacultural purposes had been published in 1989, which suggest different guidelines for different water qualities dependent on the endpoint of discharge [53].
3.1. Challenging issues
The most challenging issue with the use of sewage water for irrigation is the infection of farmers and consumers exposed to wastewater. Besides this, the presence of organic and inorganic elements may also have human health risks. Farmers and their relatives using sewage water are exposed to health risks from parasitic worms, protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Some farmers cannot treat some of the health problems caused by pathogenic microorganisms due to weak economic conditions. Generally, farmers irrigating with wastewater have higher rates of helminth infections and, in addition, skin and nail problems may happen to farmers using wastewater [54]. Women are most vulnerable to these infections and mostly important target group. In several countries of the world, women offer much of the labor essential to produce vegetables and perform most of the weeding and transplanting that can expose them to long periods of contact with wastewater. Women usually cook meals, making chance for transferring pathogens to the family members if good hygiene is not sustained. In West Africa, where vegetables are produced in most of the countries, women dominate the marketing process, particularly retail, of most vegetables; thus, the main target group for risk reduction measures in markets [55]. Post-harvest infection in markets can be a vital issue disturbing public health, but the implication differs, which makes it an often ignored issue in the wastewater discussion [56].
Wastewater risks may be short or long term, depending on the resistance of humans and animals, while, in some cases, the impacts lies for a long period of time, especially in persons that continuously use wastewater. Beside human risks, continuous use of wastewater for irrigation results in soil salinity and sodicity. On the other hand, the presence of trace elements such as heavy metals, which are harmful for human health, can be found in sewage water effluents. The presence of microbial pollution becomes more severe with vegetables as many of them are consumed raw [57].
4. Water quality improvements
Preliminary improvements in water quality can be attained in several developing countries by at least primary treatment of sewage water, mainly where sewage water is used for irrigation. Secondary treatment can be applied at reasonable cost in some areas, using methods such as infiltration-percolation, constructed wetlands, waste-stabilization ponds and up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors [58]. It is vital to aim at standards, which can be attained in the local context. WHO guidelines provide complementary alternatives for wastewater treatment and control of human exposure. Storage of reclaimed water in reservoirs develops microbiological quality and provides peak-equalization capacity, which surges the consistency of supply and increases the rate of reuse [59, 60].
5. Conclusion
Use of sewage water for irrigation not only improves the growth rate of plants but also reduces the cost of chemical fertilizers. The application of wastewater to cropland and forests is a smart option for disposal because it can improve the physical properties and nutrient content in soils. However, the practice of sewage water pre-treatment is uncommon in most developing countries of the world due to which several health issues may occur. Sewage water should be treated prior to its reuse for agriculture in order to reduce the risks of harmful effects on human and animal health. One of the viable solutions for developing countries seems to be the use of natural ecological approaches.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"sewage water, developing countries, nutrients, chemical fertilizer",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60917.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60917.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60917",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60917",totalDownloads:2132,totalViews:293,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,totalAltmetricsMentions:2,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:51,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"December 2nd 2017",dateReviewed:"February 14th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 25th 2018",dateFinished:"April 21st 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In rural and urban areas of most emergent countries, the application of sewerage and wastewater for irrigation is a regular practice. In these areas, polluted water is often the only supply of water for irrigation. The use of wastewater for crop growth is a centuries old practice that is getting renewed attention due to rising shortage of freshwater resources in many arid and semiarid regions of the globe. Wastewater is extensively used as an inexpensive substitute to conservative irrigation water, supporting livelihoods and generating significant value to the agriculture of urban and periurban areas in spite of the associated health and environmental risks. Water is becoming an increasingly limited resource in many dried and partially dried regions of the world due to which planners are being forced to think about other sources of water that might be used inexpensively and efficiently to encourage additional progress. It is concluded that sewage water is the richest source of micro- and macronutrients and this aims for the better growth of plants. However, sewage should be treated prior to its reuse for agriculture in order to reduce the risks of harmful effects on human and animal health.