Structure of redox-active ligands, electrocatalysts, and photocatalysts.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8516",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Metacognition in Learning",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Metacognition skills have been proven to have a positive relationship with learning. The strength of metacognition relies heavily on self-efficacy where a student understands his/her learning style, and the ability to use information gathered and align it with his/her learning style. In addition, knowing what you know and how you know it as a student plays a huge role in knowing what you do not know and linking it with what is close or relevant to it, that you know. It is about having skills and knowledge that empowers you to be an independent learner. Literature on classroom practices show a number of short-comings in diverse areas such as poor teacher knowledge, overcrowded classrooms, and lack of resources for learning. An independent student will strive under such an environment by studying independently, searching for resources, and finding multimodal ways of learning. It is also important to note that naturally, human beings are curious and want to learn in order to conquer their world. Hence, Piaget's work of intellectual autonomy cannot be ignored when exploring metacognition. If learning experiences were ideal and developmental, they would be no need to nurture metacognition. Unfortunately, the education systems remove students' curiosity by bringing fake environments into learning that impede creation and imagination. This book emphasises the power of metacognition at different levels of learning. It can be seen as a parallel intervention approach, with expanded knowledge on how to extend existing skills for young children, which is a pre-intervention. Authors in this book bring diverse viewpoints from diverse fields on how to nurture metacognition, thus giving the reader an opportunity to borrow strategies from other fields. This contribution is a mixture of empirical contributions and opinion pieces informed by review of literature.",isbn:"978-1-78985-114-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-113-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-035-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78892",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"metacognition-in-learning",numberOfPages:164,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7635,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:25,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261665/images/system/261665.png",biography:"Nosisi Nellie Feza is a full Professor in the Faculty of Humanities in the Central University of Technology, South Africa. She is currently serving as Dean of Humanities at the Central University of Technology. She has obtained a Ph.D. in Mathematics Education from the State University of New York at Buffalo, New York as a Fulbright scholar. She received a Diversity Scholar Award from the National Center for Institutional Diversity in Michigan in 2009. In 2016 she received a Distinguished Researcher Award in mathematics education from Venus International Foundation in Chennai, India. Her research interests are early childhood mathematics stimulation and teacher development and cultural influence in learning mathematics in students of African descendants.",institutionString:"Central University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Central University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"266",title:"Educational Psychology",slug:"educational-psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"69257",title:"Listener Background in L2 Speech Evaluation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89414",slug:"listener-background-in-l2-speech-evaluation",totalDownloads:747,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Listeners are integral parts of second language (L2) oral performance assessment. However, evaluation of listeners is susceptible to listener background variables and biases. These variables and preexisting biases distort native speaker (NS) listeners’ perceptions of non-native speakers’ (NNSs) speech performance and contribute errors into their oral performance assessment. Among listener background variables, listeners’ first language status, the amount of exposure to different English varieties, listeners’ educational background, prior language teaching experience, NNSs’ linguistic stereotyping, and listener attitude have been investigated in the literature and assumed to exert sizable amount of variation in speakers’ oral proficiency true scores. To minimize listeners’ bias in the assessment context, listeners are provided with intensive training programs in which they are trained how to rate NNSs’ speech more objectively utilizing scoring rubrics. To mediate listeners’ bias in social contexts, the literature has provided strands of evidence in favor of structured intergroup contact programs, which are inoculations particularly devised to improve NSs’ attitude, thereby making them more receptive to NNSs’ English varieties. To enhance L2 listeners’ self-efficacy and foster their autonomy, L2 instructors are encouraged to emphasize explicit instruction of listening strategies.",signatures:"Mohammadreza Dalman and Okim Kang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69257",authors:[{id:"300322",title:"Dr.",name:"Okim",surname:"Kang",slug:"okim-kang",fullName:"Okim Kang"},{id:"308032",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammadreza",surname:"Dalman",slug:"mohammadreza-dalman",fullName:"Mohammadreza Dalman"}],corrections:null},{id:"67544",title:"Teaching with and for Metacognition in Disciplinary Discussions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86665",slug:"teaching-with-and-for-metacognition-in-disciplinary-discussions",totalDownloads:1181,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Teaching metacognitively, which involves teaching with metacognition and teaching for metacognition, is critical for learners of any age. With enables teachers to gain awareness about and control over how they think and teach, and to monitor, evaluate, and adjust their instructional practices in accordance with specific students, goals and contexts. For enables teachers to design instruction that will develop and activate their students’ metacognition, enabling them to be aware of what they know and do not know, and take action to address flaws or gaps in what they know. Our research findings, based on empirical studies conducted in a variety of educational settings, have identified effective instructional practices for teaching metacognitively. This chapter focuses on practices that support the metacognition of learners engaged in disciplinary discussions. This emphasis addresses a significant void in the research literature which more commonly targets metacognition in learning generally or applied specifically to reading and writing.",signatures:"Susan O’Hara, Robert Pritchard and Debi Pitta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67544",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67544",authors:[{id:"297442",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Pritchard",slug:"robert-pritchard",fullName:"Robert Pritchard"},{id:"297443",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",surname:"O'Hara",slug:"susan-o'hara",fullName:"Susan O'Hara"},{id:"297444",title:"MSc.",name:"Debi",surname:"Pitta",slug:"debi-pitta",fullName:"Debi Pitta"}],corrections:null},{id:"67193",title:"Mathematics Dictionary: Enhancing Students’ Geometrical Vocabulary and Terminology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86409",slug:"mathematics-dictionary-enhancing-students-geometrical-vocabulary-and-terminology",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Students’ understanding of geometric vocabulary and terminology is still an area of concern when teaching and learning geometry. The chapter addresses the benefits of integrating mathematics dictionary and polygon pieces into the teaching and learning in order for students to be proficient in geometry. However, there is little evidence in the literature regarding teachers’ integration of mathematics dictionary and polygon pieces in the teaching and learning of geometry with an aim to support students’ geometrical vocabulary and terminology. Consequently, the aim of the chapter is to provide an overview of how the integration of mathematics dictionary into the teaching and learning can be promoted. Also it provides the empirical and theoretical evidence of how mathematics dictionary influences students’ understandings of geometrical vocabulary and terminology. The uses of mathematics dictionary and polygon pieces modify how learners learn, from passive to hands-on, and promote visualisation, respectively. The chapter recommends that mathematics teachers integrate mathematics dictionary and polygon pieces into the teaching and learning of geometry to all students to promote independent learning.",signatures:"Shakespear Maliketi Chiphambo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67193",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67193",authors:[{id:"298039",title:"Dr.",name:"Shakespear M.",surname:"Chiphambo",slug:"shakespear-m.