AnnAGNPS Input parameters and methods used in their evaluation.
\r\n\tIn sum, the book presents a reflective analysis of the pedagogical hubs for a changing world, considering the most fundamental areas of the current contingencies in education.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-793-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-792-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-794-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b01f9136149277b7e4cbc1e52bce78ec",bookSignature:"Dr. María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10229.jpg",keywords:"Teacher Digital Competences, Flipped Learning, Online Resources Design, Neuroscientific Literacy (Myths), Emotions and Learning, Multisensory Stimulation, Citizen Skills, Violence Prevention, Moral Development, Universal Design for Learning, Sensitizing on Diversity, Supportive Strategies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Phil. Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca, where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. in Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"187893",title:"Dr.",name:"María Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Serrano",slug:"maria-jose-hernandez-serrano",fullName:"María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187893/images/system/187893.jpg",biography:"DPhil Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured Lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca (Spain), where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. on Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009). She obtained a Visiting Scholar Postdoctoral Grant (of the British Academy, UK) at the Oxford Internet Institute of the University of Oxford (2011) and was granted with a postdoctoral research (in 2021) at London Birbeck University.\n \nShe is author of more than 20 research papers, and more than 35 book chapters (H Index 10). She is interested in the study of the educational process and the analysis of cognitive and affective processes in the context of neuroeducation and neurotechnologies, along with the study of social contingencies affecting the educational institutions and requiring new skills for educators.\n\nHer publications are mainly of the educational process mediated by technologies and digital competences. Currently, her new research interests are: the transdisciplinary application of the brain-based research to the educational context and virtual environments, and the neuropedagogical implications of the technologies on the development of the brain in younger students. Also, she is interested in the promotion of creative and critical uses of digital technologies, the emerging uses of social media and transmedia, and the informal learning through technologies.\n\nShe is a member of several research Networks and Scientific Committees in international journals on Educational Technologies and Educommunication, and collaborates as a reviewer in several prestigious journals (see public profile in Publons).\n\nUntil March 2010 she was in charge of the Adult University of Salamanca, by coordinating teaching activities of more than a thousand adult students. She currently is, since 2014, the Secretary of the Department of Theory and History of Education. Since 2015 she collaborates with the Council Educational Program by training teachers and families in the translation of advances from educational neuroscience.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56566",title:"Vulnerability of Soil and Water in Mediterranean Agro-Forestry Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70094",slug:"vulnerability-of-soil-and-water-in-mediterranean-agro-forestry-systems",body:'\nFarming activities, as a part of natural resource management practice, impact both soil and water quality at the watershed level. The nonpoint source (NPS) pollution with nitrates and phosphates from agricultural areas, sometimes associated to soil erosion by water, is an important environmental problem [1]. For instance, the source of nitrates and phosphates from agriculture activities is reported as responsible for 46–87 and 20–40%, respectively, into European continental waters [2]. Soil and water conservation practices also help to reduce the loss of chemicals in runoff and maintain water quality [3]. Increases in nutrient losses and riverine nutrient loads have caused eutrophication of many coastal and freshwater ecosystems in many Mediterranean regions (Figure 1). Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution is an important environmental and water quality problem closely related to hydrologic behavior of watersheds as a basic management territorial unit [4]. However, watershed being a geographically dynamic unit, its behavior varies both spatially and temporarily. Nonpoint source pollution has become a global environmental issue and it has been a critical issue concerning environmental degradation caused in recent years.
\nSoil erosion by water and consequences downstream, namely eutrophication of the water bodies.
The Mediterranean climate plays an important role in these environmental issues, like soil erosion and degradation of quality water bodies, given the irregularity and uncertainty of climatic patterns. The Mediterranean climate is characterized by irregular inter-annual and intra-annual precipitations (wet years mixed with recurrent droughts), and high concentrations of rainfall over a few months, many times over only a few days, and low rainfall during the summer [5, 6]. On the other hand, many of the conventional Mediterranean arable land cropping systems have a soil surface, which remains uncovered during long periods of time, corresponding to the soil preparation and crop establishment phases, which frequently occur during the periods of high rainfall concentration (Figure 1) [7, 8]. The runoff regime associated to this climatic condition determines in many years a low capacity for harvesting a convenient volume of water for agricultural activity and the implementation of some strategies for coping with water scarcity [9]. Both water scarcity and Mediterranean forestry systems create preferential conditions for wildfires, which can considerably change the hydrological processes and the landscape’s vulnerability in major peak flow and erosion events [10]. Thus, to have a better understanding of the processes of soil erosion and nonpoint source pollution at the basin scale, to better actuate on their prevention, monitoring studies conducted at a watershed scale are difficult to replicate in the way that traditional plot-scale research is designed, in order to compare responses of alternative management practices using only field observations [11]. At plot scale, it is easier to conduct research actions to study those processes, but it is impossible to obtain accurate valid information for large areas (Figure 2). So, computer simulation models provide an efficient and effective alternative for evaluating the effects of agricultural practices on soil and water quality at the watershed level [12].
\nPlots to evaluate soil erosion by water under some crop rotations (Experimental Station in Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco/School of Agriculture).
Erosion is mainly due to climatic conditions, namely the precipitation patterns, and the inadequate use of soil by agriculture and forestry, but also through building constructions and uncontrolled water runoff from roads and other sealed surfaces. According to this, the regions of the Mediterranean basin where the higher rates of soil erosion are mapped are coincident with the regions where the highest values of erosivity density are verified (Figure 3). In more than one-third of the total land of the Mediterranean basin, average yearly soil losses can exceed 15 tons ha−1. On the other hand, loss of organic matter is mainly due to intensive use of the land by agriculture, especially when organic residues are not sufficiently produced or recycled to soil. Agronomists consider soil with less than 1.7% organic matter to be in predesertification stage [13].
\nErosivity density (erosivity factor per precipitation unit) and soil erosion by water in Europe [13].
The main objective of this study is to understand the dynamics of pollutant sediments, nitrates, and phosphorus in close relation to hydrologic behavior of a small basin in typical Mediterranean environmental conditions.