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60917",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60917",book:{id:"6476",slug:"sewage"},signatures:"Naeem Khan",authors:[{id:"223706",title:"Dr.",name:"Naeem",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Naeem Khan",slug:"naeem-khan",email:"naeemkhan@bs.qau.edu.pk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Natural ecological and engineered sewage treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Regulations in the use of sewage water",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Challenging issues",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Water quality improvements",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"5. 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Wastewater Use in Peri-Urban Agriculture: Impacts and Oppor-tunities. Karnal: Central Soil Salinity Research Institute; 2004'},{id:"B58",body:'Mara D, Horan NJ, editors. Handbook of Water and Wastewater Microbiology. London: Academic press; 2003'},{id:"B59",body:'Grabow GL, McCornick PG. Planning for water allocation and water quality using a spreadsheet-based model. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. 2007;133(6):560-564'},{id:"B60",body:'Jimenez B, Asano T. Water reclamation and reuse around the world. Water Reuse: An International Survey of Current Practice, Issues and Needs. 2008;14:3-26'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Naeem Khan",address:"naeemkhan@bs.qau.edu.pk",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Parasitic plants are among the most problematic pests of agricultural crops worldwide. About 4000 parasitic plants exploit another plant vascular system to fulfill their nutrient requirements. The majority, about 90% of these species are hemiparasites retaining photosynthetic capacity while the rest, 390 species are holoparasites with obligate dependence on the host to obtain all their nutrients [1, 2]. They are extremely morphologically diverse and range from diminutive herbaceous plants to large trees, as well as highly reduced parasites that grow embedded in their host and lack leaves and roots. Parasitic plants can be divided according to whether they are photosynthetically active (hemiparasites) or lack of photosynthetic activity, and whether they are completely attached to a host for carbon (holoparasites), whether they are optional or obligate parasites, and whether they are attached to the roots or stem of the host. In natural ecosystems, parasitic plants form a component of the plant community and contribute to the overall community balance of parasitism. Conversely, when parasitic plants are established in low biodiverse agroecosystems, their persistence causes enormous yield losses and renders agricultural land inoperable. It has been determined that many features from seed germination to haustorium formation, from feeding patterns to host selection are based on the relationships between the host and the parasite [3].
Parasitic plants change in host dependence of and the rate at which they can attach. Facultative hemiparasites complete their life cycle without the need for a host. Also, obligate parasites (can be hemi- or holoparasites) need host to survive and reproduce. Most of facultative parasites have a broad range of hosts. For example, Rhinanthus attach to more than fifty species of herbaceous plants and grasses. Obligate parasites (especially holoparasites) more likely to specialize in a single host plant species or a narrow host range, and host shifts can be included speciation. Parasitic plants should synchronize their life cycle with the host for maximum fitness. Tiny seeds of obligate root parasites such as Striga germinate only after a conditioning period at the appropriate temperature, then are exposed to host-derived chemical signals such as strigalactones that are extruded by the host’s roots to signal symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhiza in the soil [4].
Holoparasities and hemiparasites develop haustoria. There are two types of houstria. Primary haustorium develops directly from the primary root apex. It is the only haustorium to function during the parasite’s lifetime. When only the primary haustorium is present, the parasite is considered evolutionarily more advanced. The development of primary haustorim made holoparasitism possible because holoparasites with small seeds usually require water, and nutrients from a host immediately after germination [5].
Parasitism appeared several times independently during angiosperm evolution, and the lifestyles of parasitic plants vary widely between taxa [1]. Some species are optional parasites that can survive in the absence of a host, others are necessarily parasitic and cannot develop independently. A distinction can be made between hemiparasitic herbs containing chlorophyll and can produce some of the essential nutrients through photosynthesis, and holoparasitic plants that do not contain chlorophyll and are completely dependent on host sources, but this distinction is not always clear [6, 7]. They pose a tremendous threat to the world economy because they are virtually uncontrollable at the moment [8, 9]. They belong to a variety of plant families and are attached to host roots, shoots or branches. The mistletoes like Viscum and Arceuthoubium that parasities trees, climbers like Cuscuta that parasitise shoots, and parasites like Striga and Orobanche that connect to host roots [3].