-chiphambo",fullName:"Shakespear M. Chiphambo"}],corrections:null},{id:"68346",title:"Using Problem-Solving as a Method for the Development of Self-Regulation of Learning with Adolescents: An Experience Report",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88195",slug:"using-problem-solving-as-a-method-for-the-development-of-self-regulation-of-learning-with-adolescent",totalDownloads:695,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The tendency to take risks without measuring consequences properly and the decrease in motivation are features presented at adolescence that may presuppose the need for changes in the traditional way of teaching and learning. This hypothesis leads to the search for educational solutions for a more effective work in the classroom. This study analyzes the methodology applied to adolescents at Sesi School, a basic education school in Southern Brazil, using Robert Sternberg’s theory of problem-solving (2010) in cognitive psychology and Barry Zimmerman’s concept of self-regulation of learning (1989). The analysis aims to draw relationships between the adolescence phase and the impact of a methodology focused on problem-solving, in order to perceive possible contributions to the development of more autonomy and responsibility for learning. This experience report points out as main contributions: (a) problem-solving can be a promising method for the development of autonomy and responsibility for learning; (b) as adolescents are moved by risks, problems can turn into challenges, motivating students to seek pleasure and reward in the search for the best solution; (c) problem-solving in the adolescents’ formal learning environment promotes the development of a repertoire of strategies, which effectively helps with the autonomous and responsible management of learning regulation.",signatures:"Giovana Chimentão Punhagui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68346",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68346",authors:[{id:"301139",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Giovana",surname:"Punhagui",slug:"giovana-punhagui",fullName:"Giovana Punhagui"}],corrections:null},{id:"67725",title:"Drawings as Diagnostic Cues for Metacomprehension Judgment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86959",slug:"drawings-as-diagnostic-cues-for-metacomprehension-judgment",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The accuracy of comprehension monitoring affects the effectiveness of rereading, which in turn affects comprehension. Thus, much research has focused on finding ways to improve monitoring accuracy. The cue-utilization framework of metacognitive monitoring provides a framework for understanding how to improve monitoring accuracy. It suggests that accuracy is driven by cues people use to judge comprehension. When people utilize cues that are highly diagnostic of performance on a test of comprehension, accuracy should improve. Many interventions that have been shown to improve monitoring accuracy have attributed the improved accuracy to increased access to highly diagnostic cues, but have failed to identify highly diagnostic cues. In our recent research, we found that instructing students to generate drawings before judging comprehension improved monitoring accuracy. Using graphic analyses protocol, we identified highly diagnostic cues. In this chapter, we will describe the procedure we used to identify these cues contained in drawings.",signatures:"Keith Thiede, Katherine L. Wright, Sara Hagenah and Julianne Wenner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67725",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67725",authors:[{id:"296407",title:"Prof.",name:"Keith",surname:"Thiede",slug:"keith-thiede",fullName:"Keith Thiede"},{id:"303715",title:"Dr.",name:"Katherine",surname:"Wright",slug:"katherine-wright",fullName:"Katherine Wright"},{id:"303716",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Hagenah",slug:"sara-hagenah",fullName:"Sara Hagenah"},{id:"303717",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianne",surname:"Wenner",slug:"julianne-wenner",fullName:"Julianne Wenner"}],corrections:null},{id:"68471",title:"Self-Regulation in Early Years of Learning Mathematics: Grade R Observed Self-Efficacy Skills Shared and Aligned",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88497",slug:"self-regulation-in-early-years-of-learning-mathematics-grade-r-observed-self-efficacy-skills-shared-",totalDownloads:676,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Numeracy development of young learners has been proven to be innate. Research asserts how 6 months old infants were able to subitise group of quantities. The inner ability integrate itself with their curiosity as they develop further. Kammii also asserts that young children develop autonomy through their observations and curiosity of figuring out events. This indicates that, children have natural independent abilities for learning. However, schooling seems not to be able to maintain this. This chapter demonstrates through clinical interviews how this independent discovery occurs and such observations can be used to observe trends that inform Grade R/reception class numeracy instruction. Intellectual autonomy as presented by Piaget and Kammii is used to analyse students’ data to elicit trends and themes that influence instruction to maintain self-regulation in their development. This chapter employs qualitative enquiry in getting insight to student’s intuitions and how they contribute to independent learning.",signatures:"Nosisi Nellie Feza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68471",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68471",authors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],corrections:null},{id:"68325",title:"Generating Internal Motivation through Mobile Application Technology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88346",slug:"generating-internal-motivation-through-mobile-application-technology",totalDownloads:743,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper is a practical account of the author’s experimental analysis of using mobile application technology in the undergraduate ELT classes of Dhofar University, Salalah, Oman. In today’s world, technology plays an indispensable role in human life. Integrating latest technological applications in the classrooms can be a challenging task for many teachers, but it is undoubtedly a powerful tool for enhancing the quality of education. This paper outlines how to generate internal motivation and enhance the cognitive skills of students through the innovative use of mobile/smart phones in the classroom. Nowadays, innovative use of mobile applications in the classroom is advocated by numerous educational experts. This shift in perspective is necessitated by the large-scale digitalization of education and educational resources. Consequently, this study explores how mobile devices can be used effectively for enhancing involvement and motivation of students in various learning activities to promote learner autonomy and peer learning opportunities within the classroom. This experiment eventually resulted in a visible rise in the motivational graph of the whole class as testified by students’ performance in their tests. Finally, this paper also outlines how mobile learning can be integrated into a conventional university curriculum.",signatures:"K. Thomas Baby",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68325",authors:[{id:"296721",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Baby",slug:"thomas-baby",fullName:"Thomas Baby"}],corrections:null},{id:"67592",title:"Multilateral Relationship between Information Literacy, Self-Concept and Metacognitive Ability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86968",slug:"multilateral-relationship-between-information-literacy-self-concept-and-metacognitive-ability",totalDownloads:657,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study examined information literacy, metacognitive abilities and self-concept capabilities. The evaluation of this research indicated that self-concept is the totality of psychological, emotional, psychosomatic and mental development that provide confidence to individual in the ability to search, use, appraise and assess information resources, which are critical qualities needed to enable information literacy; an individual needs to be conscious and develop aptitude to identify useful information. Metacognitive ability is important because of the age of information overload which an individual is overwhelmed with which signified that information available is exceeding processing capacity of an average individual. Accordingly, once information overload ensues, it is possible that a decrease or decline in quality of decision-making will happen. In view of this, metacognitive ability becomes necessary in order to equip people with the critical ability to contemplate rigorously before action is taken. The objective of this research is to embark on content analysis of the subject matter of information literacy, metacognitive abilities and self-concept in which existing research was thoroughly evaluated in order to identify gap in research and bring out new knowledge. This research uses qualitative content analysis as a method of data collection in which existing journals and other information resources were evaluated. Research has been silenced on the triangular relationship of metacognitive ability, self-concept and information literacy, that is, the gap this research attempt to bridge.",signatures:"Oluwole O. Durodolu and Joseph M. Ngoaketsi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67592",authors:[{id:"301616",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwole O.",surname:"Durodolu",slug:"oluwole-o.