\nThe study watershed is located within the Idanha Irrigation Scheme, Idanha-a-Nova County, Portugal, near the border with Spain and just north of the Tagus River (Figure 4). The study area is close to the International Tagus Natural Park, where we can find many terrestrial and aquatic unique ecosystems, like a Mediterranean forest very well adapted to these conditions (holm oak forest—Quercus ilex L.), and some communities of rare birds of prey (imperial eagle) and black stork. Therefore, this region is very sensitive from an environmental point of view. It covers an area of 189 ha and a perimeter of 6510 m, and presents a third-order hierarchy stream. The main natural stream is 2300 m long and runs north-southwest. The drainage density of the perennial streams is 12.2 m ha−1 [14].
\nLocation of the study catchment in Portugal.
Altitude varies from 212 m at the outlet of the basin to 248 m, and the slopes range from 0 to 4%; thus, the topography is flat to gently undulating (Figure 5). The limits of the study catchment are well defined.
\nTopography of the study catchment and a downstream and upstream view.
The climate is typically Mediterranean continental. Average annual rainfall is 638 mm, with a rainless summer. The average temperature varies from 8.1°C in January to 25.3°C in August; the average reference evapotranspiration (ETo) ranges from 0.5 mm day−1 in January to 9.0 mm day−1 in July (Figure 6) [14]. According to the Köppen climate classification, the study catchment enters a Mediterranean Csa type climate (humid temperate with a dry and hot summer).
\nCharacterization of climate in the study catchment through parameters of rainfall, temperature, and evapotranspiration.
The study catchment covers an area of 189 ha and it is subdivided into 18 fields. About one-third (31%) of the catchment is not irrigable and is now devoted to a young cork (Quercus suber L.) and oak tree (Quercus rotundifolia Lam.) forest that was planted in 2001. Three distinct areas can be identified in terms of agricultural practices: uncultivated zone (area with cork and oak young forest), an area with intensive agricultural use in monoculture (maize and tobacco), that in some recent years has remained fallow, and an area with diversity of agricultural uses with smaller fields. The area with young cork and oak forest, located in the eastern part of the basin, can be seen in long fallow as it has not been cultivated for several years [14]. The irrigated fields use sprinklers with either center pivot units or stationary systems. As a consequence of the Common Agriculture Policy, that was put in practice at the beginning of this century, namely almost disappearing with tobacco, the irrigated area decreased to less than half after 2005 irrigation season, with a corresponding increase in fallow area. This reduction has clear implications on the hydrologic behavior of the basin during the irrigation season and subsequent rainfall season [15].
\nSoils in the catchment were mapped from preexisting unpublished studies, field inspections, photo-interpretation techniques, and detailed characterization of one soil profile per soil group. According to the FAO classification system [16, 17], the predominant soil groups in the watershed are Luvisols and Cambisol, these ones originated from fluvial deposits associated with the tributaries of the Tagus River (Figure 7). Fluvisols are also present in the catchment area, these originated from alluvial deposits associated with the main creek. An impermeable, fractured soil layer underlies the Luvisols classes at a depth of approximately 0.4 m. Luvisols1 are soils with a subsurface horizon of high activity clay accumulation and high base saturation and show marked textural differences within the profile. The surface horizon is depleted in clay while the subsurface argic horizon has accumulated clay (Bt horizon). A wide range of parent materials and environmental conditions lead to a great diversity of soils in this Reference Soil Group. Other names used for this soil type include sols lessivés (France), Alfisols (Soil Taxonomy), and Mediterranean soils (Portugal). The Luvisols of the Mediterranean region are widely distributed throughout Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, Albania, Croatia, Turkey, and Cyprus, which represent a significant percentage of the total area of soils in these countries. Luvisol is a fertile soil suitable for a wide range of agricultural uses. In the Mediterranean, it is commonly used for cereals. On sloping land, it requires measures such as man-made terraces to control erosion, and it is best suited for fruit trees, vineyards, olives, and grazing [13].
\nSoils in the study catchment (FAO nomenclature), and a soil profile from a Luvisol.
A hydrological station was constructed and installed in 2004 at the outlet of a catchment (39°50’48″ N, 7°10’00″ W). The station consisted of (i) a long-throated flume, with a triangular control section for small water depths and triangular/trapezoidal control section for large water depths [18] and (ii) an ultrasonic sensor (“The Probe,” manufactured by Milltronics, Siemens Milltronics Process Instruments Inc., Ontario, Canada) connected to a data logger continuously measuring and recording the water level at the flume (Figure 8). Pollutants, nitrates, sediments, and salts, were evaluated with a multiparameter probe for monitoring and logging water quality (TROLL 9500 Water Quality Instruments, manufactured by In-Situ Inc., Fort Collins, Colorado, USA). Farming practices, related to Mediterranean crops rotations, were recorded by farmers and verified by direct observations during visits to the catchment to apply to a computer model. The irrigation methods used in the study watershed are sprinkler center pivot and stationary sprinkler (in the areas not covered by the pivot machines).
\nHydrometric and water quality station located at the outlet of the study catchment.
Several available hydrologic models were evaluated and the Annualized Agricultural Non-Point Source (AnnAGNPS) pollution model was selected as the simulation tool to be used in this study. AGNPS is a suite of computer models resulting from the joint effort between the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) agencies and it has been developed to evaluate farming and conservation practices through prediction of nonpoint source pollutant loadings within agricultural watersheds. Within AGNPS, AnnAGNPS is a continuous simulation, mixed-land use, watershed-scale computer model designed to predict the origin and movement of water, sediment, and chemicals at any location in agricultural watersheds [19]. The model estimates erosion caused by different processes such as sheet and rill, tillage-induced gullies, classical gullies, and streambed and bank sources [20]. AnnAGNPS has been calibrated, validated, and applied for runoff and sediment yield losses from watersheds in different geographic locations, conditions, and management practices [21, 22]. The AnnAGNPS model was applied in this study and afterward was calibrated and validated to the conditions in the study catchment [23]. Table 1 lists the main input parameters commonly used in AnnAGNPS simulations.