1.1 Parasitic plants
Weed parasites, usually unique to the host, do their greatest damage before they emerge; therefore, most crop yield loss may occur before infection is diagnosed. Despite intense efforts in the twentieth century, effective ways to selectively control various parasitic weed species are still scary or absent. While all agricultural weeds compete with crops for the field to obtain water, nutrients and light, parasitic weeds are also particularly harmful as they extract valuable water and nutrients directly from the host plant. To extract nutrients from host plants, parasitic weeds have developed a unique multicellular structure called the haustorium that invades the host, connects with the host vascular system and draws the water and nutrients it needs [10, 11]. A successful haustorial connection to the host causes permanent damage to a large part of the crop’s life cycle, lowering the harvested yield, lowering the crop value, and contaminating it with parasitic seeds. Parasitic weed infection strongly reduces crop harvest by disrupting crop orchestration of resource allocation by altering dry matter partitioning between crop organs that prioritize those adjacent to the [12].
1.1.1 Mistletoe
Mistletoe (Viscum album L.), (Viscaceae) whose distribution areas are widening in the world, is a semi-parasitic plant that lives by sucking the sap of the host plants it lives in, thus harming its host. It has small bushes, leaves and is an evergreen plant. “Zodiac sign” and are also known by the names of “chekem”. Rosaceae like apple and pear (Rosaceae) family trees semi parasitic lives on its branches. It can also be found in other trees. The plant can withstand several seasons leathery leaves, narrow and is long. The flowers, the seats of the shoots and yellowish-green is colored. The end of autumn and the beginning of winter the size of a pea. It was white and bright (Figure 1). Mistletoe lives as a semi-parasite on nearly 200 plant species, including fruit and forest trees and ornamental plant. This plant can cause losses in many economically important crops. Pear, plum, apricot, apple, almond, pear, walnut, chestnut is some of them. Along with these, the wood quality of trees such as willow, poplar and oak decreases [15].
Figure 1.
a) Entry of triple suckers from Viscum album seed to plant tissue, b) Viscum album L., [13], c) swelling in the branch of the Ankara pear of V. album., [14], d) damage of the V. album damage (trwikipedia.org).
The way mistletoe spreads are quite interesting, with all leaves, flowers monogamous and sticky, juicy and soft fruit. Thanks to its sticky structure, the seeds that stick to the beaks and feet of the birds or the birds that eat the fruits, especially the junipers, leave their feces on the trees they put on, and the seeds continue to grow by germinating on the tree they are transported. The germinated mistletoe seeds pierce the bark of the tree and reach their suckers down to the wood pipes and share the water and mineral substances of the host. Yield losses of up to 50 percent can be seen in sensitive fruits due to mistletoe Mistletoe provides its food by inserting its suckers into the trunks and branches of fruit, park and forest trees. Swelling is seen in these parts. It weakens the host tree, decreases the yield, and sometimes causes the old trees to dry. The fruits are spherical and the abundant viscin substance in the fruit flesh provides the stickiness of the fruit and the seed [16]. The stem of the plant lives dependent on the host, if it cannot find a host, it cannot survive. Seed need to attach to the host in germination the duration is known to be 3–5 weeks. By moving the jab body end counterclockwise hugs the host he reaches. Of the held body parasitic plant from the host facing surface, it dips suckers to his host and these suckers connects with its host phloem and xylem. They typically exhibiting broad host ranges, and inflict serious damage to many crops, including forage legumes (alfalfa, clover, lespedeza), potato, carrot, sugar beets, chickpea, onion, cranberry, blueberry, and citrus [17].
1.1.2 Cuscuta spp
Cuscuta spp. leafless, thin, threadlike wrapper has the body. The flowers are small and flower collected in cases. Petals (corolla) combined, usually five-piece rarely four or in three parts. Ovary (ovarium) two carpel and two seed pods in each compartment takes place. Fruit, capsule shaped, seed without cotyledons or in traces, embryos are in the form of threads (Figure 2) [17]. This plant is taxonomically the most difficult parasitic is one of the groups. Cuscuta breed diagnosis mostly is carried out according to flower and fruit characteristics. These features; stigma shapes, staminal braces shape and condition of filaments, capsules. Whether it is turned on or not depends on features such as [6]. In China, several Cuscuta species inflict severe damage on soybeans [18].
