Bio-ethanol production by major US domestic producers.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8109",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Arthropods - Are They Beneficial for Mankind?",title:"Arthropods",subtitle:"Are They Beneficial for Mankind?",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents comprehensive information on arthropods, the most abundant and diverse group of invertebrate animals in existence today. Chapters cover such topics as arthropods as food for humans, arthropods as a bioindicator species, use of arthropods in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, arthropods and their conservation status, diets for raising arthropods, and much more. It is a useful reference for undergraduate and graduate students, academics, researchers, and anyone interested in learning more about this important group of invertebrates and their current conservation status.",isbn:"978-1-78984-166-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-165-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-752-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77940",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"arthropods-are-they-beneficial-for-mankind-",numberOfPages:232,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"55116f0344314d5aa595b035d7d401a1",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",publishedDate:"November 24th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8109.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2855,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 9th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 8th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 26th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 27th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193813/images/system/193813.png",biography:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz received an Agricultural Engineering degree from the Austral University of Chile in 1986 and a Doctor of Agricultural Engineering with a mention in Plant Protection from the Polytechnic University of Madrid in 1994. He has worked on more than seventeen research projects on agricultural entomology, biodiversity, and beekeeping. He has published eighty-five scientific articles in national and foreign specialty journals. He has written one book and five book chapters in his specialty. In addition, he has been editor of four books on applied entomology. He has presented more than 100 works in different national and international scientific congresses on entomology and beekeeping. He has directed more than eighty undergraduate and graduate degree theses. He is a member of the scientific communities of beekeeping and entomology and has continued to organize more than twenty scientific congresses and seminars in his specialty. He is a reviewer for scientific journals and books. He has been president and director of different scientific societies and advisor to the Chilean Beekeeping Network, where he is also a consultant to the Latin American Beekeeping Federation for the congresses held in different countries. He is also an advisor to private companies in the agricultural sector on beekeeping and pest control issues.",institutionString:"University of La Frontera",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of La Frontera",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"31",title:"Animal Biology",slug:"animal-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"75778",title:"Arthropods in Cosmetics, Pharmaceuticals and Medicine: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96159",slug:"arthropods-in-cosmetics-pharmaceuticals-and-medicine-a-review",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Apart from food, other important needs in the care of human bodies are cosmetics and drugs. For long the latter two are obtained from chemical formulations and phytochemicals (commonly used in Ethnomedicine), use of bioactive compounds from insects (i.e. “ento medicine” and “ento cosmetics”) is a recent development in research, even though the bioactive compounds were discovered long ago. This chapter is a review on a number of substances extracted from various insect species that are useful in cosmetics, pharmaceutical industries as well as those that form part of prescription for healing in orthodox and traditional medicine. The review is based on information from scientific reports, Google, e-library, textbooks. A number of substances were found to have been incorporated into cosmetic and pharmaceutical products and as part of prescriptions for healing in orthodox medicine, many others at elementary stages of investigation, purification and development. The findings showed that insects have a lot of bioactive substances that need to be harnessed for the good man.",signatures:"Cordelia Ebenebe, Simon Okweche, Oghale Okore, Valentine Okpoko, Maduabuchi Amobi, Joan Nneamaka Eze, Benedeth Ezenyilimba and Michael Okonkwo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75778",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75778",authors:[{id:"295207",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cordelia",surname:"Ebenebe",slug:"cordelia-ebenebe",fullName:"Cordelia Ebenebe"},{id:"295853",title:"Mr.",name:"Maduabuci",surname:"Amobi",slug:"maduabuci-amobi",fullName:"Maduabuci Amobi"},{id:"295854",title:"Mr.",name:"Valentine",surname:"Okpoko",slug:"valentine-okpoko",fullName:"Valentine Okpoko"},{id:"344137",title:"Mrs.",name:"Bernadethe",surname:"Ezenyilimba",slug:"bernadethe-ezenyilimba",fullName:"Bernadethe Ezenyilimba"},{id:"344138",title:"Dr.",name:"Oghalo",surname:"Okore",slug:"oghalo-okore",fullName:"Oghalo Okore"},{id:"344139",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",surname:"Okweche",slug:"simon-okweche",fullName:"Simon Okweche"},{id:"344140",title:"Mr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Okonkwo",slug:"michael-okonkwo",fullName:"Michael Okonkwo"},{id:"444083",title:"Dr.",name:"Joan Nneamaka",surname:"Eze",slug:"joan-nneamaka-eze",fullName:"Joan Nneamaka Eze"}],corrections:null},{id:"76174",title:"Pollinators: Their Evolution, Ecology, Management, and Conservation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97153",slug:"pollinators-their-evolution-ecology-management-and-conservation",totalDownloads:359,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Insect pollinators are a rich and diverse group of species that have coevolved with plants to create biodiverse and productive landscapes that support ecosystem services. Bees, beetles, flies, butterflies, moths, and even ants participating in moving pollen within and between flowers, assisting the reproduction of more than 80% of all flowering plants. The value of insect pollinators to ecosystems and economies is both large and immeasurable. One of three bites of food eaten is pollinated, and countless raw materials and natural products are the result of the visitation of flowers by insects. Yet, these keystone species face survival challenges driven by habitat loss, pests, disease, pesticides, and climate change. Conservation, restoration, and management seek to build back resilience into these systems, without which our world would be unrecognizable.",signatures:"Victoria Wojcik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76174",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76174",authors:[{id:"334215",title:"Dr.",name:"Victoria",surname:"Wojcik",slug:"victoria-wojcik",fullName:"Victoria Wojcik"}],corrections:null},{id:"73047",title:"Seasonal Dynamics on Spider Population in Pathiramanal Island, Kerala, India: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93411",slug:"seasonal-dynamics-on-spider-population-in-pathiramanal-island-kerala-india-a-case-study",totalDownloads:192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Impact of temperature, rainfall, and humidity varied across different seasons, and the spiders responded differently in each season. Spider community reaches its peak in growing season (October to January). The growing season is recorded as the period with average temperature, rainfall, and relative humidity and which is found to be more suitable for spider population to increase, because highest proportion of spiders is trapped during this season. Ecological factors diminished the spider fauna from February to May (dry season) with high temperature and then gradually decreased through June to September (rainy season) because of heavy rainfall. Correlation analysis of variables with species richness and number of individuals is tested to check the statistical significance between them. Season-wise dendrogram is plotted to show the similarity between the seasons. For the estimation of spider diversity in three different seasons, indices such as Fisher alpha diversity index, Shannon diversity index and Simpson’s diversity index are evaluated.",signatures:"Jobi J. Malamel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73047",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73047",authors:[{id:"325786",title:"Dr.",name:"Jobi J.",surname:"Malamel",slug:"jobi-j.-malamel",fullName:"Jobi J. Malamel"}],corrections:null},{id:"76877",title:"Bacterial Disease Control Methods in Shrimp (Penaeus, 1798) Farming Sector in Asian Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93680",slug:"bacterial-disease-control-methods-in-shrimp-em-penaeus-em-1798-farming-sector-in-asian-countries",totalDownloads:359,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aquaculture industry produces the enormous amount of sea foods (fish, shrimp, planktons, etc.) with enriched quantity of proteins, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, and micronutrients and also possesses the medicinal values. This production industry is very important to meet out the need of the global population. Recently, different culture practices for aquatic culturing organisms were developed in practices, where the risk of infection and diseases outbreak also increased which leads to the production loss to the aquatic sector. Several conventional methods are used to prevent the diseases probiotics, antibiotics, plants, immmunostimulants, proteins, immune proteins enhancement, nanoparticles, etc. At the same time, these treatment techniques also have merits and demerits to execute into the practical platform. For instance, chemical or antibiotics treatment into the culture system leads to the some adverse effects in culturing organisms, environment, and also consumer. In this chapter, various diseases caused by the bacterial strains and its control strategies in the shrimp farming industry to enhance the aquaculture are discussed.",signatures:"Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli, Kiyun Park, Ihn–Sil Kwak and Vaseeharan Baskaralingam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76877",authors:[{id:"325436",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeyachandran",surname:"Sivakamavalli",slug:"jeyachandran-sivakamavalli",fullName:"Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli"},{id:"346532",title:"Dr.",name:"Kiyun",surname:"Park",slug:"kiyun-park",fullName:"Kiyun Park"},{id:"346533",title:"Dr.",name:"Inh-Sil",surname:"Kwak",slug:"inh-sil-kwak",fullName:"Inh-Sil Kwak"},{id:"346534",title:"Dr.",name:"Vaseeharan",surname:"Baskaralingam",slug:"vaseeharan-baskaralingam",fullName:"Vaseeharan Baskaralingam"}],corrections:null},{id:"75802",title:"Ants as Indicators of Terrestrial Ecosystem Rehabilitation Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96722",slug:"ants-as-indicators-of-terrestrial-ecosystem-rehabilitation-processes",totalDownloads:313,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Habitat transformation is one of the main drivers of the ecosystem degradation on earth that is ameliorated by restoring some of the degraded ecosystems by regaining their natural ecological functions with all their biotic and abiotic components. The biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem under restoration can be used to assess the response of the ecosystem to the restoration. Ideal variable to use as the indicator should be able respond positively to the diminishing elements that we causing the degradation and interact positively to some of the biotic and abiotic components expected to prevail when the ecosystem is fully restored. One of such variable is ants. We here provide the information about the eligibility of using ants as indicators of terrestrial ecosystems undergoing restoration and sampling and basic analytical methods to apply when implanting ants at assessing ecosystem undergoing restoration.",signatures:"Hendrik Sithole and Nolubabalo Tantsi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75802",authors:[{id:"333308",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hendrik",surname:"Sithole",slug:"hendrik-sithole",fullName:"Hendrik Sithole"},{id:"335032",title:"MSc.",name:"Nolubabalo",surname:"Tantsi",slug:"nolubabalo-tantsi",fullName:"Nolubabalo Tantsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74169",title:"Biomonitoring Ecosystem: Modelling Relationship with Arthropods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94313",slug:"biomonitoring-ecosystem-modelling-relationship-with-arthropods",totalDownloads:381,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Arthropods community structure and composition provides multiscale information about an environment health. Their reproduction and growth model are effective to assess the impact on ecosystem in response to stress such as anthropogenic activities (climate change) or natural (drought). Terrestrial and aquatic insects are potential bio-indicators. Terrestrial insects are an excellent model to assess the quality of terrestrial ecosystem. These insect species are assayed to detect metallic pollution and forest abundance. Soil and litter arthropods are used for examining soil quality. Honey bee mortality rates and the residues such as heavy metals, fungicides and herbicides presence in honey are good indicator of environmental pollution. The specificity of food and habitat selection by wasp population make it suitable for assessing habitat quality. Similarly butterflies habitat itself signifies a healthy ecosystem because of their sensitivity to even slightest change. Different arthropods act as keystone species and these keystone interactions also reveal many facets of an ecosystem quality. Similarly fly population such as Drosophila subobscura and their shift in the genetic composition indicate the global climate warming. The arthropods are explored as screening platform to understand the ecosystem resilience to disturbances. These underscores arthropods potential for evaluation of environmental impact and global climate change.",signatures:"Jinu Medhi, Jintu Dutta and