\nGroup of parameters | \nInput variables | \nMethods | \n
---|---|---|
Climate | \nDaily rainfall Daily maximum and minimum temperatures, wind direction and speed, daily percentage cloud cover and dew point temperature Annual distribution EI30 Type of rainfall distribution (TR-55) Two year 24 h precipitation | \nMeasurements at the Ladoeiro [24] and Ribeiro de Freixo stations (data not published) Measurements at the Ribeiro de Freixo station (data not published) Calculated with measured data, from Ladoeiro data [24] and the methodology described by Wischmeier and Smith [25] Comparison with the 24 h rainfall distribution curve calculated with the data from Ladoeiro station [24] Gumbel method [26] applied to the data from Ladoeiro station [24] | \n
Topography | \nDrainage area and limit of the catchment, cells area, reaches length, mean slope of cells and reaches, RUSLE LS factors Topographic and hydrologic configuration | \nApplication of TopAGNPS and AgFlow [27]—ArcView interface 3.2, using a DEM with 1 m vertical resolution Manipulation of the CSA and MSCL parameters, and comparison to observed and simulated natural stable reaches | \n
Soils | \nDepth (horizons) Texture Saturated hydraulic conductivity Bulk density Field capacity and wilting point Percentage of organic matter pH Coarse elements (%) | \nField observations, cleaning of profiles Method of Robison pipette [28] Rawls and Brakensiek [29] Mass/volume of clods with wax to measure their submerged weight Richard’s methodology Methodology of Walkley-Black [30] ISO [31] Field observations | \n
Operations and Management | \nCrop data Crop operations, included irrigation Irrigation application rate RUSLE-factors C and P | \nFarmer’s information and some bibliography related with crops in the catchment Farmer’s information and some observation in the fields Measured in field [32, 33] Wischmeier and Smith [25] | \n
Others | \nCN Manning’s n | \nTR-55 [34] Wischmeier and Smith [25] | \n
AnnAGNPS Input parameters and methods used in their evaluation.
Note: DEM, digital elevation model; CSA, critical source area; MSCL, minimum source critical length; CN, curve number.
Irrigation performance and catchment water usage were quantified for various irrigation and rainfed seasons using the following indicators [35, 36]:
\nwhere ROC is the fraction of rainfall and irrigation that contribute to runoff verified at the outlet of the basin, RO (mm) is the runoff verified at the outlet of the study catchment, R (mm) is rainfall, I is irrigation applied on the irrigated fields in the study basin, and Irequired is the required irrigation calculated by FAO methodology, as the water requirements to satisfy the full water needs of the crop [37].
\nIn Mediterranean climatic conditions, the accumulated erosivity curve shows a stationary phase in the summer months (June, July, August, and September), because it has not practically rained, and two phases of growth, one in the first five months of the year and another, more intense, in the last months of the year. This phase is particularly important, specifically for winter crops such as cereals, since the surface of the soil is unprotected [38, 39]. In contrast, the annual erosive rain is less than 50% of the total annual rain, according to the results of 14 years (2001–2014). The adjustment of linear tendency shows that the larger the total rainfall, the less is the erosive rain (Figure 9). Therefore, the analysis of rainfall and erosivity (EI30 methodology, as a compound index of kinetic energy of the rain, E, and the maximum 30-min intensity) [25] distribution over many years (2001–2014) shows typically Mediterranean climate conditions.
\nDistribution of average EI30 factor (MJ mm ha−1 h−1 yr−1), total rainfall, and erosive rainfall.
Case of a single event (Figure 10) shows that the superficial runoff dominates the hydrological response of this basin during the most significant events, known as Hortonian model [40]. This behavior is in part responsible for an almost impermeable layer (horizon Bt), characteristic of Luvisols. The significant variability in runoff is justified not only by differences in characteristics of storms and surface soil moisture content, but also by preceding long dry periods which were likely to ease the effects of rainfall [41, 42]. So, the event occurred on October 20, 2004, in dry soil conditions, reached a discharge equal to 8289 m3 in sequence of 39.9 mm of precipitation (Figure 9). In a subsequent event, on October 27, 2004, in wet soil conditions, the total discharge was 80,457 m3 derived from 42.3 mm of precipitation (Figure 10). This significant difference between two runoff events caused by almost the same precipitation illustrates the decisive influence of the antecedent soil moisture conditions in the magnitude of the flash floods at the small basin scale. It is considered by some authors (e.g., [43]) as the most important soil factor for rapid runoff and flash flooding, with a tendency to produce in Mediterranean region more extreme floods than other European regions [44].
\nPrecipitation and hydrograph (dotted line), recorded between November 30 and December 2, 2004, showing a hortonian behavior [40], and influence of the antecedent soil moisture conditions on the magnitude of hydrologic events.
The relation between the water entry in the catchment and the runoff coefficient is completely different under irrigation and rainy seasons. In fact, it is possible to establish a good positive correlation in irrigation, while in the rainy season no relation is possible (Figure 11). As is comprehensible, in irrigation conditions, the runoff coefficient is proportional to the volume of irrigation water provided to the fields, given that the water is supplied by a regular behavior. Nevertheless, only from a minimum value of water supplied to the irrigation fields, start to have runoff at the outlet of the catchment. For example, in the 2007 and 2009 irrigations seasons, the water supplied to the irrigations fields was 56 mm and 54 mm respectively (Table 2), and the runoff observed in the outlet of the study basin was 0 mm in both irrigation seasons (Figure 11, left chart). On the other hand, as was concluded earlier [14], the reduction of the runoff coefficient is more than proportional relatively to the reduction of water supplied to the catchment. Therefore, it is necessary to make difference on the concept irrigation efficiency at different territorial scales; performance indicators of irrigation at field scale or at catchment scale are not the same [45]. During usual rainy seasons, as in the irrigation seasons, it is possible to obtain a good positive relation between rainfall and runoff coefficient, but in some unusual years the relation is completely shuffled. That is characteristic for Mediterranean climatic conditions, namely precipitation patterns (Figure 11, right chart). The highest value of runoff coefficient verified in the study catchment (0.36) is obtained for the rainfall of only 302 mm in a very dry season (2004/2005).