Figure 2.
Cuscuta spp. a, b,) damage of Cuscuta spp., c) damage of Cuscuta spp. of in tomato d) damage of Cuscuta spp. of in potato (niscole.com; projectnoah.org; Cittaslav botanic; iriss.ca, Erdogan, P.).
Seeds of Cuscuta spp. have been spread worldwide in contaminated shipments of crop plant seeds. Cuscuta pentagona is a major weed of tomatoes in California, causing yield losses of 50–75% [19]. Nemli and Ongen [20] reported that cayenne in alfalfa causes yield losses up to 91%. It was determined that Cuscuta species caused 60–70% decrease in the yield of alfalfa in India [21]. It has been reported that poisoning cases are encountered in animals fed with plants contaminated with coals [22]. In Turkey, species of Cuscuta campestris Yunck. and Cuscuta approximata Bab. are very common [23].
1.1.3 Orobanche spp
Orobanche spp. and Phelipanche spp. the most damaging weedy root parasites belong to the Orobanchaceae. One of the most important experts in the Orobanche taxonomy, Prof. Dr. Edward S. Teryokhin divided the genus Orobanche into two important parts, Orobanche and Phelipanche. Phelipanche was first given to P. ramosa by Auguste Pomel (1821–1898), and with the support of increasing molecular studies in recent years, Orobanche genus Orobanche and Phelipanche. It was accepted to be divided into two generals and P. ramosa (L.) Pomel and P. aegyptiaca (Pers.) Pomel started to be used instead of O. ramosa and O. aegyptiaca in weed research. The broomrapes (Orobanche and Phelipanche) are widespread in Mediterranean areas in Asia Southern and Eastern Europe [3, 8].
As a full parasitic weed, Orobanche spp. have not green leaves, so they do not contain chlorophyll and cannot perform photosynthesis. Therefore, its life depends on the food and water it receives from the host. In order for the seeds of Orobanche spp., which are among the smallest seed plants in the world, to germinate, the host plant they prefer must be planted. When it is a suitable host, the beast seeds under the soil germinate and attach to the root of the host plant by forming a tube, and then it continues its life with ready-made food from the host. An Orobanche plant produces between 5,000 and 100,000 seeds, and these seeds can remain in the soil for more than 10 years without losing their viability. Four types of Orobanche cause significant damage in agriculture. These species are O. ramosa L. and O. aegyptiaca Pers. Some vegetables, mainly tobacco and tomatoes, and lentils, O. crenata Forsk. mainly broad beans and other legumes and O. cernua Loefl. causes significant damage to sunflower. It is possible to see Orobanche spp. in many broad-leaved cultivated plants, but it causes significant damage especially in sunflower, tobacco, tomato, eggplant, pea, lentil, broad bean, chickpea, cabbage, oilseed rape, parsley, watermelon, common vetch and carrot [6]. In cases where contamination with this weed is very heavy, yield loss in cultivated plants can reach up to 100%. Orobanche spp. may cause loss of yield in the host plant as well as decrease in quality as in tobacco and sunflower. The yield loss they cause in Orobanche spp. culture plants may vary between 5 and 100% depending on the time and density of this parasite weed to attach to the culture plant. It was revealed that Orobanche spp. caused 33% in tobacco, 50–100% of the bean, sunflower at 33%, 24%, carrots, and tomatoes in the United States 21% 29 and 24% in Turkey [24]. It has been established that the seeds completely lose their vitality when Orobanche spp. is harvested fresh. It has been reported that the vitality of the seeds decreased only by 10% within the first 5 years of storage, and this rate decreased to 50% after 9 years. It is stated that the vitality will decrease if the seeds are kept at high temperature and humidity (Figure 3) [26].
Figure 3.
a) Cuscuta sp. in potato (Karahan. A.)., b, c) Cuscuta spp. (coms.wikipidi.org., d) eggplant in Cuscuta sp. [25].