Mohan Chandra Kalita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74169",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74169",authors:[{id:"330124",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jinu",surname:"Medhi",slug:"jinu-medhi",fullName:"Jinu Medhi"},{id:"330929",title:"Dr.",name:"Jintu",surname:"Dutta",slug:"jintu-dutta",fullName:"Jintu Dutta"},{id:"332901",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohan Chandra",surname:"Kalita",slug:"mohan-chandra-kalita",fullName:"Mohan Chandra Kalita"}],corrections:null},{id:"74612",title:"Vertical Arthropod Dynamics across Organic Matter Fractions in Relation to Microclimate and Plant Phenology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94747",slug:"vertical-arthropod-dynamics-across-organic-matter-fractions-in-relation-to-microclimate-and-plant-ph",totalDownloads:292,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plant diversity is a key factor influencing belowground dynamics including microclimate and decomposer arthropod communities. This study addresses the effect of individual plant species on belowground arthropods by focusing on seasonal variations in precipitation, temperature and arthropods along the vertical organic matter profile. In the Guanica Dry Forest, Puerto Rico, microclimate was described and 5 plant species and 10 trees/species were selected. Under each tree, for one year, temperature was measured and samples collected along the organic matter fractions. Collected arthropods were standardized to ind/m2, identified to Order/Family and assigned to morphotypes. The annual temperature pattern was similar for all species and OM fractions. Arthropod abundance was similar among plant species and higher in humus than in litter fractions. Richness and species composition were different among plant species and OM fractions. All plant species and OM fractions showed low arthropod abundance and richness, and similar arthropod species composition in the dry season, while in the wet season abundance and richness were higher and species composition varied across plant species and OM fractions. These data suggest that arthropods form specific assemblages under plant species and stages of decomposition that, during the dry season, represent a subgroup adapted to extreme environmental conditions.",signatures:"María F. Barberena-Arias and Elvira Cuevas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74612",authors:[{id:"118358",title:"Dr.",name:"Elvira",surname:"Cuevas",slug:"elvira-cuevas",fullName:"Elvira Cuevas"},{id:"463152",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria F.",surname:"Barberena-Arias",slug:"maria-f.-barberena-arias",fullName:"Maria F. Barberena-Arias"}],corrections:null},{id:"78987",title:"Mixed Diets Enhance Edible Grasshopper, Ruspolia differens (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) Performance during Mass Rearing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100552",slug:"mixed-diets-enhance-edible-grasshopper-em-ruspolia-differens-em-orthoptera-tettigoniidae-performance",totalDownloads:114,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mixing of diets is a notable dietary practice that is believed to improve performance-related characteristics such as growth, survival rate and egg-laying potential among insect herbivores. However, currently there is limited information regarding the performance of edible insects either on artificial and natural diets or their mixtures. This chapter reviewed recent literature on performance of a seasonally harvested and a widely consumed edible grasshopper, Ruspolia differens (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) reared on various artificial and natural diets. Our aim is to highlight diets and diet mixtures that results in the highest R. differens production. The results of the review show that R. differens performs better on mixed diets than on single or less diversified diets. In all reviewed studies, edible grasshoppers fed mixed diets either of natural plants or artificial diets achieved highest final weights, highest survival, highest fecundity and fastest development times than less diversified diets. The information is useful in designing technologies for large-scale rearing program for this species.",signatures:"Geoffrey Maxwell Malinga, Robert Opoke and Karlmax Rutaro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78987",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78987",authors:[{id:"336334",title:"Dr.",name:"Geoffrey",surname:"Malinga",slug:"geoffrey-malinga",fullName:"Geoffrey Malinga"},{id:"415171",title:"MSc.",name:"Robert",surname:"Opoke",slug:"robert-opoke",fullName:"Robert Opoke"},{id:"415172",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlmax",surname:"Rutaro",slug:"karlmax-rutaro",fullName:"Karlmax Rutaro"}],corrections:null},{id:"76287",title:"Crustacea: The Increasing Economic Importance of Crustaceans to Humans",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96255",slug:"crustacea-the-increasing-economic-importance-of-crustaceans-to-humans",totalDownloads:191,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Crustaceans (subphylum Crustacea) are members of the phylum Arthropods, including crabs, lobsters, crayfish, prawn, shrimp, krill, barnacles, woodlice and beach fleas. The most common types of crustaceans are shrimp and crab. This subphylum is distinguished from other arthropods, including myriapods, insects, and chelicerates, by the presence of two-parted (biramous) appendages, and the hatchling’s nauplius shape. In addition, these arthropods are majorly aquatic, often found in fresh, marine, or brackish water bodies, however, some crabs, hermit crabs, woodlice and other members of the subphylum, are found in terrestrial environments. Also, most crustaceans are free-living while numerous are parasitic (for instance, Rhizocephala, tongue worms, fish lice) and sessile (barnacles). Mostly lived nocturnal. Crustaceans have a great economic importance to humans. The group is of great value directly or indirectly for his health and economic progress, such as aesthetic, commercial, gastronomic, biomedical, bioindicator, biomonitor, geological values, and miscellaneous uses, biodeterioration and poisons.",signatures:"Gregorius Nugroho Susanto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76287",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76287",authors:[{id:"297902",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregorius Nugroho",surname:"Susanto",slug:"gregorius-nugroho-susanto",fullName:"Gregorius Nugroho Susanto"}],corrections:null},{id:"73539",title:"Lecanicillium spp. for the Management of Aphids, Whiteflies, Thrips, Scales and Mealy Bugs: Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94020",slug:"-em-lecanicillium-em-spp-for-the-management-of-aphids-whiteflies-thrips-scales-and-mealy-bugs-review",totalDownloads:300,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lecanicillium spp. are potential microbial bio-control agent mainly used for the management of sucking insect pests such as aphids, whiteflies, scales, mealy bugs etc. and gaining much importance at present for management of pests. Due to indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides which results in development of resistance, resurgence, outbreak of pests and residue problem, the farmers/growers are forced to use bio-pesticides for sustainable agriculture. Lecanicillium spp. is promising biocontrol agent against sucking insect pests and can be used as one of the components in integrated pest management (IPM). However, optimum temperature and relative humidity are the major environmental factors, for the performance of Lecanicillium spp. under protected/field conditions. The present review is mainly focused on nomenclature of Lecanicillium spp., mode of infection, natural occurrence, influence of temperature and humidity on the growth, factors influencing the efficacy, virulence/pathogenicity to target pests, substrates used for mass production, safety to non-target organisms, compatibility with agrochemicals and commercially available products. This review is mainly useful for the researchers/students to plan their future work on Lecanicillium spp.",signatures:"Sajjalavarahalli Gangireddy Eswara Reddy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73539",authors:[{id:"326575",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjalavarahalli Gangireddy Eswara",surname:"Reddy",slug:"sajjalavarahalli-gangireddy-eswara-reddy",fullName:"Sajjalavarahalli Gangireddy Eswara Reddy"}],corrections:null},{id:"77291",title:"A Review of Floral Color Signals and Their Heliconiid Butterfly Receivers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98666",slug:"a-review-of-floral-color-signals-and-their-heliconiid-butterfly-receivers",totalDownloads:146,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Signals vary in type and function. However, regardless of the signal, effective transmission and receiver detection are needed to exist for communication. This chapter focuses on a review of visual color signals used by plants to attract pollinators. Signal detection work has intensely focused on epigamic signals; therefore, this review adds to the body of knowledge on nonsexual signal communication. In this review, we investigate visual signals as it relates to pollinators. We focus specifically on visual color signals used by Angiosperms flowers, both static and dynamic, and look at their Heliconiid pollinators as these butterflies provide a perfect organism for studies on floral signal use and pollinators’ behavior. We noted that many of these butterflies have three specifically distinct rhodopsins used to identify food and oviposition sites and some have more due to selective pressures of conspecific and mate identification as such they have served as the focal organisms of numerous genetic and ecological studies as they use color signaling in all aspects of their lives. This review further shows that although their color preferences related to feeding, ovipositing, and mate selection have been demonstrated in countless studies, there are gaps in invertebrate literature, as research on the relationships among signal use, evolution, dynamic signals, effects of signals changes on decision making and thus behavior have not been carried out to a large extent.",signatures:"Gyanpriya Maharaj, Godfrey Bourne and Abdullah Ansari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77291",authors:[{id:"211098",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",surname:"Ansari",slug:"abdullah-ansari",fullName:"Abdullah Ansari"},{id:"331776",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyanpriya",surname:"Maharaj",slug:"gyanpriya-maharaj",fullName:"Gyanpriya Maharaj"},{id:"414665",title:"Prof.",name:"Godfrey",surname:"Bourne",slug:"godfrey-bourne",fullName:"Godfrey Bourne"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8929",title:"Modern Beekeeping",subtitle:"Bases for Sustainable Production",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbf5aca68ed2c6690ad99f68aaaddcaf",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8929.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7561",title:"Beekeeping",subtitle:"New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c47c831256fe10ff19fb10f490930fc",slug:"beekeeping-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7561.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6053",title:"Animal Domestication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc949732f3a3442f988ae91112645354",slug:"animal-domestication",bookSignature:"Fabrice Teletchea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6053.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190135",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",surname:"Teletchea",slug:"fabrice-teletchea",fullName:"Fabrice Teletchea"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6478",title:"Bats",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"90a4ab5d70985630b12f49cb23939c02",slug:"bats",bookSignature:"Heimo Mikkola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6478.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144330",title:"Dr.",name:"Heimo",surname:"Mikkola",slug:"heimo-mikkola",fullName:"Heimo Mikkola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6488",title:"Reptiles and Amphibians",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ddf77d32ec38b68c8147aabf78ceb371",slug:"reptiles-and-amphibians",bookSignature:"David Ramiro Aguillón Gutiérrez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6488.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"113287",title:"Ph.D.",name:"David",surname:"Aguillón-Gutiérrez",slug:"david-aguillon-gutierrez",fullName:"David Aguillón-Gutiérrez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5882",title:"Primates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"795a774e23c200dad2b806b83d186c9b",slug:"primates",bookSignature:"Mark Burke and Maurice Ptito",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5882.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"200803",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",surname:"Burke",slug:"mark-burke",fullName:"Mark Burke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8947",title:"Lagomorpha Characteristics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0c196f100ec2a55f058e9db9ff342967",slug:"lagomorpha-characteristics",bookSignature:"María-José Argente, María de la Luz García Pardo and Kevin P. 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\r\n\tFaced with continuous change, the human brain must assimilate new information to optimize performance, an ability mediated by the molding of its neural organization and activity. Considering one of the brain's fundamental attributes, this neuroplastic capacity is not only stimulating future brain research but also fuelling related studies in educational theory and practice, cognitive disease, and novel brain therapies. Current evidence indicates that neuroplasticity extends across a hierarchy of organizational scales, from subcellular events, such as the regulation of synaptosomal vesicle pool sizes, to global brain activity, like that of motor skills. Indeed, the breadth of currently known neuroplastic mechanisms suggests that as knowledge of brain operation continues to grow new aspects of neuroplasticity will also continue to emerge. Recent findings, for example, indicate that neuroplasticity is also critical for higher order brain functioning, where it includes cognitive functions such as engram retrieval and pattern consolidation. This volume will highlight recent research into the brain's ability to shape itself through novel neuroplastic mechanisms and how this new knowledge is being used to benefit human health and wellbeing.