\nRunoff coefficient (ROC) in irrigation and rainfed seasons evaluated in the study catchment.
In many regions in the Mediterranean basin, like in the study catchment, the indicator cropping intensity (CI), defined as the ratio of arable to cultivated area, is low due to some climatic, institutional, or socio-economic factors. This is one of the threats to the region, as a result of the higher susceptibility to environmental damage, like wild fires, and the consequences of soil erosion [46]. In the last century, many rural regions in the Mediterranean basin had significant demographic and socio-economic changes, which determined a substantial decrease in population, abandonment of agricultural land and increase of the human-induced desertification process [47]. Water scarcity and more frequent droughts are other serious problems in the Mediterranean region, which require an enhancement in water management and more efficient water allocation, distribution, and use [48]. Relative water supply (RWS) is always below the unity value, except in the irrigation seasons of 2004 and 2008 in the study catchment, and sometimes even below the value 0.5, clearly denoting water scarcity in most of the irrigation seasons (Table 2). Both, deficient water distribution in many irrigation districts and/or low water storage in the reservoirs, are the most frequent reasons that determine water scarcity conditions on the irrigation fields.
\nCropping season | \nYear | \nRain (mm) | \nIrrigation (mm) | \nRunoff (mm) | \nCI | \nROC | \nRIS | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Irrigation | \n2004 | \n\n | 346 | \n32 | \n0.81 | \n0.09 | \n1.11 | \n
\n | 2005 | \n\n | 118 | \n6 | \n0.39 | \n0.05 | \n0.66 | \n
\n | 2006 | \n\n | 90 | \n1 | \n0.38 | \n0.01 | \n0.62 | \n
\n | 2007 | \n\n | 56 | \n0 | \n0.24 | \n0.00 | \n0.60 | \n
\n | 2008 | \n\n | 286 | \n25 | \n0.64 | \n0.09 | \n1.03 | \n
\n | 2009 | \n\n | 54 | \n0 | \n0.16 | \n0.00 | \n0.42 | \n
\n | 2010 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | 2011 | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
\n | 2012 | \n\n | 43 | \n0 | \n0.21 | \n0 | \n0.49 | \n
Rainfed | \n2004–2005 | \n302 | \n\n | 109 | \n0.23 | \n0.36 | \n\n |
\n | 2005–2006 | \n591 | \n\n | 112 | \n0.14 | \n0.19 | \n\n |
\n | 2006–2007 | \n1021 | \n\n | 255 | \n0.14 | \n0.25 | \n\n |
\n | 2007–2008 | \n422 | \n\n | 62 | \n0.06 | \n0.15 | \n\n |
\n | 2008–2009 | \n333 | \n\n | 36 | \n0.16 | \n0.11 | \n\n |
\n | 2009–2010 | \n601 | \n\n | 180 | \n0.32 | \n0.30 | \n\n |
\n | 2010–2011 | \n579 | \n\n | 134 | \n0.24 | \n0.23 | \n\n |
\n | 2011–2012 | \n288 | \n\n | 28 | \n0.24 | \n0.10 | \n\n |
Level of agricultural intensification (CI), runoff coefficient (ROC), and relative irrigation supply (RIS), in the study catchment, during seven irrigation seasons and eight rainfed seasons.
Mediterranean climate, as referred earlier, presents a strong intra- and inter-annual irregularity, being especially evident in the rainfall patterns [49]. Additionally, studies of hydrological behavior in Mediterranean climate using precipitation and discharge averages are not relevant, since this kind of climate is dominated by extreme events [50]. The two graphics in Figure 12 show exactly what is a very abnormal (2004–2005) and normal year (2005–2006), as to the quantity and the distribution of rainfall and runoff. In fact, in 2004–2005, the amount of precipitation was 302 mm, distributed mainly into five events and giving a few more intense runoff events, highlighting the first event with a great magnitude. In the same period of time, the amount of runoff was 109 mm, determining a runoff coefficient equal to 0.36, a value which is uncommon in these conditions. In the hydrological year 2005–2006, the amount of rainfall (591 mm) was close to the average value in this region (638 mm) and was distributed by many more rainfall events. It should be noted that the amount of runoff (112 mm) was almost the same as that of the previous year, but giving a lower runoff coefficient (0.19). In the first year of analysis (2004–2005), the runoff started on October 19 and finished on April 20, without any gap in this period (Figure 12). Considering that, between December 13 and March 20 the amount of precipitation was 15.3 mm, and the continuous runoff was possible only because the natural channels’ network was not disconnected from the aquifers or groundwater table [51].
\nRainfall and runoff verified in the rainfed seasons 2004–2005, as a dry year, and 2005–2006, as a meteorologically normal year.
Mediterranean rainfall can reach, sometimes with very high intensity, very important runoff events, like this one illustrated in Figure 13, which occurred in the hydrological year 2004–2005. This event occurred in the conditions of saturated soil, due to the amount of rainfall in the previous days (October 21–23; 77.9 mm), but, as noted before [52], big events can be reached when the intensity of precipitation exceeds the initial capacity of soil infiltration, or the maximum intensity of precipitation occurs in a favorable moment of the storm. In the present event, verified in a very dry year (302 mm), the runoff coefficient was equal to 0.85, characteristic to streams with torrential patterns, and the erosion annual rate in this event was 79.1%; with the potential to carry coarse elements outside the basin. Among the two different types of events identified by Camarasa-Belmonte [53], this one is related to the type with high intensity, occurring at the beginning of the storm and generating hydrographs that are very similar to the hyetographs. The other type of events, according to Camarasa-Belmonte [53], occur in the conditions of low intensity of precipitation and rain peaks at the end of the event, generating hydrographs quite different from hyetographs. Both rising time and recession time are reached relatively quickly, due to the characteristics of this storm and the physical conditions of the catchment. Since this catchment does not have important water storage in the channels, soil and surface, rapid recession time is verified, when the storm stops [54].