-durodolu",fullName:"Oluwole O. Durodolu"},{id:"310274",title:"Mr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Ngoaketsi",slug:"joseph-ngoaketsi",fullName:"Joseph Ngoaketsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"67696",title:"Redcay’s STEM-oscope Model: Connecting STEM Education, Social Robots, and Metacognition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86842",slug:"redcay-s-stem-oscope-model-connecting-stem-education-social-robots-and-metacognition",totalDownloads:858,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A qualitative analysis of second grade students’ responses to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Challenge demonstrated that young learners use metacognitive skills throughout challenges (beginning, middle, and end). Students work through Engineer by Design (EbD) loop: (1) define and research a problem (2) brainstorm and explore possible solutions (3) develop a prototype (4) test (5) reflect (6) redesign (7) re-test. Social robots can be used throughout STEM challenges to model think alouds. Educators prepare the environment for young learners. Specially, educators find meaningful ways for students to connect concrete and abstract ideas. Five themes emerged from students’ responses to two STEM challenges. The theme with the highest frequency demonstrated that students were making real-world connections. The additional themes included metalinguistic awareness, problem solving strategies, social metacognitive thinking, and concrete to abstract thinking. The five themes were connected to metacognitive thinking, EbD loop, and 6 E’s of Science Inquiry. The themes were arranged in a new model called Redcay’s STEM-oscope Model used to describe the connection between STEM education, social robots, and metacognition. The research study adds to the existing body of research about STEM education by directly linking metacognitive skills, STEM education, social robots.",signatures:"Jessica D. Redcay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67696",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67696",authors:[{id:"296758",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Redcay",slug:"jessica-redcay",fullName:"Jessica Redcay"}],corrections:null},{id:"69718",title:"Understanding in Action: An Analysis of Its Levels and Qualities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88345",slug:"understanding-in-action-an-analysis-of-its-levels-and-qualities",totalDownloads:560,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The present chapter analyzes the features of the understanding of learning in action. Understanding is defined as the ability to think and act with flexibility using what one knows, implies being able to take knowledge and use it in different ways, constitutes a final cognitive process, producing a generative knowledge. 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This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6969",title:"Lymphocytes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1aa8ac01c934ebdeedd5d7813036beef",slug:"lymphocytes",bookSignature:"Erman Salih Istifli and Hasan Basri İla",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35140",title:"Dr.",name:"Osaro",surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Recent developments in sequencing technologies have enabled us to study the composition and function of plant microbiomes, but these microbiomes are dynamic and differ among different plant tissues and in response to the environment. The microbiome can also be seen as “the second plant genome” and can consist of 10 times more genes than typical plant genomes [1]. Beneficial microorganisms that are associated with plants hold enormous potential to be developed into microbial fertilizers or microbial pesticides [2] and new biotechnological tools to improve the nutrient efficiency and stress tolerance of crops, and environmental sustainability of agroecosystems. Specific interactions between microbes and plants, such as the
Soybeans form interactions with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia, and this symbiosis plays a key role not only for the nitrogen (N) nutrition of the plant but also for agricultural productivity since soybean root residues provide N for other plants in crop rotations [3, 4]. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi colonize the root system of the majority of land plants, including soybeans; transfer nutrients such as phosphate (P), N, potassium (K), and other nutrients to their host plants; and improve the resistance of their host plants against abiotic (e.g., drought, salinity, and heavy metals) and biotic stresses [5]. In addition, soybeans are associated with bacterial or fungal endophytes that exhibit a wide range of plant growth promoting capabilities, including the production of phytohormones, an improved N nutrition through biological nitrogen fixation (diazotrophic endophytes), the biosynthesis of ACC (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate) deaminase, the capability to solubilize phosphate, and also the biosynthesis and release of antimicrobial metabolites or siderophores to inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms [6].
The plant microbiome is a largely unexplored resource of beneficial microorganisms with diverse properties and a hidden potential to manipulate plant growth and success in stressful environments. However, while the symbiosis of soybeans with rhizobia and AM fungi is well characterized, the functional role of endophytes is only known for a limited number of isolates. Our functional understanding of these interactions is mainly based on experiments with individual symbionts, but there is increasing evidence that individual symbionts can also affect the interactions of the plant with other symbionts [7, 8, 9, 10]. We summarize here the effects of different beneficial microbes on nutrient uptake, yield, and stress resistance of soybeans and identify knowledge gaps that hinder the application of these interactions to their full potential in soybean production systems.
The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis is arguably the most important symbiosis on earth and is formed by more than 65% of all known land plant species (n > 200,000), including all legumes and many other agronomically important crops, such as wheat, corn, and rice [11]. AM fungi are classified into the fungal subphylum Glomeromycota that consists of less than 350 fungal species [12]. AM fungi co-exist relatively morphologically unaltered with plants for more than 400 million years, and there is evidence that suggests that the AM symbiosis played a critical role for land plant evolution [13].
It is long known that AM fungi can increase the nutrient uptake of their host plant and are able to deliver substantial amounts of P, N, K, sulfur (S), and trace elements, such as copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) to the plant. Many AM fungi also provide non-nutritional benefits for their host that are critical for plant survival or fitness and improve, for example, the resistance of plants against abiotic (e.g., drought, heavy metal, and salinity) and biotic (pathogens) stresses [5]. In return for these benefits, host plants transfer up to 20–25% of their photosynthetically derived carbohydrates to the fungal symbiont [14]. It was generally believed that carbon is transferred to the fungus in the form of hexoses [15], but recent evidence suggests that also fatty acids can move across the mycorrhizal interface to the fungal partner (Figure 1) [16, 17, 18].
Overview of the mycorrhizal nutrient uptake pathway in AM roots of soybean plants via the extraradical mycelium of the fungus (a) and the mycorrhizal interface consisting of the fungal arbuscule in root cortical cells surrounded by the periarbuscular membrane of the host (b). Both fungal cell membrane and plant periarbuscular membrane are characterized by the presence of mycorrhiza-specific transporters that play a critical role for the nutrient exchange across the mycorrhizal interface of soybean plants (e.g.,
AM fungi are ubiquitous in soils and can account for up to 50% of the microbial biomass in soils [19]. AM fungi form extensive hyphal networks in soils, and the extraradical mycelium (ERM) of the fungus acts as an extension of the root system and increases the nutrient absorbing surface of the root. The ERM with its mycorrhizosphere (interface between fungal hyphae and the soil) acts as an important conduit between microbial communities and the host plant [20] and can provide soil microbial communities with plant-derived carbon (C) inputs in large distance from the root. The mycorrhizosphere represents in soils an important ecological niche for diverse microbial communities that are specifically adapted to this mycorrhizosphere. According to estimates, the bacterial density in the mycorrhizosphere is 4–5 times higher than in the plant rhizosphere [21]. However, the presence of AM fungal mycelia does not only lead to quantitative but also to qualitative changes in the microbial community composition in soils [22]. The presence of AM fungal hyphae plays an important role in the bacterial community assembly during decomposition [22] and affects the access of members of these microbial communities to C sources during decomposition [23].
Within the host root, the fungus can not only spread intercellularly but also penetrate the root cortex intracellularly, and it forms here highly branched specialized structures called arbuscules that are separated from the plant symplast by the plant periarbuscular membrane [24]. Some AM fungal species also form vesicles, thick-walled, lipid-containing storage organs in the roots. Arbuscules are the site of nutrient exchange between the plant and the fungus, and both the fungal cell membrane and the plant periarbuscular membrane are characterized by the presence of specific transport proteins that play a critical role for the resource exchange between both partners (Figure 1) [15, 25, 26].