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He has held professorships at Weill Cornell University Medical College, NYC, and Purdue University, Indiana. A former fellow at Yale University\\'s Medical School Dr. Larrivee received the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology\\'s first-place award for studies on photoreceptor degenerative and developmental mechanisms. He is the chief editor of several medical and scientific texts, including topics on brain- computer interfacing, Alzheimer’s disease, neuromodulation and neurostimulation procedures, neuroethics, and sleep pharmacotherapies. He is an editorial board member of the journals Annals of Neurology and Neurological Sciences and EC Neurology. An International Neuroethics Society Expert he is the author of more than ninety papers and book chapters in such varied journals/venues as Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Journal of Neuroscience, Journal of Religion and Mental Health, and IEEE Explore. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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It is also a means of reducing greenhouse gas and fossil fuel consumption. Bio-alcohol includes various formulas such as bio-ethanol and bio-butanol. R & D for commercialization of bio-butanol is currently active which can replace existing petroleum fuel or can be converted to other forms of fuel. Bio-ethanol is collectively called as bio-alcohol in view of worldwide total production volume and quantity in use. Bio-ethanol among other bio-alcohols is mainly considered in the present survey, especially related to its current trend of conversion technology to other fuel formulas. Korean domestic bio-alcohol technology boasts of its long history in alcohol liquor industries. However, its food-based raw material casts a negative perspective, and technical solution for diversion to nonfood-based raw material is to be sought after. As an example, bio-alcohol production from cellulosic biomass as raw material involves the introduction of breaking method for the strong chemical bonding of cellulosic biomass to improve conversion efficiency, which was made possible by pre-treatment technology. However, high production cost incurred from pre-treatment process technology and high enzyme cost for bio-treatment process are another technical barrier, and it has to be overcome by overall process and energy cost reduction.
\nAbout 100 billion liters (5 million TOE) of bio-ethanol is produced worldwide in 2014. The USA consumes 14.4 billion gallons of bio-ethanol per annum, the most significant quantity in the world. This is also manifested in Figure 1 where most of the bio-ethanol production is consumed in North and South America with comparatively similar amount consumed in Europe and China. As for bio-ethanol production, the USA and South America, especially Brazil, are well known for bio-ethanol production. Brazil was ranked first as a bio-ethanol exporter before 2010, but the USA surpassed Brazil as a prime exporter of bio-ethanol thereafter (Figure 2). This is attributed to significant growth in number of bio-ethanol producers such as ADM, POET Ltd., and Green Plains. Table 1 shows production scale of US bio-ethanol production companies.
\nGlobal ethanol consumption for transportation fuel in 2016 [
Yearly variation in export of US and Brazilian bio-ethanol based on nonfood-based ethanol [
Producers | \nProduction quantities | \n
---|---|
Archer Daniels Midland Co. (ADM) | \n6.44 billion liters | \n
POET Ltd | \n6.06 billion liters | \n
Green Plains | \n5.68 billion liters | \n
Valero | \n5.3 billion liters | \n
Flint Hills | \n3.03 billion liters | \n
Others | \n33.31 billion liters | \n
Bio-ethanol production by major US domestic producers.
Bio-ethanol is well known for its direct application for transportation fuel as well as for various other fuels after conversion. The use of bio-ethanol is currently sought after as a fuel source for renewable energy such as hydrogen production and bio-jet fuel production. Worldwide attention is directed to efficient conversion of bio-ethanol to environment-friendly hydrogen and bio-jet fuel. Conversion of bio-ethanol to hydrogen and bio-jet fuel is surveyed.
\nRecent fuel consumption survey shows that 12% of transportation fuel is accounted for by aviation industry and it contributes 2% of greenhouse gas to environment pollution and global warming. To comply with 2015 Paris Climate Change Accord, improved energy efficiency and increased low-carbon bio-energy and fuel utilization (rate) in aviation industries are expected, and such efforts are in progress in various related fields. As examples of such efforts, airlines and aircraft manufacturers voluntarily set goals for carbon-neutral growth, and 50% reduction of greenhouse gases by 2050 with respect to 2005 criteria and various concrete ways are implemented. Ordinarily, electricity, solar energy, and hydrogen fuel are mentioned as means of low-carbon energy utilization in transportation fields [3]. As for aviation industries, the only technically viable means is limited to bio-jet fuel and its utilization. Therefore, long-term carbon reduction is only made possible by increased utilization of bio-jet fuel. Figure 3 shows IRENA’s future prospect for carbon emission by aviation industries. As shown in Figure 3, it was known that the 1.5% reduction of greenhouse gas is reportedly possible by both the utilization of bio-jet fuel and the increase in the energy efficiency resulting from aircraft design improvement, optimization of airport facility, and flight paths.
\nFuture prospect for carbon emission from aviation industries (unit: million tons of CO2) [
The most representative way to reduce carbon emissions is to develop the biomass-based fuels such as bio-aviation oil with low carbon emission and their production technologies. Also, many international airlines have launched pilot projects for their application feasibility. However, it is difficult to secure economic feasibility in various cost aspects. In order to overcome these problems such as securing economic feasibility, developing bio-air fuels as well as setting international standards and providing incentives for the use of bio-fuels, which can be the basis for establishing carbon emission goals and policies of international airlines. In order to overcome such problems as securing economic feasibility, the international standards that can be the basis for establishing carbon emissions goals and policies for international airlines should be established, and the bio-jet fuel market should be activated by securing technologies for developing bio-jet fuel fuels in addition to providing incentives for the use of bio-jet fuels. In order to achieve this goal, the ICAO established the Commission for Aviation Environment Protection (CAEP), and efforts to reduce aviation greenhouse gas emissions have been increasing, especially for ICAO. Developments are emerging, and countries and international organizations are stepping up their aviation bio-fuel development policies. The 38th ICAO General Assembly resolution approved the importance of aviation biofuels as a medium-to-long term GHG reduction measure, established a global framework, the possibility of sustainable drop-in aviation biofuel technology, and emphasis is placed on the need to introduce policies and incentives from a perspective of accelerating wide utilization. The IATA announces continued use of renewable energy as the most reliable way to meet its greenhouse gas reduction targets and requires by 2020 to replace 6% of aviation fuel demand with renewables. The various bio-fuel support policies are being promoted by spreading awareness that bio-fuels can contribute to greenhouse gas emission reduction, energy security enhancement, rural income, and new market development. These support policies include tax exemptions for bio-fuels in most countries, including budgetary support (tax exemption or direct subsidies to bio-fuel producers, sellers, and users), minimum mix ratios, and import tariffs on imported bio-fuels. In addition, subsidies are being used to support bio-fuel dissemination, resulting in $ 20 billion in grants from governments around the world in 2009, mostly in the US and EU countries. The Korean government subsidies are expected to increase to US$ 37.5 million annually from 2010 to 2020 and to US$ 70.8 million annually from 2021 to 2035.