1.1.4 Striga spp
The witchweeds (Striga spp.) plants are herbaceous plants. The genus is characterized with contrasting leaves, irregular bright-colored flowers corolla, divided into a tube that spreads lobes, herbaceous habitat, small seeds and parasitism. S. hermonthica has shiny to dark green leaves, erect and often branched stems grow 77 cm or more. Stems are sturdy and rectangular. The leaves are linear, lanceolate or lanceolate and 1–3 inches long, with acuminate or acuminate tips, multi-shell. The inflorescences have 6–10 open flowers, 1–2 cm in diameter. The flowers are pink, red, white, purple or yellow. The spike has occasionally more than 10 open flowers and the corolla normally drops a few days after fertilization [6]. The infection caused by some hemiparasitic weeds such as Striga causes more crop biomass depression than the biomass accumulated by the parasite. Striga, like other plant herbivores and pathogens, reduces host productivity by lowering crop photosynthesis rates (press). The impact of Striga is complicated further by its predilection for attacking crops already under moisture and nutrient stress, the conditions that prevail throughout the semi-arid tropics [27].
In tropical Africa the most damaging parasitic weeds are Striga spp. obligate root parasites of grain grasses and legumes, which endanger food supply in many developing countries. The most destructive species on cereals are S. hermonthica and S. asiatica, followed by S. aspera and S. forbesii, parasitising important food crops like rice, pearl millet, sorghum and maize in much of Africa and some parts of Asia. S. gesnerioides is an important pest of Fabaceae, especially cowpea). Moreover, the Striga epidemic is going to increase and the parasite is likely going to become a more serious threat to crop production [9]. The area infested by Striga in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to be more than 50 million hectares of arable farmland under grains [28]. The area infested by the parasite in West Africa is estimated to be about 17.2 million hectares, and sorghum and millet cover about 64% of the total area [29]. The parasite also causes indirect losses, including human migrations in response to changes in production strategies, land abandonment, and severe invasions in extreme cases (Figure 4) [30].
Viscum album L.; the way to prevent the spread of mistletoe, which is mostly propagated by birds, is also through birds. At this point, it is very important to create alternative food sources for birds. Mechanical control is the most effective control technique. Mechanical control is done by removing the mistletoe before the seed binds and pruning the infected branches 20–30 cm below. In severe epidemics, the tree should sometimes be removed completely to prevent contamination to other trees. Kotan et al. [31] reported that five bacterial strains (two Burkholderia cepacia, one each of Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus pumilus and Pandoraea pulminicola) were HR and pathogenicity positive when injected but none of them when sprayed on mistletoe. When fungi were injected, 32 isolates were pathogenic but only thirteen when sprayed on mistletoe. Alternaria alternata VAS, -202, VAS, -205, VAS, -217 and Acremonium kiliense VA-11 fungal isolates were the most effective ones and caused strong disease symptoms on mistletoe (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Infected mistletoe plant samples used for isolating of bacteria and fungi [31].
Orobanche spp.; prevent contamination is the most important method to control Orobanche spp. Clean seeds and seedlings should be used, and firstly should be preferred certified seed. Beast agricultural tool used in the field contaminated with grass, or machines, without using in the dishwasher field make sure that it is very well cleaned first. in the fields contaminated with monster weeds long-term with non-host cultivars alternation should be made. Seen in fields or greenhouses before the beast weeds bloom, pull them separately by hand It must be burned somewhere or buried very deep. Especially resistant in sunflower cultivation attention should be paid to the use of varieties. In the control against monster weeds solarization is a highly effective method especially in greenhouse plants cultivation solarization should be carried out. Linum usitatissimum L. (Lineaceae) is used as a trap plant to control Orobanche spp. [24].