The colonization of host roots by AM fungi is based on a molecular dialog between both partners that facilitates partner recognition and triggers responses in both partners that are critical for the establishment of the symbiosis [27]. After fungal spore germination, an extensive hyphal branching in close proximity to host roots can be observed that is triggered by strigolactones and other compounds in root exudates [28]. After attachment to the host root surface and the differentiation of a fungal hyphopodium, the fungus penetrates the root, spreads with the help of a prepenetration apparatus [29], and forms arbuscules in the cells of the root cortex. This process is initiated by the release of lipochitooligosaccharides, or Myc factors, by the fungus that are perceived by specific receptors on the host root surface and trigger a cascade of molecular responses in the host root. The pathway is called the common symbiotic signaling pathway (CSSP), since similar responses can be observed after the perception of rhizobial Nod factors [27, 30]. A key role for the perception of fungal Myc or Nod factors by the rhizodermis plays the membrane-bound receptor-like kinase SYMRK that activates the mevalonate (MVA) biosynthetic enzyme HMGR1(3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase 1). A second set of CSSP proteins is located in the nuclear pore complex and includes the three nucleoporins NUP133, NUP85, and NENA; the ATP-powered Ca2+ pump MCA8; and cation channels encoded by CASTOR and POLLUX involved in the strong Ca2+ oscillations in the nucleus of rhizodermal cells that can be observed shortly after Myc factor perception. Another set of proteins is located in the nucleoplasm and decodes these Ca2+ signals [30, 31]. A Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) phosphorylates with the help of calmodulin CYCLOPS, which then regulates gene expression either directly or through GRAS transcription factors such as NSP1, NSP2, and RAM1 [30, 31, 32]. The elucidation of the CSSP is mainly based on studies in the model legumes
Mycorrhizal plants have two pathways that are involved in the nutrient uptake from the soil: the “plant pathway” via high- and low-affinity transporters in root epidermis and root hairs or the “mycorrhizal pathway” that first involves the uptake of nutrients via the ERM of the fungus, transport to the arbuscules, and then the uptake by the plant from the interfacial apoplast through specialized transporters in the periarbuscular membrane. In response to the colonization with AM fungi, transporters that are involved in the plant pathway are often down-regulated, while mycorrhiza-specific transporters in the periarbuscular membrane are induced [33], indicating that there is a shift in the nutrient acquisition strategy and that the mycorrhizal pathway can become the dominant pathway for nutrient uptake [34, 35].
Under both greenhouse and field conditions, increases in nutrient content, yield, and overall fitness of soybeans in response to an AM colonization can be observed [36, 37], and soybean yields are significantly correlated to the colonization of the roots with AM fungi [38]. Many reports clearly demonstrate the positive effects of AM fungi on the nutrient uptake of soybeans and here particularly on the uptake of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) [39, 40, 41]. However, the effects can differ greatly among AM fungi. Our own studies demonstrated, for example, that while the AM fungus
Some of the observed differences among these AM fungi seem to be related to the impact of the AM fungus on plant P transporter expression. Fourteen genes of the Pht1 family have been identified in soybeans [42], and three of these transporters show high expression levels in AM roots [43]. While the colonization of the roots with
AM fungi can also increase the resistance of soybeans against other abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, or soil contaminations. It is known for several decades that the AM colonization can improve the tolerance of soybeans against drought [50]. AM fungi can influence leaf water potential, solute accumulation, and oxidative stress of soybeans under drought stress [51] and delay nodule senescence triggered by water deprivation [52]. In mycorrhizal soybeans, plasma membrane aquaporins were down-regulated in response to drought stress, and this could reduce the permeability of membranes for water and contribute to water conservation [53]. In addition, both fungal and plant mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are upregulated in AM soybean plants under drought stress. MAPK cascades are known to regulate many cellular processes in response to various stimuli, including abiotic and biotic stresses [54]. AM fungi also improve the tolerance of soybeans against salinity. AM plants had a higher biomass and proline concentrations in roots, but reduced proline and Na concentrations in the shoot under salt stress. When the fungus was pretreated with NaCl, the alleviating effects were even stronger, indicating that the acclimation of the fungus to salinity may play a role for the stress response [55]. AM fungi can also improve the tolerance of soybeans against arsenic [56] and aluminum [57] by reducing the uptake of these toxic metals.
Soybean yield and productivity is also threatened by many fungal or bacterial diseases and soil inhabiting nematodes. Soybean cyst nematodes (SCNs,
Most legume plants are able to interact with N-fixing bacteria called rhizobia that are able to reduce atmospheric dinitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3) in specialized root nodules. The symbiosis evolved in legumes between 25 and 50 million years ago [63, 64] and plays an important role for plant nitrogen (N) nutrition. Rhizobia can contribute up to 70% to the total N nutrition, grain legumes can gain up to 300 kg N, and legume trees (e.g.,
Bacteroids express the nitrogenase complex that consists of six protein subunits (two each of NifH, NifD, and NifK), two [4Fe–4S], two (Fe8S7) iron-sulfur clusters, and two iron-molybdenum cofactors (Fe7MoS9N) called FeMoco, which catalyze the N2 reduction to NH3 [68]. The nitrogenase metallocenters are all oxygen-labile and must operate in an environment with a low level of free oxygen, and nodules provide their bacterial symbionts with this oxygen-reduced environment for optimum N fixation [69]. N fixation by bacteroids is a highly energy consuming process, and rapid respiration in the bacteroids is necessary to produce the 16 ATP required for the conversion of each atmospheric N2 into two NH3.
The product of biological N fixation (BNF) is ammonia, which diffuses out of the bacteroids into the acidic symbiosome space and is here protonated to ammonium. The symbiosome membrane is energized by an H+-ATPase, which pumps protons into the symbiosome space and thereby promotes the uptake of NH3/NH4+ into the plant cytosol, where NH4+ is rapidly assimilated into amino acids, and the ureides, allantoin and allantoic acid [69]. A candidate for the uptake of NH4+ from the symbiosome space is
BNF is an energy expensive process, which requires 16 ATP to fuel the reduction of one N2. Plants allocate up to 30% of their photosynthetically fixed C to rhizobia [74], which is oxidized in the bacteroids to ATP. The N2 fixation rate of rhizobia is higher when the nodules receive more C, suggesting that the allocation of C to nodules is a limiting factor for BNF. Transgenic
According to estimates, soybeans with their rhizobia populations fix around 20 million tons of N each year, and this has an enormous influence on agricultural productivity, not only on soybeans, but also on other crops in crop rotation systems [3, 4]. Soybean residues in the soil enrich the soil with N, improve soil organic matter, and can lead to yield increases in non-legume crops that follow soybeans. Crop rotations or intercropping systems of cereals with legumes can result in higher crop yields without fertilizer additions [78]. However, conventional agricultural management practices and other anthropogenic factors can have a negative impact on rhizobial function. In addition, excessive tillage, applications of higher N fertilizer dosages, and extended fallow periods can also have detrimental effects on rhizobia populations in soils. As a consequence, integrating this symbiosis more efficiently in modern agricultural practices is crucial to limit the amount of fertilizers used and make agriculture more environmentally sustainable. Exploring ecologically best fitted ecoregions for soybeans and best adapted soybean cultivars will help farmers to produce more yield with reduced inputs. Rhizobial strains differ in their efficacy in symbiosis with different soybean cultivars, and the input of N into agricultural systems can be increased by the inoculation of legumes with optimized rhizobia for different environments [65]. The development of better inoculation strategies and specifically adapted rhizobia for different soybean cultivars could reduce the dependency of farmers on agrochemicals and enhance food security [65].