\nRepresentative production technologies for bio-jet fuel include alcohol-to-jet (ATJ), oil-to-jet (OTJ), gas-to-jet (GTJ), and sugar-to-jet (STJ) process. OTJ process produces bio-jet fuel from animal or plant tallow such as waste vegetable oil, beef tallow, and microalgae. More specifically, hydrotreated esters and fatty acid (HEFA) technology, a kind of OTJ process, encompasses hydrotreated renewable jet (HRJ) process among HEFA technologies, catalytic hydro-thermolysis (CH), and rapid thermal decomposition process (HDCJ). STJ process involves catalytic upgrading and conversion of glucose- or starch-based raw material to hydrocarbons or biological conversion to bio-jet fuel via direct sugar to hydrocarbons (DSHC) and catalytic upgrading. ATJ process involves production of bio-jet fuel via hydrolysis of wooden fiber biomass or glucose into intermediate alcohols (methanol, ethanol, butanol, and fatty acid alcohols) and their dehydration and oligomerization. It is divided into ethanol-to-jet or butanol-to-jet technologies, depending on alcohol involved. GTJ process involves biogas, natural gas, or syngas from wood fiber biomass to bio-jet fuel via bio-chemical or thermos-chemical routes such as gas fermentation and Fischer-Tropsch processes. Table 2 shows the production technologies for bio-jet fuel.
\nTechnologies | \nProduction processes | \n
---|---|
Alcohol to jet | \nEthanol to jet | \n
N-butanol to jet | \n|
Iso-butanol to jet | \n|
Methanol to jet | \n|
Oil to jet | \nHydro-processed renewable jet | \n
Catalytic hydro-thermolysis | \n|
Hydrotreated depolymerized cellulosic jet | \n|
Gas to jet | \nFischer-Tropsch synthesis | \n
Gas fermentation | \n|
Sugar to jet | \nDirect sugar to hydrocarbons | \n
Catalytic upgrading | \n
Production technologies for bio-jet fuel [5].
\nFigure 4 shows the production process-wise raw material and technology overview for bio-jet fuel. Among many classification methods, bio-jet fuel is divided via production pathways: fermentation, deoxidation, or thermal decomposition. As of 2016, ASTM 7566 dictates five production processes (Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SPK), HEFA, Synthesized Iso-Paraffins (SIP), ATJ) as means to produce commercially viable bio-jet fuels. It simultaneously regulates product quality criteria as per 100% assay as well as mixing proportion in existing petroleum-based aviation fuel. Many other production processes are also used to produce bio-jet fuel, and the following technologies are under review by ASTM for approval. Table 3 shows production process-wise classification of bio-jet fuel production process.
\nProduction process-wise raw material and technology overview for bio-jet fuel [
Production process | \nDeveloper/manufacturer | \nRaw materials | \nAromatic content | \nASTM review stage and max. Mixing proportions | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
FT-SPK | \nSasol, Shell, Syntroleum | \nCoal, natural gas, biomass | \nLow | \n(2009)-50% Approved | \n
HEFA | \nHoneywell UOP, Neste Oil, Dynamic Fuels, EERC | \nVegetable oil, animal fat, recycled vegetable oil | \nLow | \n(2011)-50% Approved | \n
SIP | \nAmyris, Total | \nSugar | \nLow | \n(2014)-10% Approved | \n
ATJ-SPK | \nGevo, Cobalt, Honeywell UOP, LanzaTech, Swedish Biofuels, Byogy | \nStarch, sugar, cellulose-based biomass | \nLow | \n(2016)-30% Approved | \n
FT-SKA | \nSasol | \nCoal, natural gas, biomass | \nHigh | \nUnder review by committee | \n
HDO-SK | \nVirent | \nStarch, sugar, cellulose-based biomass | \nLow | \nInvestigation report submitted | \n
HDO-SAK | \nVirent | \nStarch, sugar, cellulose-based biomass | \nHigh | \nInvestigation report under review | \n
HDCJ | \nHoneywell UOP, Licella, KiOR | \nCellulose-based biomass | \nHigh | \nSupplement to investigation report received | \n
CH | \nChevron Lummus Global, Applied Research Associates, Blue Sun Energy | \nVegetable oil, animal fat, recycled vegetable oil | \nLow | \nInvestigation report under review | \n
Production process-wise classification of bio-jet fuel production process [7].
\nFigure 5 shows current worldwide production and consumption trend of bio-jet fuel. Bio-ethanol is widely commercialized as sustainable source of energy for use in transportation with worldwide production of 104 million m3 and 80% of its utilization as transportation fuel. The USA and Brazil accounted for 51.8 and 2.77 million m3 production, respectively. Worldwide bio-jet fuel amounted to 30 billion m3. On the other hand, Korean domestic petroleum-based aviation fuel products totaled 13% (20.66 million m3) in 2013, which is similar to gasoline products (13.5%) and 44% of light oil products (29.7%).
\nWorldwide bio-ethanol production and consumption of aviation fuel.
Possible raw material for ATJ process includes methanol, ethanol, and butanol. Such alcohol-based raw material is converted to bio-jet fuel via polymerization and upgrading technology. Among these alcohols, bio-ethanol utilization is promising in view of its current production and consumption and worldwide use. At present, bio-ethanol is mixed to maximum 10~15% with gasoline. Although potential market of ethanol for mixing with gasoline seems limited for expansion, conversion to bio-jet fuel via bio-ethanol upgrading shows possibility of replacing existing petroleum-based aviation fuel.
\nFor conversion of bio-ethanol to bio-jet fuel, physicochemical properties of bio-ethanol should be compatible with petroleum-based aviation fuel. The USA is utilizing advanced ATJ technology to make physicochemical properties of bio-ethanol compatible with those of existing petroleum-based fuel. More specifically, 99.5~99.9% of anhydrous ethanol is mixed with existing fuel or converted to bio-jet fuel. High purity ethanol is used as raw material in the process for upgrading physicochemical properties of bio-jet fuel. Such ATJ process is based on bio-ethanol for production of bio-jet fuel, and oxygen contents of bio-ethanol is removed by dehydration, polymerization for access of carbon atoms from existing petroleum-based aviation fuel, and hydrogenation reaction for optimization of physicochemical properties. Figure 6 shows technical overview of ATJ process for production of bio-jet fuel from bio-ethanol [8].
\nTechnical overview of ATJ process for production of bio-jet fuel from bio-ethanol.
The most efficient method of reducing carbon emission is low carbon bio-jet fuel, relevant technology to produce it and its commercialization. Many international airlines initiated small-scale projects, but so far economic viability has not been demonstrated, and possible remedy is under consideration. To accomplish such economic viability, international standards for carbon emission objective and related policy on the part of airlines have to be established as well as monetary incentive for bio-jet fuel utilization. To initiate economic drive for bio-jet fuel market, mass production-capable technology for bio-jet fuel production has to be developed. For carbon-neutral growth by 2050, international carbon emission reduction objective has been set by the ICAO with respect to greenhouse gas emission of 2005. For this, the CAEP has been established within the ICAO, and the ICAO is playing a central role to reduce aviation-induced greenhouse gas emission by intensive efforts. Development of aviation bio-jet fuel is taken as a pivotal means for greenhouse gas reduction, and many nations and international organizations are actively initiating aviation bio-jet fuel development. The ICAO 38th general meeting resolution approved aviation bio-jet fuel as vitally important intermediate to long-term means of greenhouse gas reduction, thus establishing fundamental frame of reference. More specifically, possibility of sustainable drop-in bio-jet fuel technology and related long-term policy as well as monetary incentive is also emphasized. Furthermore, IATA announced that sustainable and renewable energy utilization is the most reliable means to achieve established objective of greenhouse gas reduction and requested 6% replacement of aviation fuel with renewable energy by 2020. Bio-fuel is regarded as efficient and economical means of greenhouse gas reduction, energy security, new source of income, and market development for farm products in rural areas. Therefore, bio-fuel drive is supported as a national policy. Bio-fuel is supported by national policy in many nations via budget support (bio-fuel producers, vendors, and users are exempt from taxation or subsidy is given), minimum mixing proportion regulation, and import duty levied on foreign bio-fuel for wide distribution of bio-fuel. Altogether, worldwide monetary subsidy for bio-fuel totaled 20 billion US dollars in 2009 which was supported by US and EU nations. The Korean government subsidy will increase by 4.5 billion KRW every year during 2010~2020. This will be augmented by 8.5 billion KRW during 2021~2035.
\nTo convert ordinary alcohol to fundamental aviation fuel element of hydrocarbon, oxygen contents have to be removed by dehydration via catalytic upgrading process. Alumina, transition metal oxides, and zeolite derivatives of SAPO, H-ZSM-5, and heterogeneous acid catalyst 0.5%La-2%P/H-ZSM-5 with acid sites [9]. Conversion rate was close to 100% at 250°C. Selectivity of ethylene was nearly 99.9% which was obtained by removal of oxygen via dehydration [10]. Such ethylene is converted to another reaction intermediate of alpha-olefin by polymerization called oligomerization. This is approximately equivalent to existing aviation fuel compound and intended to increase distribution of carbons. Candidate catalysts include Ziegler-Natta-based, homogeneous chromium-diphosphine-based, and heterogeneous zeolite-based catalysts. Oligomerization reaction took place at 90~110°C and 89 bar, where alpha-olefin with C4~C20 carbon numbers was synthesized with 96~97% of yield. Commercial oligomerization reaction involves 200°C and 250 bar with relatively wide range of carbon distribution of 5% C4, 50% C6~C10, 30% C12~C14, and 12% C16~C18 [11]. Such wide range of carbon numbers enables separation by selective distillation to light oil and aviation fuel. Hydrocarbons with low carbon numbers of C4~C8 separated by selective distillation process are reintroduced into oligomerization process and further synthesized into hydrocarbons with relatively high carbon numbers. Existing petroleum-based aviation fuel consists of hydrocarbons with C6~C16 range of high carbon numbers which require upgrading process. Such upgrading process necessitates hydrogenation reaction under hydrogen atmosphere and 370°C, WHSV of 3 h−1, using 5% Pd/C or 5% Pt/C catalysts [12, 13].