\nRunoff and erosion rates verified in a very strong event in October 2004.
The effects of surface runoff and soil erosion, as well as nonpoint source pollution at watershed scale, can be predicted with hydrological models. They are effective to simulate various combinations and scenarios, and indicate the best management practices to minimize these processes [55]. Several hydrological models were evaluated to simulate runoff and soil erosion, as well as nonpoint source pollution by nitrates and phosphorus. The selection indicates the AnnAGNPS model (Annualized Agricultural NonPoint Source), as the most suitable for this task. As for spatial distribution of runoff volume and the ratio of erosion in the basin, the results based on observations (Figure 14) seem to indicate that there is a distinction between the two runoff-producing areas in the basin: one that generates low runoff (0–40 m3 ha−1 yr−1), which corresponds to the uncultivated area in the basin (58.6 ha), and another, which corresponds to the remaining area of the watershed (130.4 ha) occupied by various crops, producing higher runoff (41–140 m3 ha−1 yr−1). The variation of runoff in the cultivated part of the basin depends on the topography, the type of soil, and their intrinsic characteristics. The relations showed in Figure 6 enable to conclude that there is no correlation between the average sediment production and the average runoff volume in most of the cells in the basin [38]. Although having an influence on the erosion process, the average volume of runoff is not the determining factor. Other factors such as land cover throughout the year, especially during the concentration of rainfall, and the occurrence of more or less erosive storms appear to have more significant influence [56, 39].
\nAverage simulated runoff and erosion rates, generated in each cell and subcatchment, by AnnAGNPS model (period 2003–2005).
The massive use of fertilizers is common to all the agricultural systems around the world. Nitrogen losses, from the agricultural nonpoint sources, has become one the most significant threats to the quality of water bodies [57]. Due to the solubility of this contaminant (inorganic-N), there is a close relationship between hydrological processes and the loss of nitrogen, with the superficial and subsuperficial runoff. Organic-N is adsorbed in the fine soil particles, while their loss occurs preferably through soil erosion [58]. The loss of nitrates is not affected by rainfall variability as the sediment loss. According to some earlier studies, the base flow is the main source of nitrates at the surface of water bodies [59]. Regarding the nonpoint source pollution of nitrates (Figure 15), the research has shown that the process occurs when there is significant runoff, given the solubility of nitrates, and when there is availability of this nutrient in the soil, in sequence of more or less intense fertilization [60]. The values simulated by AnnAGNPS are similar to the reference values obtained in other studies: pristine watersheds and organic agriculture (0.76–10.85 kg NO3-N ha−1 yr−1) [61]; nonirrigated agriculture (26.10 kg NO3-N ha−1 yr−1) [59]; irrigated agriculture (59.00 kg NO3-N ha−1 yr−1) [60]. Moreover, only about 0.3 mg l−1 of nitrates is needed for growth of algal and to promote the eutrophication [62]. The critical value was largely surpassed in the period of simulation, as shown in Figure 15. According to the efficiency of nitrogen fertilization practices, the loss of nitrates can reach high values (30–80%) in intensive cropping systems [63], like maize or tobacco in the study catchment. So, the riparian buffers and vegetation strips on stream water can be a very good measure to improve water quality downstream of the agricultural fields, as observed and analyzed in some earlier studies [64, 65].
\nAverage simulated runoff and nitrates load, generated in each cell and subcatchment, by AnnAGNPS model (period 2003–2005).
The continuous use of phosphorus in agriculture, many times with low P-use efficiency by crops, increases in phosphorus concentration in the soil, and increasing the risk of phosphorus in runoff along with leaching to water bodies, contribute to the eutrophication [66, 67]. Phosphorus is an element with little mobility in the soil, and can be transferred from agricultural systems to water bodies dissolved in the superficial runoff, leaching to deeper soil layers, or in conjunction with mineral and organic sediment in the water erosion process. Similar to this study, Olness et al. [68] observed losses of P to agricultural watersheds lower than 5% of the most recent P fertilization, with a total P discharge in runoff waters ranging from 1.0 to 11.5 kg P ha−1. Considering the volume of runoff verified in our basin, the value highlighted by some authors as the level to prevent the risk of eutrophication (0.05 mg L−1) [69] is probably often exceeded. Most of the phosphorus used in the agricultural fields, as in our basin, is for winter cereals crops (oat, wheat, rye), most common in Mediterranean agricultural systems. Phosphorus can load in solution outside the basin in surface or subsurface runoff, depending on the nature of P-forms (mineral or organic) and in the soil texture, or attached to the finest soil particles [70, 56]. The analysis of the relation showed in Figure 16, referent to the simulated phosphorus load by AnnAGNPS model, suggests that most of the phosphorus is lost in solution and not with the soil colloidal particles loaded outside the watershed, given the subcatchments where high values of P-load occurred (10–12 kg ha−1.yr), and relatively low rates of soil erosion were verified. The phosphorus loss clearly occurred mostly in the agricultural fields and almost null in the forested area, while the high loss values were verified in the fields occupied by winter cereals.
\nSimulated average phosphorus load by AnnAGNPS model, generated in each subcatchment (period 2003–2005).