In natural environments, legume roots form tripartite interactions and are simultaneously colonized by both AM fungi and rhizobia [7, 79]. Tripartite interactions have been shown to improve plant productivity, seed yield, P and N acquisition, and photosynthetic rates [10, 80, 81]. The rhizobial nitrogenase complex requires at least 16 ATP to reduce one N2 molecule into two NH3. Consequently, nodules act as strong P sinks in legume root systems to provide sufficient P resources to the bacteroids for optimum BNF [79, 82]. Since AM fungi are able to improve the P nutrition of legume plants, AM fungi can increase the BNF by root nodules by at least 50% [10]. Nonmycorrhizal soybean plants have lower nodule numbers and weights and particularly under low P supply lower N fixation rates [7, 83]. AM fungi can also provide their hosts with microelements that are essential for N2 fixation, including zinc, iron, manganese, and molybdenum [84, 85].
AM fungi and rhizobial bacteria can act synergistically and can improve plant productivity, seed yield, and grain quality [7, 10, 81]. However, the prior inoculation by either rhizobia or AM fungi can also reduce the subsequent colonization by the other symbiont [86]. Plants control the extent of root colonization by both symbionts by an autoregulatory mechanism, possibly to limit the high C costs associated with these interactions [83, 87]. Whether AM fungi and rhizobia interact antagonistically or synergistically depends on the environmental context [81] and the compatibility between symbiotic partners [10, 88]. For example, the rhizobial strain STM 7183 is more compatible with the AM fungus
Both interactions are costly, and the host plant allocates up to 20% of its photosynthetically fixed C to its fungal [14, 90] and up to 30% to its N-fixing symbionts (Figure 2) [74]. C acts as an important trigger for symbiotic functioning, and a reduction in the C fluxes to the symbionts decreases BNF by rhizobia [91], and P and N uptake and transport by AM fungi [92, 93, 94]. Considering the high C costs of these symbioses for the host, plants are under a selective pressure to strongly regulate the C fluxes to both root symbionts, but these control mechanisms are currently poorly understood. Resource exchange between host and AM fungi is controlled by a reciprocal reward mechanism that is driven by biological market dynamics [95]. Our own results recently demonstrated that similar mechanisms may also control the resource to C exchange in tripartite interactions;
Transport and nutrient exchange pathways in the symbiosis with N-fixing bacteria (BAC) and AM fungi (IRM and ERM). Abbreviations: BAC, N-fixing bacteroid; BM, Bacteroid membrane; ERM, Extraradical mycelium; FA, Fatty acids; FM, Fungal plasma membrane; IRM, Intraradical mycelium; PM, Periarbuscular membrane; SM, Symbiosome membrane.
AM fungi have stronger effects on plant gene expression than rhizobia [96], but our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the C allocation to individual root symbionts is limiting. An overexpression of a leaf sucrose phosphate synthase of
Endophytes are defined as organisms that live inside plant hosts for at least part of their lives, without causing apparent disease symptoms in the host as a result of this colonization [100]. Fungal and bacterial endophytes are nearly ubiquitous across all groups of vascular plants [101], but there is a large biological diversity among endophytes, and it is not rare for some plant species to host hundreds of different endophytic species [102]. Fungal endophytes have been shown to enhance growth and seed production or protect against environmental stresses such as drought or P deficiency or provide defense against herbivory through the synthesis of various biologically active metabolites, such as alkaloids. In soybeans diverse communities of fungal endophytes can be found, and several of these endophytes have plant growth-promoting capabilities and enhance, for example, soybean growth in nickel- or copper-contaminated soils by reducing the levels of stress-related phytohormones such as abscisic acid and jasmonic acid [103]; or increase glutathione activities and thereby reduce oxidative stress [104]. The inoculation of soybean plants with fungal endophytes can also lead to higher shoot biomasses, chlorophyll contents, and photosynthetic rates compared to noninoculated soybeans under salt stress and decrease the abundances of SCN in soils [105].
Soybeans host also a diverse group of bacterial endophytes, and many endophytic bacteria have plant growth-promoting capabilities [106], such as the ability to produce plant growth hormones, or ACC (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate) deaminase, solubilize phosphate, or release antimicrobial metabolites or siderophores that can inhibit the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. ACC deaminase reduces the levels of ethylene, an important stress hormone in plants. Several endophytic bacteria are also diazotrophs and have like rhizobia bacteria the ability to fix N. Bacterial endophytes also interact with rhizobia bacteria and can enhance root nodulation and activity, and as a consequence, the N content of soybean plants [107]. The dual inoculation with rhizobia and a salt-tolerant bacterial endophyte led to synergistic responses and promoted the fitness of soybean plants under salt stress [108].
Beneficial plant microbe interactions with AM fungi, rhizobia, or bacterial and fungal endophytes have enormous potential to improve plant growth and nutrient uptake in stressful environments and to increase the environmental sustainability of soybean agriculture. However, while the beneficial effects of AM fungi and rhizobia on soybean productivity are long known, the effect of only a small number of endophytes is currently known. The plant microbiome is a still unexplored resource of microorganisms with a so far hidden potential to promote plant growth and success under abiotic or biotic stress conditions, and with unknown effects on the plant phenotype.
The obligate lifestyle of AM fungi has made for a long time the production of fungal inoculum in large quantities difficult, but the development of sterile transgenic root organ cultures has led to an increased commercialization of AM fungal inocula for the utilization in agroecosystems [109]. Although increases in yield and biomass have been reported in different crops after inoculation with these inocula [36, 110], in other studies, inconsistent or neutral effects were observed [111]. AM fungi differ in the benefit that they provide for their host plant [112], and mycorrhizal growth responses are highly context dependent. Several factors can alter the success of AM fungal inoculation in agroecosystems, including plant/fungal compatibility, the degree of competition with the native microbial population, or timing of inoculation [113]. All these aspects need to be taken into consideration to find the most adapted and specific conditions for an efficient use of AM fungal inocula in a given field or for a certain crop. Our current understanding of the effect of beneficial plant microbes on soybeans is mainly based on studies with single symbiont, but plant productivity and stress resistance in agroecosystems depend on diverse microbial communities and the interactions among the different microorganisms in these communities. Identifying and characterizing the molecular mechanisms responsible for the functioning of different plant microbe interactions is crucial to harness these symbiotic microorganisms in agroecosystems. Currently, most knowledge is gathered on model legumes, such as
We wish to acknowledge funding from the USDA (2017-67014-26530), the SD Soybean Research and Promotion Council, the Agricultural Experiment Station at SDSU, and the funding from the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service (NCARS) for K.G.
The authors have no conflict of interest.