\nBio-jet fuel is currently being developed and commercialized with various degrees of technology development readiness with various production processes employed for different raw materials. Figure 7 shows the process technology-wise fuel readiness level (FRL) for bio-jet fuel. In view of the fuel readiness level (FRL), the bio-jet fuel production process close to technology development completion is HEFA process which was commercialized by UOP, AltAir, and Neste Oil companies as a kind of OJT process. On the other hand, FT, DSHC, and ATJ processes involving gasification of biomass, fermentation of glucose and catalytic conversion, and alcohol conversion, respectively, are also actively studied, but they are not as economically viable as HEFA/HRJ process from practical standpoint. As for major bio-ethanol upgrading companies, Terrabon and ZeaChem produce organic acid-derived hydrocarbon fuels, and Gevo and Vertimass produce alcohol-derived hydrocarbon fuels, the latter company utilizing ORNL technology. However, none of these companies have accomplished commercialization capability.
\nProcess technology-wise fuel readiness level (FRL) for bio-jet fuel [
\nFigure 8 shows the worldwide bio-jet fuel production facility and scale. According to published data of ATAG and EIA in 2017 and 2015, annual US consumption of jet fuel and production of bio-jet fuel amounted to 8 billion and 200 million gallons, respectively. Approximately 190 million gallons of the bio-jet fuel was commercially produced by HEFA process, which is attributed to similarity to green diesel or hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) facility which produces automobile light oil using biomass. Sweden, the Netherlands, Singapore, and UAE are in possession of 50% of the production facility, while the USA produced 20% of them in eight regions. Representative bio-jet fuel producers include AltAir Fuels Refinery which was established in 2013 and introduced Honeywell UOP technology. Neste oil is operating production facility in Finland, Singapore, and the Netherlands, totaling 2 million gallons per annum. Other bio-jet fuel producers and airline consumers are listed in Table 4.
\nWorldwide bio-jet fuel production facility and scale [
Airlines | \nUnited | \nCathay | \nFedEx/Southwest | \nUnited | \nJetBlue | \nGE Aviation | \nGulf Stream | \nKLM | \nLufthansa | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Providers | \nAltair | \nFulcrum | \nRed Rock | \nFulcrum | \nSG Preston | \nD’ Arcinoff | \nWorld Fuel Services (Altair) | \nAltair | \nGevo | \n
(t/yr)Supply | \n17,000 | \n100,000 | \n10,000 | \n270,000+ | \n33,500 | \n17,000 | \n— | \n— | \n270,000+ | \n
Major raw material | \nWaste fat oil | \nWaste | \nForest residue | \nWaste | \nVegetable oil | \nCellulosic biomass | \nWaste fatty oil | \nWaste vegetable oil | \nWood waste | \n
Duration | \n3 years | \n10 years | \n8 years | \n10 years | \n10 years | \n10 years | \n3 years | \n3 years | \n5 years | \n
Introduced | \n2016 | \n2019 | \n2017 | \n2019 | \n2019 | \n— | \n2016 | \n— | \n— | \n
Contract year | \n2013 | \n2014 | \n2014 | \n2015 | \n2016 | \n2013 | \n2015 | \n2016 | \n2016 | \n
Current status of bio-jet fuel production and utilization [16].
Apart from this, short-term test flight using bio-jet fuel is also actively performed by major airlines. Japan Airlines was tested by supplying 50% bio-jet fuel mixture to one of the four jet engines in January, 2009. Singapore Airlines also performed 12 test flights for 3 months from May, 2017, using bio-jet fuel mixture from waste vegetable oil. According to the ICAO, 40,000 or more flights were successfully performed by using bio-jet fuel, and US Air Force and Navy aircraft were also separately tested for possibility of using bio-jet fuel as a contingency plan for replacement fuel. Representative test flight data for civil and military aircraft are listed in Table 5.
\nVirgin Atlantic | \nB747–400 | \nBoeing, GE Aviation | \n2008 | \nCoconut babassu | \n20% | \n
Air New Zealand | \nB747–400 | \nBoeing Rolls-Royce, UOP | \n2008 | \n50% | \n|
Continental Airlines | \nB737–800 | \nBoeing, GE Aviation, CFM, Honeywell UOP | \n2009 | \n2.5% Algae, 47.5% | \n50% | \n
JAL | \nB747–400 | \nBoeing, Pratt & Whitney, Honeywell UOP, Nikki-Universal | \n2009 | \n42% <0.5% algae | \n50% | \n
KLM | \nB747–400 | \nGE, Honeywell UOP | \n2009 | \n50% | \n|
KLM | \nB737–800 | \nSkyNRG, Dynamic Fuels | \n2011 | \nWaste cooking oil | \n50% | \n
TAM Airlines | \nA-320 | \nAirbus, CFM | \n2010 | \n50% | \n|
Boeing | \nB747-8F | \n\n | 2011 | \n15% | \n|
Air France | \nA-321 | \nSkyNRG | \n2011 | \nWaste cooking oil | \n50% | \n
Gulfstream Aerospace | \nGulfstream G450 | \nHoneywell, NBAA | \n2012 | \n50% | \n|
Air China | \nB747–400 | \nBoeing, PetroChina | \n2012 | \n50% | \n|
Alaska Airlines | \nB737, Bombardier Q400 | \nDynamic fuels, Horizon air | \n2011 | \nAlgae and waste cooking oil | \n20% | \n
Paramus Flying Club | \nCessna 182 | \nSkyNRG | \n2013 | \nWaste cooking oil | \n50% | \n
LAN | \nA-320 | \nHoneywell | \n2013 | \n30% | \n|
Thai Airways | \nBoeing-777 | \nSkyNRG | \n2012 | \nWaste cooking oil | \n50% | \n
NRC Canada | \nFalcon 20, T-33 | \nAemetis, AFRL, Rolls-Royce, FAA-CLEEN, Agrisoma Biosciences, Applied Research Assoc., Chevron Lummus Global | \n2012 | \nCarinata | \n100% | \n
US Navy | \nF/A-18 | \nHoneywell UOP | \n2010 | \n50% | \n|
US Air Force | \nA-10c | \nHoneywell UOP | \n2010 | \n50% | \n|
US Air Force | \nF-22 | \nHoneywell UOP | \n2011 | \n50% | \n|
US Navy | \nMH60S Seahawk Helicopter | \nHoneywell UOP, Bozeman | \n2010 | \n50% | \n|
US Navy | \nMH60S Seahawk Helicopter | \nSolazyme | \n2011 | \nAlgae | \n50% | \n
Netherlands Air Force | \nAH-64D Apache Helicopter | \nHoneywell UOP | \n2010 | \nWaste cooking oil and algae | \n50% | \n
US Army | \nSikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter | \nGevo | \n2013 | \nCellulose-derived alcohol | \n50% | \n
US Air Force | \nB-52 | \nSyntroleum | \n2006 | \nNatural gas | \n50% | \n
Representative civil and military test flights using bio-jet fuel [17].
Recently the Brisbane Airport of Australia made a partnership with Virgin Australia and the US fuel company of Gevo for a 2-year supply of bio-jet fuel produced by ATJ process to Virgin Australia and other Brisbane Airport-departing airlines, which approximately reached commercialization-capable level. However, economical feasibility is a prime concern before commercialization of bio-jet fuel and unit production cost is a major such index. For this, unit production cost of bio-alcohol is very important for its subsequent utilization as raw material of bio-jet fuel. As of 2011, unit retail price of ethanol produced by bio-chemical process from biomass was $4.18/GGE (gallon for gasoline equivalent). On the other hand, minimum unit retail price for ethanol produced by thermochemical process was $3.8 GGE. Butanol’s unit retail price was $0.34/kg produced by ABE fermentation process from corn of $79.23/ton, while cellulosic raw material resulted in $4.1/GGE. For proper assessment of economic feasibility for ATJ conversion process, commercial production facility, upgrading process, and product distribution are primary considerations, which require intensive efforts for process upgrading.
\nPig is one of the oldest domesticated animals and majority of the breeds are known to have descended from the Eurasian Wild Boar (
The origins of African domestic pig breeds are obscured and highly controversial due to lack of sufficient archaeological and genetic evidence to establish sound hypotheses about how, when and where they were founded. Although
The wild pigs of Africa are the warthog,
The history of pigs in sub-Saharan Africa has been blurred by the importation of very large numbers of European pig breeds into all parts of the continent through a number of ways ranging from undocumented subsistence strategies or colonial agricultural development projects [6]. Thus, the genetic heritage of today’s African pig populations is extremely mixed. Secondly, the history and distribution of pigs in Africa have been substantially affected by the growth and domination of many parts of Africa by Islam. This has led to the disappearance of pigs from a wide swathe of Africa in historic times [6].
\nThe domestic pig, based on historical records and scientific evidence, is thought to have originated from the Eurasian wild boar (
In West Africa, the indigenous pigs are known by several names such as the West African dwarf pig (Nigeria), Ashanti dwarf pig (Ghana), or the bush pig (Togo). The Ashanti Black Forest Dwarf pig of Ghana, commonly called the Ashanti Dwarf Pig for instance, has been shown to have both a European and Asian ancestry, with the pigs differing from the north to the south of the country [18]. Phenotypically, these pigs have been described as having a concave head profile, black coat colour, erect ears that sometimes project backwards and a short cylindrical snout. They are hardy, able to survive under poor management, mostly scavenging for their food and can digest high fibrous matter; they are well adapted to resist heat stroke as well as other harsh environmental conditions and are considered to be less susceptible to many local diseases and parasites; they also have good mothering ability. Average body weight of adult pig is 60 kg, bearing 5–7 piglets [18]. The Nigerian indigenous pig (NIP) is described in a similar manner to the Ghanaian local pig [19, 20]. Eastern African and Southern Africa indigenous pigs have also been described [21, 22].\n
\n
The Local African Pig Breed of Burkina Faso. Copied from: au-ibar.org\n\n
\n
The Local African Pig Breed of Burkina Faso. Copied from: au-ibar.org\n\n
\n
Nigerian Local Pig breed. (Pictures courtesy of Adedeji JA).\n
\n
Nigerian Local Pig breed on a free range Management system. (Pictures courtesy of Adedeji JA).