Both soil and water resources in the Mediterranean environmental conditions are exposed to physical, chemical, and biological degradation. The phase of pronounced erosivity in the Mediterranean climatic condition corresponds to the last 3 months of the year and it is particularly important, mainly for winter crops such as cereals, since the surface of the soil is unprotected. The superficial runoff dominates the hydrological response of the study basin during the most significant events. The antecedent soil moisture condition is considered a factor of greater importance. The irregularity of intra- and inter- annual precipitation is a pattern specific to the Mediterranean climate, that usually determines the grade of soil cover and the soil erosion process. The climate change can additionally aggravate this situation. Water scarcity is another threat in the irrigated agricultural systems of the Mediterranean region. It is verified in many irrigation seasons in this study, where the indicator RWS was much higher. Mediterranean rainfall, sometimes with very high intensity and verified in dry years, can reach very important runoff events like the one that occurred at the end of October in the hydrological year 2004–2005. Runoff coefficient was equal to 0.85 and an annual erosion rate equal to 79.1%. Spatial distribution of runoff was primarily influenced by topography and soil management, which is common to Mediterranean agricultural systems, namely in grain crops systems such as oats and wheat. The simulation of spatial distribution of nitrate loads shows a dependence of the spatial distribution of runoff, due to its high solubility. Despite the close relation between soil erosion, water and runoff, the simulation using the AnnAGNPS model of spatial distribution of soil erosion by water indicates that the process does not directly depend on it. Therefore, soil erosion is mostly influenced by deficient land cover whenever erosivity of rainfall is strong. Phosphorus losses were less than nitrate losses, due to their lower water solubility and mobility in soil.
\nThe author gratefully acknowledges funding from Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) for financially supporting this research through the project GeoBioSciences, GeoTechnologies, and GeoEngineering (UID/GEO/04035/2013).
\nIn the everyday life, the concept of crisis can encompass the whole range of activities and relationships, at an individual, social, and political level. But its interpretation varies, depending on the perspective of the crisis, regarding personality, experience, and professional level. In the context of organizations and systems, the crisis and its response have become particularly important nowadays, due to the unforeseen forms in which it can occur, the degree of damage it can cause to their structures and operations, the dimensions that it can realize in a short time, the modern environment of globalization, and the fast dissemination of information through enhanced communication networks. The crisis may manifest itself on the horizon as a result of a wrong decision, or it may occur without warning, anywhere, anytime. It can affect all sectors of society, businesses, government, and nongovernmental organizations. In order to safeguard the viability of organisms in critical situations, there is a need for constant monitoring and analysis and an academically sound approach to documentation of actions needed.
Therefore, managing the crisis by public bodies and governments is a prerequisite for their smooth operation and survival. According to Porter’s theory of resources and capabilities, the main mechanism for the survival of the organisms in the environment in which they operate is the dimension of competitive advantage, in which organizations must face threats and seize opportunities, given their adopted strategies, occasional choices, and actions they decided to take, regarding the limited resources available (see also Figure 1).
Crisis in the real-world environment.
And while organizations are taking precautionary measures to deal with exceptional critical events, the degree of achievement of the intended results remains low.
But how can we define crisis? According to the Greek language [1], the term crisis refers to the mental process of the human being to reason deeply and to arrive at sensible conclusions and judgments, by choice, but also to disturb the smooth course of a process, malfunctioning or improperly challenging structures, values, and institutions. In Chinese, judgment is pronounced gei-zi and is a compound word that denotes “danger” and “opportunity” at the same time. In the context of organizations, a crisis is a low-probability event with major implications, which threatens the viability of an organization and is characterized by unclear causes and effects and ways of finding a solution as well as the belief that decisions must be made within a short time. According to Robert [2], the crisis is an incident that threatens to be harming the people’s safety, the environment, the reputation of an organization, and its stakeholders involved.
According to [3], a definition of crisis management is the “careful study and anticipation of the risks that a business/organization may pose to reduce uncertainty and take all necessary measures”—actions, processes, and processes before, during, and after the crisis to protect people, the environment, employees and the financial position of the business.” A public body is in crisis when its institutional status is challenged as well as basic structures, principles, and values are also threatened. For the public administration, the crisis may concern the whole or a large part of the population. Although crises are unpredictable, they are not unexpected and can affect all areas of society and are caused by many different causes. The authors of [4] believe that “the crisis relates to situations characterized by severe threat, uncertainty and a sense of urgency.” Crises also reach a critical point where change, for better or worse, is inevitable and the experience can be proven beneficial to people and organizations [5]. Also, in [6], the crisis is defined as: “a big, sudden event, which is likely to have negative effects. The fact and its consequences can seriously damage an organization and its employees, as well as its products and services, its financial status and reputation.” This approach reinforces the need to manage the organization’s communication and image.
A crisis is a situation that is approaching a “dangerous” phase, which requires urgent intervention to avoid harmful and potentially harmful effects on the structure of an organization and return to normality. It is a decisive and critical time for the organization, where the wrong decision can, as mentioned above, even cost its viability. According to the Institute for Crisis Management [7], the crisis is a situation of significant business (see also “operations”) disintegration, which has resulted in negative reactions from all stakeholders, probably extensive media coverage, and public scrutiny. This situation may have a political, legal, economic, and governmental impact on its activities.
In the context of the crisis definition, we can conclude that the common elements contained in a crisis are the potential threat, which may be posed to all resources of an organization, the state of absolute surprise resulting in loss of control, and finally the short time remaining for decision-making. From the definitions above, we can easily understand the importance of the public sector crisis management, as unexpected events can affect the public and therefore the citizens of this sector, through the central government. A crisis may consist of four distinct stages, i.e., (a) the pre-crisis phase, (b) the acute phase of the crisis, (c) the time course of the crisis, and finally (d) the crisis resolution stage.
According to [8], every crisis, regardless of its form and the organization in which it is created, has the following characteristics: (a) It escalates in tension, (b) it causes a high sense of insecurity and danger, and (c) those involved are overwhelmed by stress, affecting the usual operability of the organization, while it changes the operational structure, and affecting also the “image” of the organization or of the government itself, arousing the interest of the competent bodies and especially the media to get involved in the situation. The increased demand for information that needs to be monitored by a specific group of the organization’s staff may cause moral effects, not only in terms of “image” but also in material terms, which potentially may encompass to the power of the organization in real life, or even to the profile of the body, while causing a malfunction in its operational activity.
Crises are unforeseen events that have the potential to produce undesirable effects [9]. Also, they described crisis as a product of a risk or opportunity arising from internal or external issues that can affect an organization on a massive scale. In [10] they describe crises as a result of human intervention rather than natural disasters in order to separate the scope of crisis management from that of risk and emergency management. The participants are surprised and have very little time to make difficult decisions in an atmosphere full of tension and volatility. A crisis is a large-scale unpredictable event that threatens to hurt an organization and its stakeholders. An incorrect management decision can be a cause for serious operational risk.