Climate change and increasing energy demand have emphasized research on sustainable energy source [1, 2]. Day-by-day increase of human population and global requirements has compelled researchers to develop new renewable sustainable energy sources in replacement of hydrocarbon deposits [3]. Renewable sources such as solar power, wind, and water, storage of these energies for on-demand utilization, and transportation are the major challenges for researchers. To develop a clean and eco-friendly environment, splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen is a tremendous way to produce sustainable energy. Hydrogen gas emerged as a green energy fuel due to its high-energy density and zero carbon dioxide (CO2) emission [4, 5, 6]. In this regard, electrocatalytic and photocatalytic H2 generation from water has been considered as one of the most striking approaches [7, 8, 9]. In recent years, a substantial number of artificial photosynthesis have been developed, exploited solar power as electron and proton source to make a clean renewable fuel [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. Light-induced splitting of water is a suitable process because the production of hydrogen is used as green fuel in future and even used for the synthesis of other chemicals [15, 16, 17, 18].
Literature reports suggested more than 500 billion cubic meters (44.5 million tons) of hydrogen gas is produce yearly worldwide [19, 20]. In the current scenario, steam methane refining, coal gasification, and water electrolysis are the major way for hydrogen production. Nowadays 95% hydrogen gas is produced from steam methane reforming and coal gasification, however only 4% hydrogen from water electrolysis. Steam methane is a high-energy-intensive process maintained at high temperature with the formation of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide: (i) CH4 + H2O = CO + 3H2 (ii) CO + H2O = CO2 + H2. Hence, it is not an eco-friendly method for hydrogen production. Water electrolysis is the most sustainable and clean approach for hydrogen production because its source is abundant. Since the most suitable way of light-driven energy conversion is water electrolysis, artificial photosynthesis (PS II) has been considered as primary goal to produce electron and proton [21, 22]. Water splitting is a redox reaction in which aqueous protons are reduced into H2 at cathode and water is oxidized to O2 at anode [23]. Both H2 (HER) and O2 (OER) reactions are rigorously coupled, which may lead to the formation of explosive H2/O2 mixtures due to gas crossover [24, 25, 26]. By far, only a few stable metal complexes as catalysts are achieved that can decompose water into H2 and O2 [27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. Water-splitting reactions are split into two half-reactions: water oxidation to O2 evolution and water reduction to H2 production:
The limitation of OER is that it takes place after the successive accumulation of four oxidized electrons and protons in Kok cycle (catalytic cycle of the water oxidation in PS II) that require much higher overpotential input than that of HER [32]. Thermodynamic potential is different for H+/H2 (0 V vs. NHE) and OH-/O2 (1.23 V vs. NHE), and the overall solar energy conversion efficiency is only ∼15% in OER [33]. The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER, 2H+ + 2e- = H2) is the cathodic reaction with the two-electron transfer in one catalytic intermediate and offers the potential to hydrogen production. However, hydrogen production technology requires proficient electrocatalysts and photocatalysts which support two key electrode reactions (OER and HER) at lower overpotentials.
Moreover discussion on the mechanism of HER, H+ adsorption on the hydrogen evolution catalyst surface is the first step, known as Volmer step, followed by Heyrovsky or Tafel steps shown in Figure 1. A suitable HER catalyst always binds H+ very fast and releases the product. Hence, electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) facilitates for H2 production on large-scale.
The inside mechanism of H2 evolution of electrocatalyst in acidic solution.
Afterwards, H2 evolution may occur via two different reaction mechanisms depending on the action of catalyst [34]. Hydronium cation (H3O+) is the proton source in acidic solution, and in alkaline condition H2O is the proton source. In Volmer-Tafel mechanism, two protons absorbed on the catalytic surface can combine to form H-H bond to yield H2. In Heyrovsky reaction route, a second electron and another proton from the solution are transferred to the catalyst surface which reacts with the absorbed H atom and generate H2. This is an electrochemical desorption pathway. Precious metal like Pt-based electrocatalysts is highly reactive for HER and is usually pursuing Volmer-Tafel mechanism. Lately few literatures [35, 36, 37] have been reported on Ni-based electrocatalysts which follows Volmer-Heyrovsky path.
Electrocatalytic water splitting is driven by passing the electric current through the water; conversion of electrical energy to chemical energy takes place at electrode through charge transfer process. During this process, water reacts at the anode form O2 and hydrogen (proton) produce at the cathode as we mentioned earlier. Suitable electrocatalysts can maximally reduce the overpotential which is highly desirable for driving a specific electrochemical reaction. However, the process of surface catalytic reactions in electrocatalysis is very similar to photocatalysis [38]. Photocatalytic is a simple water-splitting reaction in which H2 and O2 are produced from water by utilizing the energy of sunlight. Figure 2(a) shows the process of photocatalysis in which a metal catalyst contains chromophores that immersed solar energy and triggered the electron transfer reaction. The most important criteria for the solar-driven water-splitting reaction are electronic band gap matching of the photosensitive material to the redox potential of water [39]. Metal complexes act as chromophore associated with mainly three types of electron transfer: metal center (MC), ligand center (LC), and metal–ligand center transition (MLCT). The MLCT state of the metal complex plays a crucial role in photocatalytic reactions. In octahedral complexes with conjugated ligand system, the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) corresponds to the metal-localized t2g-orbitals, and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) is associated with anti-bonding π*-orbital localized on the ligands. On the absorption of UV–visible light, an electron is promoted from one of the metal-centered t2g orbitals to a ligand-centered π* orbital, resulting in the MLCT state shown in Figure 2(b). As a result, the redox properties of the metal complexes are dramatically changed. The excited metal complexes behave as better oxidants and better reductants than their electronic ground state and can hold more thermodynamic driving force for the charge transfer reactions. Based on the photo-induced redox potential changes and the long-lived lifetime of the excited state, many metal complexes have been intensively investigated as chromophores for this photocatalytic H2 production purpose [40]. Zou and coworkers have described various photocatalytic systems for H2 production, which exposed that most of the photocatalytic systems suffer photodecomposition and instability [40]. Hence, for long-term use, it is imperative to build up highly proficient H2 generation systems with long lifetimes and high durability. Many reviews have been published on solar H2 evolution systems based on photocatalysts [41, 42, 43, 44].
(a) Photocatalyst system for water splitting. (b) Molecular orbital diagram for d6 metal complex chromophores.
So far, extensive theoretical study has been revealed, the possible mechanistic process of proton reduction to hydrogen evolution through transition metal molecular catalyst. A generalized mechanistic scheme depicting the homolytic and heterolytic path is shown in Figure 3. The homolytic mechanism involves bimetallic route, where a metal hydride species ([Mn+–H]) react with another metal hydride to release one H2 via reductive elimination. Instead, heterolytic is a monometallic pathway, where the metal hydride [Mn+–H] is further reduce and protonated for H2 evolution [45]. Both pathways function simultaneously, two protons and two electrons are delivered to the metal center, and in few cases, the pH, catalytic concentration, and proton source decide the dominant route [46]. During the past decade, a number of review articles emphases on the structural property relationship and mechanistic study [45, 47, 48, 49]. Among all research on catalyzed H2 evolution, the mechanistic investigation on proton reduction catalysis is essential because it can give us a significant idea to design better molecular catalysts in the future [49].
Proposed homolytic and heterolytic mechanisms for H2 evolution via the formation of a metal hydride (M-H) intermediate.