\nThe introduction of pigs into Southern Africa is thought to have taken place later than for other regions of the African continent, and this might have occurred through the processes of barter, warfare and migration as there is little historical information on the Southern Africa indigenous pig populations [22]. There are two recognized indigenous pig breed populations in Southern Africa namely: “Kolbroek” and “Windsnyer”. There is however a third group of local pigs referred to as the South African hard-footed pigs which are free ranging scavengers and converters of unutilized household and farm waste [22].\n
\n
The South African “Kolbroek” breed. Copied from: Farmersweekly.co.za. Photo: \n
\n
The South African “Windsyner” Pig Breed: Copied from: livestockoftheworld.com\n
\nWhile the Eastern African indigenous pigs are sturdy, dark to light coloured skin, black or white long feet, long narrow snout and a well-developed mane, the Kolbroek pigs are short, with prickled ears, short snout and a squashed face. They are dark black or brown in colour, often striped at birth; docile nature with high disease resistance, and thrives well on a high fibre diet. Windsnyer pigs on the other hand are smaller with bristles that form a distinct mane. The coat colour varies from black, reddish-brown, black and white to spotted. They are narrow-bodied, long-nosed and razor-backed, and are able to survive periods of food scarcity. Other pig breeds described by Swart are the Namibian and the Mozambican pig breeds. The Namibian indigenous pigs are found in the northern communal areas of Namibia, and their origin is unsure but they are thought to be brought from areas around the Mediterranean Sea. They are relatively long, lean-bodied pigs with long snout, with coat colour ranging from mottled brown to black and white. They are well adapted to harsh environments with low maintenance requirements, fertile, and are excellent lard producers [22] The Botswanan indigenous pig breed is found mostly in the southern part of the country called the Tswana. The pig is predominantly black in colour, and well adapted for the climatic conditions of Botswana [17].
\nIndigenous pig breeds are unique to the geographic locations where they are found and possess genetic characteristics which may provide future breeds with production traits that are advantageous for survival [23]. These qualities include their adaptation to harsh environments, resistance to disease and adaptation to harsh production system in developing countries [24]. These advantages are quickly being lost due to the inability to compete with the fast-growing commercial exotic breeds and the resultant indiscriminate cross-breeding of the local with the exotic species which has consequently narrowed the gene pool of the local breeds [25]. Poverty, lack of information on the attributes of local pigs and ill-defined government policies and programmes have been adduced as some of the reasons why local pig breeds are being lost very rapidly [26]. There is therefore the severe danger of losing the local pig biodiversity because of the race to satisfy high production capacity of pigs’ i.e. fast growth and large litter size [23]. Thus, a number of researchers have reported a steady waning of the indigenous pig population in Africa, with some recommending the conservation of the germplasm of valuable genetic resource [24, 27, 28, 29]. In Nigerian, the local pigs (Figure 2b) have been replaced with exotic breeds such as Large White, Landrace, Hampshire and Duroc because of the afore-mentioned advantages [24]. Similarly, the commercial pig industry in Southern Africa has been taken over by exotic pig breeds which were imported to enhance the industry and meet the demand of the market system [22]. Predominant exotic pig breeds in South Africa include the South African Landrace, the Large White, the Duroc and the Pietrain [22]. The Eastern African commercial pig industry as seen in Ugandan, has also been replaced with exotic pig breeds such as Camborough, Landrace and Large White along with their crosses [30]. However, many small producers acknowledge the value of local pigs and they have resolved to conserve them [31]. Thus, it is necessary to work on pig conservation and the development of the family production system that will conserve the genetic potential of African local or indigenous breeds [28, 32].
\nThe indigenous pigs are reservoirs of genes and sources of heterosis, but these variable and valuable traits suited for our particular ecological zone are constantly being threatened by genetic erosion, leading to a progressive loss of genetic diversity [33]. These phenomena are actually related to the implementation of indiscriminate and unsustainable crossbreeding programs which influence the structure and dynamics of the pig populations in Africa. It is therefore imperative to draw attention to the disappearance of the indigenous African pig breeds [6, 16, 25]. However, in view of the diverse roles indigenous pig plays, it entails that there is need for an increased knowledge of the indigenous pig, their characterization and conservation to support sustainable agricultural development and maintain local breeds of pigs which have variable traits suited to a particular ecological zone [34].
\nIn most African countries, the agricultural sector still provides a relatively large share of GDP [35]. Livestock production can contribute to poverty reduction in various ways including increase in food supply, source of income and a means for capital accumulation, employment opportunities and supply inputs and services for crop production. Livestock also represents an important factor for social integration [36]. Pig production has the potential of improving the real per capita income of Sub-Saharan African reported as $688 in 2010 compared $1717 of the rest of the world. Over the past 30 years, GDP growth per capita in SSA has an average of 0.16 percent per year [35]. However, pig production is an important means of livelihood in many parts of Africa, particularly in rural communities [37, 38, 39]. It is increasingly perceived as a source of income generation and poverty reduction.
\nDespite the decline in the use of indigenous breeds and the shift towards more improved, exotic breeds in most part of Africa including South Africa over the years, indigenous pigs in African remain a source of food and income for people farming in rural areas and subsistence-orientated production systems [37, 40, 41]. These indigenous pigs and their crosses are noted for their high potential for subsistence-oriented production systems [37]. Thus, many small-scale rural farmers in various parts of South Africa still keep indigenous pigs [37, 42, 43] probably due to their ability to remain productive even when living in poor sanitary conditions and fed low quality feed. This low input requirement is helpful in low-income rural communities [44].
\nIn 1998, Nigeria was estimated to have 4.86 million pigs, followed by Uganda (1.55 million), South Africa (1.54 million), Cameroon (1.35 million), and the Democratic Republic of Congo (1 million) as the top five pig populations in Africa [45]. This has grown in the last two decades, as presently Nigeria is estimated to have over 7.5 million pigs, Malawi 6.3 million, Uganda 2.7 million, Angola 2.6 million, Burkina Faso 2.5 million, Madagascar 1.7 million and Mozambique 1.6 [46]. Presently, Africa is estimated to have over 40 million pigs [46]. In many African countries, particularly tropic regions, most of the pigs is kept by smallholders in rural area (51). Uganda, for instance has 2.3 million pigs being kept by one million households for consumption and translates into cash in times of emergencies [47]. Pig enterprise has been reported to be a profitable enterprise that should be encouraged and embarked upon [48]. More often than not, pig farming is combined with crop farming. A pig possesses a large caecum, and its manure is rich in nutrients which make it good source of organic fertilizers for crops and can also be recycled into livestock feeds. Besides having main production systems like extensive, semi-intensive and intensive system; there are also subsistence-oriented households and market-oriented households which look to pig production for different reasons [37]. Pigs also can contribute positively to the empowerment of women and enhance their equal participation in local markets [49].
\nIn recent times, commercial pig production under intensive system of management is becoming more popular because of the favourable return on investments. Owing to increasing human population and demand of meat source, pork production has scaled up with a developing pig value chain which gradually established over time. This chain includes several stakeholders like input suppliers, middlemen, traders, transporters and butchers who play vital roles in the economy of communities, regions and countries where pig production is thriving. Farmers are also able to enter at different phases of the production chain as breeders (selling piglets), pig fatteners (selling live or slaughtered pigs), or both. The feed supply input is exemplified in local feed mill production for pig feed as seen in Uganda [49].
\nPigs are largely slaughtered for home consumption, during funerals and cultural ceremonies [50] Pig production has been reported to be a dependable source of income for livelihood activities like school fees, income and consumption in Uganda [51, 52] medical bills, fertilizer purchase, and debt recovery. In Congo pig farming was for cash [53], in Ghana it was for consumption, savings, wealth/status, breeding and manure [54], while in South Africa pigs were seen as a substitute for savings [55]. In Cameroun and Congo, it was considered as an emergency fund [44, 53], and sales were done during festivities, and when demand was high. In Nigeria it was kept for income and consumption [56]. In Namibia, and Kenya pig keeping is for income and consumption [57] while it was for cash in Botswana [58] and South Africa [59].
\nThe impact of diseases in pigs can also result in huge economic consequences for farmers’ livelihoods and income generation both at household level, community level and regional level. The impact of diseases results in losses of income to the farmers, and possible closure of market. No country is yet to export pork meat in Africa, however reasonable trade is known to occur within regions. Such examples can be seen between Nigeria and Benin in West Africa [39] and between Uganda and Kenya in East Africa [60].
\nPig production system across Africa is dominated by small-holder pig owners mostly in rural areas with poor farm infrastructure and limited biosecurity [61, 62, 63]. The production system in Africa is faced by many constraints, with marketing being a limiting factor to the expansion of pig populations in Africa. Pig marketing in Africa is mainly dominated by sales of live pigs through auctions by farmer, traders or middlemen [40, 56]. Sales of these live pigs involved movement to various destination evading ante-mortem inspections and congregation at the point of sale, thus leading to spread of infectious diseases [40]. These small holders pig farmers do not have access to high value markets and the market they patronize are generally exploitative, collusive and economically inefficient [64]. High value markets are only limited to big commercial pig farms that supplies pork to supermarkets and companies [61], while the main channels of marketing pigs in many African countries are through auctions at live pig markets, slaughtering facilities and direct sales to individuals [56, 65, 66]. These trade/marketing practices also have huge concomitant influence on the breeding programs as better price value are gotten for improved exotic breed in comparison to indigenous breeds of pigs.