Cuscuta spp.; control dodder is also particularly effective in preventing spreading. Emphasis on measures and methods of cultural practice should be given. Plants that are found to be dull by visiting the areas contaminated with dodder should be cut in a way that does not leave any residue behind and destroyed immediately. In the vineyards, in the spring at the beginning of May, in order to prevent the germination of the seeds that have fallen to the soil or clinging to the grape branches before the grape leaves take off, they should first pour straw 5–10 cm thick, wider than the crown width, under the vines that are found to be dull, and the straw should be burned after the sprouts are formed and wrapped in straw. Sticks should not be taken from dish washed ties and vines for the purpose of production and should avoid contamination of uncontaminated areas with this path and other forms. Similarly, dodder is an important factor in clover. If alfalfa is to be grown, control should be a problem. Clean and certified seeds should be used the weeds in which there is dodder in the area around the clover field are removed and should be burned [32].
Striga spp.; Oswald [33] reported that planting nonhost trap crops that induce suicidal germination is perhaps the most effective strategy currently available for Striga control. Recent researchers in this field focused on identifying and assessing the effectiveness of potential trap crops [34, 35]. Botanga et al. [36] revealed that the possibility of breeding for increased Parasitic Plants in Agriculture 131 production of germination stimulants.
The use of nitrogen-binding legumes as trap crops has the advantage of increasing soil fertility, which can further assist in Striga spp. control because Striga spp. thrives in poor soils [6]. Legumes have also proven useful as part of a novel “push-pull” (stimulodeterrent) pest management approach that illustrates the utility of increased plant diversity, simultaneously reducing Striga spp. and lepidopteran stemborer infestations [37].
3. Conclusions
Parasitic plants are the biggest threats to important crops and can cause crop losses until complete failure of crop productivity. Integrated pest management systems seem to be the best solution to find effective, long-lasting, widely applicable and environmentally friendly methods for parasitic weed control. Considering the life cycle of parasitic weeds, prevention of seed germination and/or host binding would be ideal targets for the successful management of parasites. Recently, some fungal metabolites are in Striga spp. and for the first time in Orobanche spp. This strategy can be an alternative means of bio-control of parasitic plants and reduce the likelihood of host contact disrupting the fine-tuned process of host recognition.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"Plants, Parasitic, Species, Agriculture",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/77406.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/77406.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77406",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77406",totalDownloads:316,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 6th 2021",dateReviewed:"June 7th 2021",datePrePublished:"July 13th 2021",datePublished:"January 26th 2022",dateFinished:"July 4th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Parasitic plants are among the most problematic pests of agricultural crops worldwide. They are found worldwide in all plant communities except aquatic. Parasitic plants are the organisms that settle in the host plant by means of the special organs they have developed and penetrate the vascular tissues of the hosts and meet their nutritional, water and mineral needs from the host plant. This particular body they have is called a haustorium. The discovery and investigation of the haustorium structures led to the evaluation of many heterotrophic plant species previously defined as parasitic plants in different groups. Host organisms are very important in completing the life cycle of parasitic plants. In general, the parasite weakens the host, so it produces fewer flowers and viable seeds or the value of the timber is reduced. However, some parasites, mostly annual root parasites belonging to the Orobanchaceae, can kill the host and cause significant economic damage while attacking monocultures in agriculture, and much effort is put into controlling these harmful parasites. Parasitic weeds are difficult to control because there are few resources for crop resistance and it is difficult to apply sufficiently selective control methods to kill weeds without physically and biochemically damaging the crop to which they are attached.