Here we start by describing the fundamental concept of metal and organic ligand system which gives a strong influence on the performance of H2 evolution. Transition metal cations with partial filled d-electronic configurations are considered as catalyst. The characteristic feature of this type of catalyst is that the metal ions can exist in higher oxidation state [44]. There are several literatures reported with partially filled d-orbital which show high stability toward water-splitting reactions [50, 51, 52, 53]. However, the most catalytic system requires very high temperature and precious metal at the active site; therefore, it will be a challenge for researchers to develop a photocatalytic and electrocatalytic system at low temperature with low-cost metal [54, 55, 56, 57]. Indeed, first-row transition metal complexes (Co, Ni, Cu, Zn) have been exploited in the last few decades for this purpose. Beyond the reactivity of metal, the redox activity of organic ligands has also received continuous attention. The redox-active ligand works as electron sink in the complexes and maintains the metal in its original oxidation state. Redox-active ligands convey a novel reactivity to the complex by loss or gain of electrons [58]. In addition, the redox-active property of the ligand can also be influenced by the modification of the substituents by σ and π donating ability, π accepting ability, and conjugation [59]. A highly conjugated system such as bpy, porphyries, and ortho-phenylenediamine (opda) having anti-bonding π*-orbital localized on the ligands is considered for hydrogen production due to its multielectron or multiproton pooling ability which is responsible for dramatically changing the potential of redox properties [60, 61]. Substituents attached to redox-active ligands, electron density, and charge on the metal ions also effect the standard electrode potential.
So far, considerable advancement has been done in the field of electrocatalytic and photocatalytic water-splitting reaction for hydrogen production, and several advance review papers have been reported by scientists [40, 51, 62, 63, 64]. However, very limited comprehensive tutorial has published on only first-row transition metal-based catalysts. This chapter describes electrocatalytic as well photocatalytic properties of inorganic catalysts and their structural and mechanistic features. Here we put an effort elucidate the direction of fundamental mechanistic aspects during electrocatalytic and photocatalytic hydrogen (H2) production reaction (HER).
Masaki Yoshida et al. [65] developed a series of 3D-transition metal complexes with
a. Photochemistry of aromatic amine (opda)
b. Redox properties of opda complex
Structure of redox-active ligands, electrocatalysts, and photocatalysts.
In the past M. Yoshida and coworkers proposed [Fe-opda] for photochemical HER mechanism at photoirradiation of λ = 298 nm; ππ* excitation occurred in complex with N-H bond homolysis process, followed by H2 elimination [67]. After this process, the opda ligands in the complex were partially oxidized to bqdi or s-bqdi ligands. This mechanism is based on the deep-rooted photochemical N-H bond activation of aromatic amines. Theoretical study and ultrafast spectroscopic studies of amino benzene support that the photochemical N-H fission occurs by the photoexcitation to higher-lying ππ* level which leads to the formation of the πσ* state [68]. Photochemical mechanism for HER of all complexes is shown in Figure 4.
Plausible mechanism for photochemical HER with [M-opda] complexes.
All opda-based metal complexes display photochemical HER activities with the formation of almost one equivalent of H2 gas. However, the HER was not observed at all in the dark in all complexes, which suggests that the HER was obsessed by photochemical reaction. Moreover, they observed remarkable decrease in hydrogen evolution reaction, while the ligand is replaced with aromatic amines. This experiment suggested that the photo-induced HER activities of the complexes in this case are weakly dependent on the central metal ion and strongly dependent on the redox-active ligand. Further to check the metal ion dependency, examine the catalytic hydrogen production in the presence of hydroquinone (HQ; 10 equiv) as a sacrificial electron-proton donor. The photochemical H2 production from [M-opda] (7.98 × 10−2 mmol) with HQ (7.98 × 10−1 mmol) in THF (4 mL) under an N2 atmosphere at 20°C for 190 h turns over the number for all the complexes given in Table 2. Difference in TON may be caused by the stability of each complexes.
Catalysts | Redox-active organic ligands | Catalytic potential (Ep) | Solvent | TON(H2 mol cat−1) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[1]a | ---- | THF | 5.5 | [65] | |
[2] | ---- | THF | 2.9 | [67] | |
[3] | ---- | THF | 0.99 | [65] | |
[4] | ---- | THF | 0.51 | [65] | |
[5] | ---- | THF | 0.73 | [65] | |
[6]b | Diimine-dioxime | −0.68 V vs. Fc+/0 | H2O/CH3CN | 300 | [70] |
[7] | Diimine-dioxime | −0.96 V vs. Fc+/0 | H2O/CH3CN | 50 | [70] |
[8] | Bis(thiosemicarbazone) | −1.7 V vs. Fc/Fc+ | CH3CN | 37 | [74] |
[9] | Bis(thiosemicarbazone) | −1.7 V vs. Fc/Fc+ | CH3CN | 73 | [75] |
[10]c | Diamine-tripyridine | −0.90 V vs. Fc+/0 | acidic-H2O | 1.4x 104 | [70] |
[11]d | TMPA | −1.81 V vs. SCE | CH3CN/H2O | 6180 | [76] |
[12] | Cl-TMPA | −1.72 V vs. SCE | CH3CN/H2O | 10,014 | [76] |
[13] | Bis(benzenedithiolate) | −2.25 V vs. SCE | CH3CN | 0 | [77] |
[14] | −1.64 V vs. SCE | CH3CN | 6190 | [77] | |
[15] | −2.03 V vs. SCE | CH3CN | 900 | [77] | |
[16] | 2-Mercaptophenolate | −1.62 V vs. SCE | CH3CN | 5600 | [77] |
Electrochemical data and catalytic efficiency of metal complexes for water-splitting hydrogen evolution reaction.
a = photochemical H2 production from [M-opda 1–5] (7.98 × 10−2 mmol) with HQ (7.98 × 10−1 mmol) in (4 mL) under an N2 atmosphere at
V. Artero and coworker synthesized cobalt diimine-dioxime complexes as molecular catalysts for H2 evolution [69, 70]. This synthesized ligand (N2, N2−propanediylbis-butan-2-imine-3-oxime) has emerged many years ago through Schiff base condensation of butanedione-monoximeon diamine compounds but not widely used for HER. Cobalt diimine-dioxime catalysts are active for H2 evolution in aqueous solution, both after immobilization on electrode materials and in light-driven homogeneous conditions. The electrocatalytic activity of complexes (
Cyclic voltammograms of
In the electrocatalytic cycle, V. Artero and coworker observed that in acetonitrile medium, halide ligands are banished with reduced oxidation state from CoII to CoI. Upon reduction, the coordination in number decreases from six in CoII state to five in CoI state; this characteristic was supported by DFT calculations [71]. In the catalytic cycle (Figure 6), the first step is the transfer of electron and proton by proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) process. PCET is a chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electron and proton in which the oxidation number changes by CoII to CoI. In the second steps, further electron and proton transfer takes place by PCET process, and the oxidation number changes from CoI to CoII. In the last step, H2 is produced in dihydrogen bond through an intramolecular mechanism. The authors also confirmed cobalt diimine-dioxime catalysts
Possible pathway for catalytic hydrogen evolution, involving PCET processes.
Similarly, cobalt bis(iminopyridine) complex
Grapperhaus et al. [74] recently reported two homogeneous electrocatalysts for H2 production. They derived bis(thiosemicarbazones) ligand from 1,2-diones, considered as a kind of multitalented redox non-innocent system. Tetra-coordinated N2S2 is able to bind with low-valent transition metals centered and formed to stable neutral complexes (
Plausible mechanism for proton reduction in complex [CuL].