Each crisis, regardless of the category to which it belongs, goes through different phases depending on the time of occurrence, and each phase affects the body differently (see also Figure 2).
Key phases of a crisis event.
The phases are (a) pre-crisis (condition or precursor), (b) acute phase (manifestation-peak crisis), (c) response (impact) phase, and (d) recovery or resolution phase (resolution-normalization) [11].
Each crisis is characterized by the factors that cause it. The main categories of critical situations are four depending on the causes of the crisis, which may come from internal or external factors of the organization and may be characterized as “technical-economic” or “human-organizational-social” factors (see also Table 1).
Technical-economic factors | Human-organizational-social factors |
---|---|
Internal factors | |
|
|
External factors | |
|
|
The “technical-economic factors” mainly consist of natural disasters, earthquakes, floods, fires, hurricanes, H1N1 virus, mad cow disease, etc., while the “human-organizational-social” factors may include, among others, political and/or economic crises or even political instability in countries.
They may also include characteristic cases regarding information leakage and loss of human lives.
In the case of the “technical-financial factors,” issues are raised from defective products that drive companies to withdraw them from the market, defective machinery that can be hazardous to human use or may result in injuries to personnel or other stakeholders (i.e., customers, partners), or in extreme cases even in an accident.
The determinant effect of the “reorganization” factor is the response of public sector organizations to critical situations. This section defines the factor “reorganization,” which illustrates the need for the factor, its contribution to the operational context of public administration through a bibliographic review, and a case study of the reorganization and the crisis of public sector organizations.
The “business process reengineering” (“BPR”), to the service of the reorganization or redesign [13], corresponds to a radical and “fundamental” redesign of business processes, so that substantial changes can be made to key areas that determine operational performance, such as production cost (better “cost of development”), productivity, service and product costs (better “delivery cost”), quality provided, customer service, and speed. The concept of redesign was originally designed for private sector businesses and then extended to bureaucratic processes of public administration. The term fundamental redesign means that the body/organization decides to completely abolish the process it is currently applying and is intending to accept another, new process. Radical redesign also refers to fundamentally changing all processes, while redesigning is about applying a new business process rather than improving or modifying an existing one. Spectacular improvements relate to the product of the business and not to the marginal improvements that can be made by improving the management of the processes applied. According to the above, in case that a company seeks to modernize itself by changing its processes, it should ask itself why it applies these processes and why it does so.
In [14], the authors also argue that reorganization can be defined as the analysis and planning of in-company and inter-company workflows and processes. According to the same researchers [15], the concept of business reorganization is an integral part of a larger “idea” and therefore introduces the term business innovation process which implies the creation of a strategic vision and the engagement of human resources, technology, and other critical resources in planning and implementing change.
In [11] they argue that the concept of reorganization is fundamentally related to the re-examination and redesign of a company’s business processes and organizational structure, with the aim of achieving clear improvement in key areas such as quality, productivity, customer satisfaction, and the time it takes for a product to reach the market.
In [14] it reports that BPR is the analysis and planning from the beginning of intra-business workflows and processes.
The term “process innovation” encompasses the consideration of a broader strategy, the design of the process, and its application to all complex technological and organizational structures [16]. Other authors focus on reviewing, restructuring, and redesigning the business structure, processes, working methods, management systems, and external relationships through which value is created and disseminated. For [17], BPR involves the simultaneous redesign of business processes and their support systems in order to achieve a radical improvement in time, cost, quality, and customer perception of the company’s products/services.
In summary, a business restructuring can be regarded as a critical analysis, reassessment, and radical redesign of existing business processes to achieve significant improvements in performance metrics, from the perspective of relocating and changing the overall business strategy.
Through reorganization, the company sets goals, such as improving productivity, in order to increase product output, rationalizing the management of production costs and resources, making the most of the available human resources, optimizing financial performance and cash flow, and improving existing processes and operations. The strategic goal of reorganization is to increase the value of the business.
Looking at the business from a financial point of view, internal considerations can “force” a firm to restructure itself, such as the dire prospects of liquidity performance indicators, thus requiring active strategies in the structural characteristics of businesses. In addition, the inefficient functioning of internal structures is based on human resources and processes, which act as a barrier to critical administrative decision-making.
Another factor contributing to the reorganization is the repositioning of the overall business strategy implemented by changing the goals and direction of the organization, activities, redeployment, or layout of resources, adapting to the environment, and responding to market needs and to the satisfaction of shareholders and stakeholders.
Thus, the reasons for deciding whether or not to restructure may be either in the internal operating area of the business or in the external environment (micro–macro environment). With the use of SWOT [18] analysis of a business, where the strengths and weaknesses of the business are identified and compared with opportunities, and threats to the external environment are avoided, an organization running under a specific framework can be reorganized. The redesign procedural framework requires careful study and structured procedures so that the actions taken will enable the business or organization to achieve the desired result for the target product or customer. Criteria for implementing these processes are the company’s new strategy and its goal of providing customer-oriented services. The other areas of redesign relate to more efficient operation of the production process, which adds a comparative advantage to the finished product. Elements of a restructuring or redesign program are the benchmarking of a firm’s performance based on measurable parameters of strategic importance with performance indicators over other competing companies operating in the same area. Another element of the reorganization of organizations is the upgrading of human resources, which need to be equipped with appropriate tools for more efficient work and better and complete information. In this case, information systems are of particular importance throughout the reorganization process, as they dramatically change the efficiency and effectiveness of the business.
In general, we argue that key steps to be taken in business reorganization are as follow: (i) to reorder strategic goals, (ii) to create a leadership team to execute the strategic plan, (iii) to study and adopt best business practices, (iv) to develop technology networks, (v) to identify opportunities, potential problems, and threats, (vi) to use appropriate performance indicators, (vii) to implement a modern financial management model, and (viii) to implement an effective measurement results’ system.