\nAnother marketing-associated limiting factor to small holder’s pig farmers is having good value for their animals, because pigs are considered more or less as a single-product animal in most pig producing areas in Africa unlike cattle, sheep and goats [64]. This is because pork is the only end product of the production system, as other by-products like lard, hair etc. are not utilized.
\nLive pig markets are generally categorized into three: primary/collection markets; secondary/regrouping markets and terminal market, with many actors (farmers, traders, assemblers and brokers) within each market performing different functions or roles along the marketing chain [56]. The practices in some countries where pigs sold passes through two or more middlemen before eventually reaching the market or consumer makes such pig to become highly expensive to the consumer [56, 67]. While some farmers may sell directly to other farmers without using the middlemen, others farmers in several African countries sells their pigs in the local community or neighbourhood at low prices [17, 50, 53, 58, 59, 65, 67, 68], as most of the famers especially in South Africa could not gain entrée into sustainable markets due to lack of information, knowledge and skills on the selling price of pig [65, 68]. In some African countries the middle men purchase the pigs from farmers at poor prices and sell to traders; at pig slaughter houses or pork serving centres’ in order to escape taxes at the slaughter slab [51], while in Botswana, the main pig market for pig farmers are the local meat processors and butcheries [69, 70] and the common marketing chain involves “farm–abattoir–butchery or processing plants and the end products were distributed to shopping malls [61]. In Nigeria, sales are either in cash or credit depending on relationship between the buyers and traders, as well as on size, health status, body score, season and festivals at the time of sales [56].
\nIt has been reported that a solid relationship existed between auctions and prevailing market price of pigs as high pig populations at auctions show that the market prices are good [65]. Others have however observed that pig and pork were generally more expensive in dry season (September to April) when the Fulani herdsmen migrate to the south (causing a temporal shortage of beef) and also due to Christmas and Easter festivities in December and April respectively [56]. Therefore, in order to improve price and access to market, there is need to investing in market infrastructure, organizing pig farmers into cooperative groups, and develop other products from pigs as part of value chain addition. Furthermore, government policies aimed at improving prices of pigs/pork and access to high value market for small holder’s farmers particularly farmers rearing indigenous pigs should be put in place.
\nPig wholesaling and retailing is assumed to be oligopolistic leading to higher marketing margin for the traders through incorporation of gain market power and control of market price paid by consumers since only a few handles the bulk of the trade and majority of the farmers are also traders operating in the same market with majority of them controlling both production and marketing decisions [56].
\nSecondly, standardization/grading of animals and adequate price information are absent in the markets and creates problem/difficult for the traders in many African countries [43, 52, 56, 59, 65, 67, 68, 71]. In addition, there are lack of price harmonization among the farmers since no templates exists to standardize transactions even on live pig-weight estimate [68], which in turn forced pig farmers to consent to any amount middle men offered them [67]. This has resulted in farmers having an irregular income because they regularly sell their pigs at poor prices as observed in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa [41, 65, 67, 71, 72].
\nThirdly, marketing of pigs and their products in many African countries is poor and not organized and is generally accompanied by seasonal variations in market price due to poor demand [38, 40, 41, 51, 52, 56, 59, 61, 65, 67, 68, 70, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79].
\nFourthly, marketing in Africa countries is also dominated by inadequate equipment/infrastructure, slaughter facility, lack of refrigeration/storage facilities and poor hygiene [52, 56, 61, 65, 67, 70, 71, 79, 80]. There was limited processing ability due to poor electricity supply [51, 52, 74, 81, 82]. Thus, to avoid condemnation at abattoirs [40] and spoilage, farmers are forced to sell their pigs at informal markets and at poor prices. This has been reported in South Africa [40, 43, 68, 73], Kenya [67] and Tanzania [41]. Consequently, majority of the farmers in South Africa reported that they sold to any willing buyer due to lack of stable market [73].
\nFifthly, few wholesalers are usually involved in the transaction compared to retailers [56] because of insufficient funds and credit facilities as reported in Kenya [38] and Nigeria [56, 78, 83]. Moreover, lack of funds affected pig production and marketing especially due to high cost of transportation faced by the traders in Botswana and Nigeria [56, 79, 84]. In some instances, the problem is exaggerated due to increase in the price of petroleum and spare parts of vehicles [56, 70, 71, 85]. This is because majority of the traders in most African countries including Uganda do not own vehicles for transportation and thus engage the services of other transporters [66]. Hence both live pigs and pig carcasses are transported in trucks, buses, roof of saloon cars, bicycles and motorbikes openly while pigs from neighbouring villages are trekked directly to the markets in Nigeria (motorbike transportation of pigs in Quan-Pan LGA of Plateau state, Nigeria - Figure 2a) [56, 86] and Kenya [74]. The method of transporting pig/pig products can spread diseases including African swine fever and foot and mouth disease etc. which comes with severe economic consequences [82].
\nHerd Health Management of pigs just like in other livestock involves all the farm practices that promotes health, improve productivity and prevent diseases in animals for the benefit of all stakeholders in the industry, while at the same time not sacrificing animal welfare, food safety, public health and environmental sustainability [87]. Traditionally, the essence of herd health is to control or eliminate diseases and management inefficiencies that may impact on welfare or limit swine productivity. This is achieved by ensuring comprehensive husbandry management systems that includes breeding, biosecurity and environmental management, nutrition management, parasite control, vaccination, adequate risk monitoring and assessment in conjunction with best farming practices in a practical and economically feasible way [88]. Health management of Swine in Africa is dependent on the type of husbandry or production system being employed by the farmer. Three major management systems are obtainable in most developing countries of Africa, and they include:
\nThe free-range (scavenging) system which is the oldest and traditional method of rearing pigs in most parts of the world is mostly obtained in rural areas where resources (feeds and capital) are limited but with ample land resources necessary for wandering animals (Figure 1a). It involves households keeping a small number (1–3) of pigs which can roam about and scavenge for food and water, with occasional provision of kitchen wastes, and farm by-products. Pigs are rarely sheltered and there is no investment on feed or veterinary services [74]. The unrestricted roaming often leads to indiscriminate mating, with high probability of inbreeding leading to poor quality offspring. Local pig breeds are suitable for this system because they have high resistance to diseases and can manage with low-quality feed therefore, disease control in this system is quite minimal since little or no investment and management are needed [89]. In several African countries where the free-range traditional system of pig production has been characterized, its hallmark includes high mortality rate due to diseases, minimal health care, slow growth rate due to poor feed conversion, low off take, low reproductive rates, lack of supplementary feeding, and lack of proper housing [90, 91].
\n(a) Free-ranging village pig, Langtang, Nigeria. (b) Semi-intensively kept pigs, Shendam, Nigeria. (c) Intensive piglets in a farrowing pen in Jos-south, Nigeria (d) Backyard pig farm, Wukari, Nigeria. (Pictures courtesy of Adedeji JA).
The semi-intensive system involves the restriction of pigs to a limited space (Figure 1b and 1d), with the provision of feed (kitchen wastes and agricultural by-products), water and veterinary services. Periodically, the pigs are allowed into a larger area to exercise, graze, and wallow, such that some classes of pigs are kept outside the pig shelters, e.g. boars and sows stay within a perimeter fence where water, feeds and shade are provided [70].
\nThe intensive system of farming is characterised by complete housing of pigs and provision of complete diets (Figure 1c). In this system, pigs are shifted from one pen to another according to the production stage, until they reach market weight [70]. This management system is practised in large-scale commercial systems that are characterized by improved breeds, use of commercial concentrates for feeding and proper housing with sophisticated equipment and biosafety measures [33]. In certain parts of Africa especially the urban areas where land resources are minimal due to explosion of human population and urbanization, pig farmers tend to adopt the intensive and semi-intensive systems of production [91].
\nThe most prevalent and endemic disease responsible for outbreaks in many pig producing areas of Africa is the African swine fever, a viral disease that spreads rapidly and is associated with high morbidity and mortality [92, 93]. Other known infectious diseases that have been recorded includes, but not limited to swine erysipelas, brucellosis, exudative dermatitis (greasy pig), respiratory diseases, swine dysentery, mastitis, and porcine parvovirus. Parasitic diseases in the form of Helminthosis (Strongylid parasites,
Diseases and poor herd-health management practices are the major challenges to efficient management and profitable swine production in developing countries of the world [96]. In terms of disease control and herd health management in most pig producing areas of Africa, government and private veterinarians are usually available to provide disease diagnosis and treatment services. However, the level of acceptance of such services from farmers varies especially among smallholder farmers. In preventing swine diseases, having a herd health plan usually help to minimize disease incidence, thus most farmers depend on the provision of adequate housing, good husbandry and nutrition, hygiene, and ventilation [97].
\nVaccination is a major focus of disease prevention and herd-health management in pig production. Vaccines in use in a few African countries against production limiting diseases of pigs includes but not limited to Erysipelas,
While pig farmers in many African countries are scaling up their businesses from backyard to commercial enterprises due to increased population growth and demand for complementary source of animal protein, many are confronted with a number of challenges ranging from high feed costs that are prohibiting their progress, transboundary diseases and inadequate extension and veterinary service, poor breeding stock, unorganized marketing and inadequate slaughter facilities. Another challenge is the religious sentiments in some part of Africa towards pigs and pork products [38, 67, 74]. Despite these challenges pig farming and pork are gradually gaining acceptance in Africa. However, for production to be raised, these challenges need to be addressed individually at farm level and collectively by stakeholders through collaborative efforts.