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/77406",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/77406",signatures:"Pervin Erdogan",book:{id:"10772",type:"book",title:"Parasitic Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Parasitic Plants",slug:"parasitic-plants",publishedDate:"January 26th 2022",bookSignature:"Ana Maria Gonzalez and Héctor Arnaldo Sato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10772.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-449-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-448-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-450-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"348205",title:"Dr.",name:"Pervin",middleName:null,surname:"Erdoğan",fullName:"Pervin Erdoğan",slug:"pervin-erdogan",email:"pervinerdogan@sivas.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Parasitic plants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_1_3",title:"1.1.1 Mistletoe",level:"3"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.1.2 Cuscuta spp",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.1.3 Orobanche spp",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"1.1.4 Striga spp",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"2. Management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nickrent D. L. Parasitic Plants of the World [Internet]. 1998. Chapter 2, pp 7-27 in: J A. López-Sáez, P. Catalán and L. Sáez [eds.], Parasitic Plants of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands.'},{id:"B2",body:'Cimminoa A, Masia M, Rubialesb M, Evidentea A. Fernández-Apariciob M. Allelopathy for Parasitic Plant Management. Natural Product Communications. 2018; 13 (3):289-294.'},{id:"B3",body:'Rubiales, D., Heide-Jorgensen, HS. Parasitic Plants. In Enciclopedia of Life Sciences (ELS), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd:Chichester. 2011; DoI:10.1002/9780470015902.a0021271.'},{id:"B4",body:'Tawyford, A. Parasitic Plants.2018; DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.030.'},{id:"B5",body:'Kuijt J. The Biology of Parasitic Flowering Plants. Berkeley:1969; University California Press.'},{id:"B6",body:'Parker, C., Riches CR. Parasitic weeds of the world: biology and control. Wallingford, UK: CAB. International. 1993; 332 p.'},{id:"B7",body:'Press MC, Graves JD. Parasitic plants.1995. Chapman and Hall, London.'},{id:"B8",body:'Joel DM, Hershenhorn J, Eizenberg H. Biology and management of weedy root parasites. Horticultural Reviews. 2007; 33:267-349.'},{id:"B9",body:'Parker, C. Observations on the current status of Orobanche and Striga problems worldwide. Pest Management Science. 2009; 65:453-459.'},{id:"B10",body:'Riopel, JL., Timko, MP. Haustorial initation and differentiation. In Press, MC., Graves, JD. Parasitic Plants. Chapman and Hall, London, 1995; 39-79.'},{id:"B11",body:'Joel, DM., Gressel, J., Musselman, LJ. eds. Parasitic Orobanchaceae, 2013; (Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag).'},{id:"B12",body:'Jeschke, WD.; Hilpert, A. Sink-stimulated photosynthesis and sink dependent increase in nitrate uptake: Nitrogen and carbon relations of the parasitic association Cuscuta reflexa–Ricinus communis. Plant Cell Environ. 1997, 20, 47-56.'},{id:"B13",body:'Heide-Jørgensen, H.S.; Kuijt, J. The haustorium of the root parasite Triphysaria (Scrophulariaceae), with special reference to xylem bridge ultrastructure. Am. J. Bot. 1995, 82, 782-797.'},{id:"B14",body:'Üstüner, T., Duzenli, S., Kitis, YE. Determination of Infection Rate of Mistletoe (Viscum album) on Hosts in Niğde. Turkish Journal of Weed Science. 2015; 18(1): 6-14.'},{id:"B15",body:'Barney, CW. Hawksworth, FG., Geils, BW. European Journal of Forest Pathology. 1998; 28(3):187-208.'},{id:"B16",body:'Baser, KHC. Ökseotu (Viscum album L.) BagBahce 2014.54:22-23.'},{id:"B17",body:'Nemli Y. Çiçekli Parazitlerden Cuscuta L.’nın Anadolu Türleri Üzerinde Morfolojik ve Sistematik Araştırmalar. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi. 1978; 108 p. İzmir.'},{id:"B18",body:'Dawson JH., Musselman LJ., Wolswinkel P., Dorr I. Biology and control of ¨ Cuscuta, Rev Weed Sci. 1994; 6:265-317.'},{id:"B19",body:'Goldwasser Y. Tolerance of tomato varieties to lespedeza dodder. Weed Sci. 2001; 49 520-523.'},{id:"B20",body:'Nemli Y, Öngen N. Türkiye’nin Trakya Bölgesi Küsküt Türleri (Cuscuta spp.) Üzerinde Taksonomik Çalışmalar. Doğa Bilimleri Dergisi. 1982; 6(3): 147-154.'},{id:"B21",body:'Mishra J. S., (2009) Biology and Management of Cuscuta species, Indian Journal of Weed Science, 41 (1-2):1-11.'},{id:"B22",body:'Töngel, MÖ., Ayan, İ., Samsun ili çayır ve meralarında yetişen bazı zararlı bitkiler ve hayvanlar üzerindeki etkileri. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 2005; 20(1): 84- 93.'},{id:"B23",body:'Kaya I., Nemli Y. and Demir I. Taxonomic characteristics, distributions and hosts of dodder species (Cuscuta spp.) seen in agricultural and nonagricultural areas in Turkey. (In Turkish with English Abstract). Turk J Weed Sci, 2018; 21(1):1-7.'},{id:"B24",body:'Aksoy, E., Arslan ZF., Tetik O., Eymirli S. Utilization Opportunities from Allelopathic Features of Some Catch and Trap Crops for Controlling Egyptian Broomrape [Phelipanche aegyptiaca (Pers.) Pomel] in Tomato Fields. Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2014;20: 126-135'},{id:"B25",body:'Kadıoğlu, I., Küsküt (Cuscuta sp.) ve mücadelesi. Herboloji Haberleri, Ç. Ü., Ziraat Fak., Bitki Koruma Bölümü, 1992; 3(5): 1-11.'},{id:"B26",body:'Linke KH, Singh KB, Saxena MC. Screening technique for resistance to Orobanche crenata Forsk., in chickpea. International Chickpea Newsletter. 1991;24, 32– 34.'},{id:"B27",body:'Dafaallah, AB., Babiker, AGT, Zain El abdeen, MH. Variability in Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth, Populations in Gadarif Area, Eastern Sudan. Sudan University of Science and Technology Journal of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences. 2015; 16 (2),119-132.'},{id:"B28",body:'Westwood, JH., Yoder, JI., Timko, MP., Pamphilis, CW. The evolution of parasitism in plants. Trend. Plant Sci. 2010; 15 (4);227-235.'},{id:"B29",body:'Gressel J. Crops with target-site herbicide resistance for Orobanche and Striga control. Pest Management Science. 2009; 65:560-565.'},{id:"B30",body:'Sounders, AR. Studies in phanerogamic parasitism, with particular reference to Striga lutea Lour, South Africa Department of Agriculture Science Bulletin, 1993; 128:1-56.'},{id:"B31",body:'Kotan, R., Okutucu, A., Gormez, AA., Karagoz, K., Dadasoglu, Karaman, I., Hasanekoglu, I., Kordali, S. Parasitic Bacteria and Fungi on Common Mistletoe (Viscum album L.) and Their Potential Application in Biocontrol. Journal of Phytopathology, 2012; doi: 10.1111/jph.12048.'},{id:"B32",body:'Watson, AK. Biocontrol. In Parasitic Orobanchaceae; Joel, DM., Gressel, J., Musselman, LJ., Eds.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2013; 469-497.'},{id:"B33",body:'Oswald A Striga control: technologies and their dissemination. Crop Prot. 2005; 24:333-342.'},{id:"B34",body:'Khan ZR, Pickett JA, Wadhams LJ, Hassanali A, Midega CAO.Combined control of Striga hermonthica and stemborers by maize Desmodium spp. intercrops. Crop Prot. 2006; 25:989-995.'},{id:"B35",body:'Lins RD, Colquhoun JB, Mallory-Smith CA (2006) Investigation of wheat as a trap crop for control of Orobanche minor. Weed Research 46: 313-318.'},{id:"B36",body:'Botanga, C.J., S.O. Alabi, C.A. Echekwu and S.T.O. Lagoke, 2003. Genetics of suicidal germination of Striga hermonthica (Del.) benth by cotton. Crop Sci., 43: 483-488.'},{id:"B37",body:'Khan, ZR., Picket, JA., Van den Berg, J., Wadhams LJ., Woodcock CM. Exploiting chemical ecology and species diversity: stemborer andStrigacontrol for maize and sorghum in Africa Pest Manage. Sci. 2000; 56: 957-962.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Pervin Erdogan",address:"pervinerdogan@sivas.edu.tr",affiliation:'
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:49,paginationItems:[{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"91",type:"subseries",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",keywords:"Sustainable, Society, Economy, Digitalization, KPIs, Decision Making, Business, Digital Footprint",scope:"
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