Professor Wang and group proposed [75] a significant homogeneous mononuclear copper electrocatalyst for H2 production attributed to diamine-tripyridine ligand; complex
Path A:
Path B:
According to the author’s studies on the mechanism of this process, the controlled potential electrolysis of complex
Moreover, Wang et al. [76] fabricated and examined two Cu complexes with TMPA = tris(2-pyridyl)methylamine and Cl-TMPA 1-(6-chloropyridin-2-yl)methyl-
Based on the control potential electrolysis experimental data, the authors proposed photocatalytic hydrogen evolution mechanism. In the first step, excited PS system takes out one electron from TEA and donates to CuII center of complex
Photocatalytic H2 evolution mechanism for complex [Cu(Cl-TMPA)Cl2]
Professor Richard Eisenberg and coworker [77] synthesized a sequence of nickel bis(chelate) complexes; all complexes attained square planar geometry and examined photocatalytic as well as electrocatalytic behavior for hydrogen evolution. Fluorescein (Fl) as the photosensitizer along with triethanolamine (TEOA) as the sacrificial electron donor was used in water under basic medium (pH = 9.8). Bis(chelate) complexes (
Here we present a recent development of molecular catalysts toward clean and renewable fuels using earth-abundant metals. We have highlighted a series of Co-, Ni-, Cu-, Zn-based complexes for HER. We have recapitulated the fundamental principles of hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions with molecular complexes. The designing and fabrication of the molecular complexes with redox-active ligands have been discussed in details; HER activity of the complexes strongly dependent on redox-active ligands as well the central metal ions are discussed in detail. A mechanistic approach and transfer of electron and proton during the homogeneous electrocatalyst and photocatalysts cycle are given in point. Although reasonable progress has been made in the development of metal complexes based electrocatalysts and chromospheres for photocatalytic hydrogen production, still several issues exist which need further improvement: (i) some photocatalytic systems suffer from low activities and short life times which is manifested in the instability of catalytic systems and so concern on the systems with modest water splitting activity and poor stability of the complexes. (ii) most of the complexes are not soluble in water leading to the use of organic solvent or mixture of organic- water solvent. From the future prospective, it is required to develop redox-active ligands with substituted functional group to increase the solubility of complexes in water. More experimental, spectroscopic, magnetic, and theoretical investigations is still needed to be carried out in order to understand the ligand- and metal-centered electron transfer processes. (iii) In addition, the overpotential requirements for most of the organic ligands are still very high, a chelating ligands giving much lower thermodynamic potentials and much smaller oxidation potential that should be utilized in future. (iv) In the regard of future growth in this field, with the need to design molecular complexes that can be immobilized on the surface of the electrode, for this purpose addition of suitable functional group in the ligand is necessity. These complexes can also be supported by the development of surface of the solid photocatalyst, like TiO2, BiVO4, etc. to demonstrate efficient photoelectrochemical cell.
The authors acknowledges the helps received from Ms. Priyadarshini Sahu and Mr. Abhineet Verma during the manuscript preparation.
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Programs",slug:"quality-management-systems-for-laboratories-and-external-quality-assurance-programs",totalDownloads:4659,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"A quality management system (QMS) plans, controls, and improves the elements that impact on the achievement of the desired results by the laboratory and on the satisfaction of the users. There are different standards that establish requirements for the implementation of a quality management system for laboratories, and a cross comparison between them is shown. Additionally, external quality assurance or assessment (EQA) programs offer multiple benefits to laboratories: method validation, comparing of results with other laboratories, testing problem identification, accreditation requirement compliance, and credibility. In order to control the quality of the procedures, these programs are a tool to keep the laboratory procedures and every variable involved in (staff, equipment, and method) well controlled. In the frame of a quality management system, benefits from external quality assurance programs are discussed, and different available designs are reviewed. On the other hand, previous benefits will be real only if reported results for each program are analyzed in detail. Because additional advantages are achieved when the EQA results are integrated in the quality management system of the laboratory, a procedure is proposed. In addition, results from external quality assurance programs corroborate the usefulness of internal controls implemented by the laboratory as part of its quality management system.",book:{id:"6325",slug:"quality-control-in-laboratory",title:"Quality Control in Laboratory",fullTitle:"Quality Control in Laboratory"},signatures:"Verónica Valdivieso-Gómez and Rocío Aguilar-Quesada",authors:[{id:"217457",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rocio",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Quesada",slug:"rocio-aguilar-quesada",fullName:"Rocio Aguilar-Quesada"},{id:"217467",title:"Ms.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Valdivieso-Gomez",slug:"veronica-valdivieso-gomez",fullName:"Veronica Valdivieso-Gomez"}]},{id:"41063",title:"Cosmetics’ Quality Control",slug:"cosmetics-quality-control",totalDownloads:12708,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3276",slug:"latest-research-into-quality-control",title:"Latest Research into Quality Control",fullTitle:"Latest Research into Quality Control"},signatures:"Bruna Galdorfini Chiari, Maria Gabriela José de Almeida, Marcos Antonio Corrêa and Vera Lucia Borges Isaac",authors:[{id:"35801",title:"Dr.",name:"Vera",middleName:null,surname:"Isaac",slug:"vera-isaac",fullName:"Vera Isaac"},{id:"56070",title:"MSc.",name:"Bruna",middleName:null,surname:"Chiari",slug:"bruna-chiari",fullName:"Bruna Chiari"},{id:"56072",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Corręa",slug:"marcos-antonio-correa",fullName:"Marcos Antonio Corręa"},{id:"154324",title:"BSc.",name:"Maria Gabriela José De",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida",slug:"maria-gabriela-jose-de-almeida",fullName:"Maria Gabriela José De Almeida"}]},{id:"58071",title:"Systematic Error Detection in Laboratory Medicine",slug:"systematic-error-detection-in-laboratory-medicine",totalDownloads:1792,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Measurements in laboratory medicine have a degree of uncertainty; this uncertainty is often called “error” and refers to imprecisions and inaccuracies in measurement. This measurement error refers to the difference between the true value of the measured sample and the measured value. One of the types of error is systematic error, also called bias, because these errors errors are reproducible and skew the results consistently in the same direction. A common approach to identify systematic error is to use control samples with a method comparison approach. An alternative is use of statistical methods that analyze actual patient values either as an “Average of Normals” or a “Moving Patient Averages.” Fundamental questions should be decided before a quality control method is used: how are weights assigned to the results? Is preference given to more recent samples or to the older samples? How sensitive should the model be? In this chapter, we will expand the fundamental notion of systematic error and explain why it is difficult to identify and measure and current statistical methods that are used to detect systematic error or bias.",book:{id:"6325",slug:"quality-control-in-laboratory",title:"Quality Control in Laboratory",fullTitle:"Quality Control in Laboratory"},signatures:"Amir Momeni-Boroujeni and Matthew R. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"190041",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Fernandez",slug:"jose-gutierrez-fernandez",fullName:"Jose Gutierrez Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",slug:"maria-teresa-mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",institutionString:"Sapienza University",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",slug:"monica-alexandra-sousa-oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164933/images/system/164933.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge",institution:{name:"National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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