\nEfficient and profitable pig production has been on the decline in Africa irrespective of the benefits derived from pig farming due to disease as observed in Nigeria [29, 78], Senegal [100], Kenya [67, 74] Congo [53], Southern Africa [37, 101], Botswana [61], Uganda [51, 52, 102], Tanzania [103], and Cameroon [80]. Livestock diseases forms one of the key threats to the livestock industry and specifically pig farming since diseases that affect livestock reduce productivity [104]. Livestock diseases including pig disease represent a major constraint to profitable production and have devastating impacts upon the industry leading to losses in hundreds of millions of dollars every year in Sub-Saharan Africa [105, 106]. Important pig diseases especially in Nigeria include: African swine fever, foot-and-mouth disease, brucellosis, Trypanosomosis, babesiosis, eperythrozoonosis, helminthosis, coccidiosis and other parasitoses (reviewed in [106]). These diseases impact negatively on production by affecting feed conversion efficiency, reproduction and growth rates as well as causing piglet and adult mortalities [106]. There is also the risk of zoonosis associated with some of the pig diseases. In general, a disease control strategy that can provide for the sustainability and expansion of the pig production capacity [106] is necessary in Africa.
\nHigh piglet and pig mortality rates has been reported in many African countries [32, 37, 38, 53, 58, 68, 69, 73, 74, 78, 83, 91, 103, 107, 108, 109]. These piglet mortalities affects both exotic and indigenous breeds, and were largely attributed to low birth weights and diseases such as septicaemia and colisepticaemia [101, 106] or high pre-weaning mortalities have been associated with crushing and chilling which are indication of inadequate husbandry management practices when farrowing pen with heating facilities are not provided [61, 69]. In addition, starvation, agalactiae and stress have also been reported to cause pre-weaning mortality [101]. Therefore, strategies that can provide adequate neonatal health and prevention of infertility and abortions in herds are paramount and appropriate initiative for growth of the pig population [106].
\nMost animal production activities in Africa are located in rural areas or remote areas that are inaccessible to proper veterinary services, while those that are accessible grapple with high cost of drugs and veterinary services that may be prohibitive. Thus, the farmers are forced to resort to easily available quacks that can wreak havoc on their animals due to wrong diagnosis and the prescriptions of wrong drug for treating diseases, or the use of expired vaccines, fake and sub-standard drugs [105, 110]. In addition, poor veterinary services were also reported among small scale farmers due to lack of skilled veterinarians or inadequate Vet staff. Sometimes the access by farmers to veterinarians is often limited by poor infrastructure including road/transport system as observed in many African countries including Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Cameroon, and Ethiopia [38, 67, 71, 74, 80, 83, 102, 103, 107, 111].
\nMajor production constraints including high cost of drugs, veterinary services and labour encountered by pig producers in many Africa including Nigeria, Kenya, Senegal, Congo, South Africa, Uganda and Angola have been reported [29, 32, 38, 53, 54, 73, 83, 86, 100]. Similarly, limited vaccination and biosecurity or public health preventive measures with little or no treatments of sick pigs have been reported in some African countries among small-scale pig farmers [17, 38, 40, 41, 42, 68, 71, 75, 76, 80, 111].
\nThe extension system and services in Africa is also poor and ineffective and extension networks are weak. Farmers did not know veterinarians existed as observed in Tanzania [103], Ethiopia [111], Kenya [38, 67, 71], Botswana [61, 70], South Africa [17, 42, 59] and Nigeria [112]. In addition, extension staff are not sufficiently trained and equipped to offer excellent service to pig farmers as observed in Botswana [61, 70] and South Africa [40]. Poor relationship between small scale farmers and animal health technicians have also been reported in many African countries [53, 67, 73, 102], thus depriving them of the opportunities to access health services for their animals. There is therefore the need for governments of most African countries to standardize and subsidize veterinary services to farmers [105].
\nSome farmers lacked knowledge of veterinary services, as they did not know they could contact veterinarians to offer veterinary services for their animals in South Africa [40, 52, 68, 73] and Kenya [67]. While some of the farmers were misinformed over the effectiveness of some veterinary treatments and vaccines in Congo [53] and South Africa [65]. However, others believe that indigenous pigs can’t fall sick especially with intestinal parasites as reported in South Africa [17] and Kenya [38], and thus do no need treatment. Similarly, farmers lacked knowledge on pig diseases and their identification in Kenya [67, 74].
\nThe lack of basic knowledge on pig management practices was observed among famers, thus such farmers resort to traditional pig farming system which are archaic and unproductive. Pigs were seen under poor management system, with some either roaming freely, tethered or kept in poor and improper housing most of the year, while some are penned during the rainy season and sheltered only in the night. This was done in order to keep the cost of input of production low as observed in many African countries [29, 37, 38, 68, 73, 81, 102, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116]. Free range pigs also serve as sources of neighbour’s conflicts due to their destructive behaviour on farmlands [78], which in extreme cases leads to the shootings or salt poisoning of pigs [67]. Tether wounds were commonly observed on the neck and leg of pigs which is a welfare worry as farmers lacked the knowledge to tie proper knots and do not regularly rotate tethers to different sites on the pig’s body as reported in Kenya [38].
\nThe farmers are faced by high cost of production inputs including building materials, hence farmers use poor building material for pig housing as observed in Senegal [100], Nigeria [29, 83, 116], Uganda [52, 102], South Africa [68, 73], Cameroon [80], Botswana [61], Kenya [38] and Ghana [117]. High cost of pigs and piglets was also common challenges among small scale farmers as reported in Nigeria [78, 86], hence shortage of piglets has been observed in some African countries like Kenya [67]. Due to the poor or lack of infrastructure, small scale farmers allow their pigs to roam, thus confound deworming of pigs and also expose pigs to increased risk of diseases and infections, theft and pilferage [37, 40, 41, 73, 74, 102, 113].
\nGood and nutritious feeds are essential for growth, body maintenance and productivity, but animal feeds which are nutritive and essential for productivity are not readily available and where they are, they are not easily affordable for an average farmer [105]. In pig production, feeds which are mostly made up of maize and soya beans account for approximately 88% of the cost of production [69]. However, most African countries and the farmers do not produce enough of these cereals to meet the demands of the pig farmers. Thus, feed manufacturing companies depends more on imported raw materials to meet their customer’s needs [61], thus making their finished product expensive, and since farmers are into animal production for profit, the high cost of feeds make production unsustainable.
\nHigh feed cost is observed or reported in many African countries [31, 51, 52, 65, 68, 71, 73, 75, 103, 107, 108, 113]. Unbalanced diets were also given to pigs in many African countries which adds to their slow growth and causes a reduced pig performances [29, 40, 41, 51, 53, 54, 61, 70, 71, 73, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 83, 111, 117].
\nFeeding of swill/kitchen wastes/leftovers to pigs by small- holder farmers is commonly reported across Africa as a substitute to commercial feeds and to reduce the cost of production [42, 53, 57, 68, 80, 111]. Inadequate feeding was commonly practiced in dry season, in Kenya [38] and South Africa [17, 73]. Swill generally consists of restaurant waste and kitchen scraps [43, 44, 59, 75]. However, feeding such feed is associated with poor growth and depressed economic gain [43], and predispose pigs to infection and diseases [43]. The feeding of swill has been associated with disease occurrence especially, FMD and ASF [102].
\nSome African pig industry like Uganda largely depend on indigenous breeds of pigs [52] however the challenges across Africa include lack of good quality breeding stock [38, 40, 51, 68, 71, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, 86].
\nFarmers reported poor reproductive performance across various regions of Africa [38, 58, 68, 107]. This is confounded by the fact that most of the farmers do not have boars and are thus forced to source for boars in neighbouring towns [37, 38, 40, 41, 51, 86, 118] or buy auctioned boars to service their sows which promotes the spread of diseases [43, 51, 68, 73, 107] and promotes Inbreeding. Inbreeding causes depression, and a weakening of genetic pools [40, 73], loss in heterozygosity and increases homozygosity which results in increased lethal genes that increase embryonic death, mummified foetuses etc. [61]. Lending of boars also causes break in biosecurity measures and promotes the spread of parasites and diseases [41, 73, 99, 107, 108]. Moreover, breeding is not controlled as the farmers had no set purposes; it is just carried out randomly [117].
\nThe farmers also found it difficult to access credit facility or institutional/government loans as reported in Nigeria [79, 112], Uganda [52], Kenya [67], Botswana [61] and South Africa [73]. Hence most of the farms could not enlarge but existed under small scale [67, 86]. Water and electricity are also lacking and limited in some locations as seen in Uganda [52], Botswana [70] and Nigeria [79] as such small-holders do not have the finance to provide their own sources of water and electricity. Lack of Land and sufficient space for pig farming was observed by some studies in Nigeria [29, 79], Kenya [67] Uganda [52], Botswana [61, 70], and South Africa [40, 75].
\nSocial and religious beliefs are among the constraints to pig production in Africa due to the fact that pigs are not readily accepted by most communities because of cultural, spiritual problems and religious reasons which renders it a taboo for pork to be eaten by some individuals [29, 38, 67, 78, 100, 111].
\n\n
Inbreeding should be decreased and controlled breeding should be encouraged [42].
Biosafety should be encouraged to control diseases such as African swine fever, FMD, Porcine cysticercosis etc. and farmers should be trained on diseases control [17].
Feeding practices should be improved [81].
Management system, and housing should be upgraded and pig confinement be emphasized. Government can design model pig houses and make them available to farmers [67, 81].
Record keeping should be emphasized among farmers [54] and producers, middlemen, traders and slaughter men for pork safety and traceability in Africa [38, 67].
Encouraging farmers to form cooperatives/pig farmers association in order to obtain capital/loans.
Small scale farmers and extension workers should be trained on husbandry practices [68, 102].
Government should provide physical infrastructure in the market and abattoirs and provide slaughter slabs with shades and portable water and adequate drainage facilities [79] and traders should provide cold stores in the market for meat storage [56].
Government should give farmers credit facilities in order to enable them expand their pig farms [119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124].
Our study had the limitations of not being a structured research but most of the materials and relevant records were sourced from the following data base; Pubmed, Google scholar, Google, Ajol, Hindawi, text books, internet explorer, and NCDI Data base. Hence there might be some literature that we may not have been able to access or some records that have not been published.
\n(a) Transportation of pigs Quan-Pan LGA. (b) Local Nigerian Pig breed (Courtesy, Adedeji AJ).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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