In general, the process of implementing the restructuring plan can be divided into four main stages (see also Figure 3):
Assessing the current state of the business such as products, various financial data, organization chart, competition, customers, suppliers, and banks
Identifying reorganization goals and preparing the work plan by defining the reorganization goal; planning the action plan; discussing, accepting, and adopting the plan from executives and employees; communicating the vision; and preparing executives and staff for the change process
Implementation of the work plan with precise action schedules, identifying important milestones for the project, accurate task allocation, project monitoring process, and correcting any divergences from expected results
Evaluating results by establishing a reliable benchmarking mechanism, before and after a reorganization, and recording results and experiences for future use by the company
Steps of a public organization’s restructuring plan.
The necessity of having the factor of redesign in critical situations in public organizations arises from the work of a number of researchers in the field of “public administration.”
According to [6, 19], restructuring of public administration refers to reforming its operational processes to achieve its strategic goals, while reforming its organizational structure and institutional framework to support new processes. The reasons for implementing redesign programs in public administration are summarized as follows [20, 21]:
Public sector lags the private sector: The public sector has not been reformed at the same time as the private sector, still causing deficits and budget crises.
The crisis of legitimacy of the modern state: This phenomenon stems from the inability of the modern state to effectively tackle rather complicated social phenomena, due to lack of transparency in public administration mechanisms and from the increased criticism originated from the people toward the political system. The consequence is the depreciation of the authority of the state and its establishment toward its constituencies, the citizens, being considered as an anachronistic and declining institution.
The need to limit public administration costs imposed by fiscal consolidation programs: The reduction of expenditure is not accompanied by a simultaneous reduction of administrative responsibilities. On the contrary, it is necessary to increase the effectiveness of public organizations since they have to achieve the same results with fewer resources, with minimal results.
The benefits of redesigning public administration can be summarized as follows [22, 23, 24]:
Improving the efficiency of public procedures by reducing the administrative costs of executing them.
Improving the quality of services provided to citizens.
Increasing public satisfaction with public administration.
The modernization of the institutional framework and organizational structure of public administration to support its new way of functioning. This reduces bureaucracy and simplifies administrative procedures.
Outcome management through indicators and objectives of different categories. This, in turn, leads to more efficient public budgets, based on efficiency and more effective control of public spending.
Increase the transparency of the state mechanism by keeping and publishing indicators and results. The consequence is the development of a stable business environment conducive to investment and growth.
Increasing public interest in public procedures. A well-organized public administration that operates efficiently and with full transparency increases citizens’ interest in public participation and strengthens their faith in the political system.
According to Decenzo and Robbins [25], redesigning public administration is a particularly difficult task due to the particular characteristics that differentiate public from private organizations.
Redesign programs should be tailored to the specific characteristics of the public sector and include the following actions [12, 26, 27]: defining a vision and a strategy for the organization. Most public agencies lack a clear strategy and focus. Without targeting it is impossible to design redesign programs.
Detailed description of the procedures performed by the public administration: Redesigning a process requires defining it in detail: its execution steps, its inputs, and its outputs. Great many public agencies do not have a documented description of the procedures that follow, which makes it quite difficult to improve the process through performance indicators.
Measuring public satisfaction with public services
Customers’ satisfaction with the outcome of a process and suggestions for improving it are one of the key parameters of process redesign in the private sector. On the contrary, in the public sector this factor is not considered at all.
Study of the legislation that defines the operational process
Public sector procedures are executed on the basis of a strict legislative framework. During the redesign process, the relevant framework should be studied in order to identify the constraints in the redesign process.
Examine the transparency obligations of the public sector
The law is obliged to keep a large number of data on all its acts and decisions, so that their legality can be subsequently checked. This introduces restrictions on redesign, since activities that add no value to the end result should also be foreseen.
Contribution of the operational managerial framework in public sector organizations
Businesses today, both in the private and public sectors, are called upon to operate and adapt in a complex new environment, characterized by the globalization of the age, complexity, uncertainty, competitiveness, and modern technology. As a result, there is pressure on businesses and organizations as well as public authorities to adapt and respond promptly to change, rational use of resources, high value for money, and excellent customer/customer service.
In other words, in order to succeed in any business venture, special attention should be given to planning or restructuring the organization of the business in order to achieve all of the above. Traditional forms of business organization, in our time, are no longer able to cope with the pressures and demands that are created.
This weakness has led to the need for redesign—restructuring of business processes—processes, so that the new structure of any organization/business is flexible, readily adaptable to new conditions, simple, fast, and horizontal, in order to meet the objective of each business.
The effectiveness
New business processes should be governed by:
Integrated and horizontal processes
Define flexible and simple internal procedures
Horizontal structures that touch the whole organism
Aim for the correct customer service
Employees to participate, responsibly
Having a single responsibility center
The methodology for implementing the restructuring of the company’s internal operations is based on the diagnosis, thematic problematic processes, and then the planning and implementation of new ones, based on the needs and objectives of each business organization.
The redesign of the organization of the business brings about wider organizational and administrative changes, which are necessary for its proper and effective functioning. The most important changes are: operational structures are becoming horizontal, that is, we are replacing the classic operating segments with project teams that deal with a process from start to finish. Job descriptions become more interesting and less specialized, with no unnecessary duplication of work, with a greater variety of jobs, and with more freedom of initiative. Employees’ values and beliefs are changing to support new internal processes. The roles of supervisors are transformed from supervisors to bureaucrats to managers to mentors. Performance indicators and remuneration focus on the successful outcome and achievement of the corporate goals that are set. From the above it becomes clear that the effective operation of any business goes through the process of redesigning or restructuring internal processes. It is our view that the business in question should be evaluated in relation to its internal processes, at regular intervals, by an external partner, in order to ensure objectivity.
In this way, the organization will be properly organized to achieve its goals and to gain comparatively competitive advantages over the market. Finally, it should be noted that the process of redesigning the internal processes of the company concerned is de facto carried out at the design and implementation stage of the ISO 9001 [28] quality management standard, as ensuring standard internal procedures ensure measurable, correct, and orderly operation of the business.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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