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TEs indeed do concern applications related to energy field such as photovoltaics or efficient lighting (light emitting diode, LED, or organic-LED, OLED), smart windows or supercapacitors and are therefore associated to rapidly increasing industrial needs. For photovoltaics, the need of TEs concerns, for instance, the front electrode that should be transparent for the sunlight while collecting the photo-generated carriers. For efficient lighting, this is the opposite physical phenomenon: injecting carriers (electrons and holes) by applying a voltage through transparent electrodes to let the generated light exit the LED or OLED device. But TEs are also used in many other applications such as transparent heaters, touch screens, sensors or radio-frequency (RF) devices.
The main TEs investigated in the last decades have been transparent conductive oxides (TCO) [1, 2, 3, 4] with the most well-known and used one in the industrial area being indium tin oxide (ITO). And aluminium-doped zinc oxide (AZO) [2] and fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) [5] have been also the subject of many studies. While TCO can exhibit good or even very good physical properties, the recent industrial needs have prompted a search of new materials to replace TCO for several applications [6]. Indeed indium, for instance, can be scarce, its deposition often requires vacuum, and TCO by nature are brittle and therefore not compatible with flexible applications. Materials such as carbon nanotubes [7], graphene [8], conducting polymers [9, 10], metallic grids [11] and metallic nanowire networks [12, 13] have been mainly studied for this purpose, and some of them exhibit already promising properties for several applications. In particular, several studies have lately demonstrated that metallic nanowire (MNW) percolating networks can exhibit high electrical conductivity, high optical transparency and high flexibility [12, 14, 15]. The main investigated are silver nanowire (AgNW) and copper nanowire (CuNW). The very high aspect ratio of the nanowires (i.e. length divided by the diameter) allows these networks to achieve very good performances, similar to ITO, however by using much less raw material [12]. Such quantity are often expressed in terms of the so-called areal mass density (
In this contribution, we focus on TEs made of AgNWs or CuNWs and will first briefly discuss the role of the nanowire dimensions (both length and diameter) and network density on the physical properties. The network stability will be discussed followed by methods to enhance it, which appears to be a crucial issue for an efficient integration of this technology. Finally, we will briefly discuss the integration of MNW network-based transparent electrodes for energy applications.
The main physical properties of metallic nanowire networks are optical properties (transparency and haziness), electrical resistance and mechanical properties (or more precisely the electromechanical properties mainly in bending or stretching modes). These properties depend on several parameters, including MNW dimensions (diameter and length), junction resistance and network density. We will briefly describe this dependence below. Figure 1 shows single MNW and MNW network observed by electron microscopy at different scales.
Electronic microscopy observation of silver nanowires and the associated network. (a) Transmission electron microscopy image of AgNW; (b, c) scanning electron microscopy images of random AgNW network fabricated by spray on glass substrates observed at two different magnifications.
MNW dimensions can influence the properties of MNW networks. MNW diameter,
The junctions between MNW play also a key role. Recently Ponzoni showed that the relative contribution to electrical conductivity between nanowires and junctions could be very close [34], in good agreement with Bellew et al. who reported junction resistance measurements of individual silver nanowire junctions [35]. Bellew et al. were able to demonstrate, based on experimental data and modelling, that the junction contribution to the network’s overall resistance could be reduced even beyond that of the nanowires themselves. It was shown experimentally by several methods that junctions’ resistance could be reduced: for instance, Langley et al. showed that a thermal annealing can drastically reduce network resistance thanks to a local sintering of the junctions [36]; and Garnett et al. used light-induced plasmonic nano-welding to
The network density is a key parameter and influences both the optical transmittance and the electrical resistance. Instead of considering the network density (expressed as the number of MNW per unit area), one often prefers to consider the areal mass density, amd, expressed in mass per unit area (mg/m2). Optical transmittance is observed to decrease linearly with amd as shown by Bergin et al. [31] or by Lagrange et al. [30]. This can be simply explained by shadowing effects [30]. Conversely electrical resistance drastically decreases when amd is increased; therefore an inherent trade-off between high transparency (observed for low amd values) and low resistance (large amd values) has to be considered. Figure 2a illustrates the influence of amd value on the electrical resistance. Experiments performed on AgNW networks associated to different networks amd values show the existence of a critical value of amd, amdc, below which no finite resistance can be measured (see Figure 2b). This limit is associated to the stick percolation, and Monte Carlo simulations show that the amdc value is given by amdc = 5.64 < MMNW>/L2 where <MMNW > is the average mass of the MNW and L is the MNW length [33, 38]. Above amdc the measured electrical resistance is decreasing rapidly following a power law, as shown by Figure 2a: there is a rather good agreement observed between experimental data (symbols) and percolation theory (line) [30]. Some differences between real-world networks and Monte Carlo simulations were investigated lately by Langley et al. [33]. The real-world imperfections of a network concern the MNW length distribution, the non-isotropic MNW orientation and the MNW curvature: the influence of these three parameters on the onset network percolation was studied by Langley et al. [33]. For much larger amd value, another transition does exist between the percolative regime and the so-called bulk regime [24]; while this transition is much less known or investigated than stick percolation, such a transition occurs close to amd values that are considered in most applications.
Effect of the network density, expressed here as the areal mass density (amd), on the electrical properties of percolating AgNW networks: (a) Minimum electrical resistance measured experimentally during thermal ramp versus the network areal mass density [
Another way of looking at the influence of amd value on electrical properties of MNW networks is proposed in Figure 3 where the electrical conductance is plotted versus relative amd. Below the critical amd value, amdc, the experimental resistance is infinite. Just above Sannicolo et al. demonstrated that a discontinuous activation of efficient percolating pathways takes place [39]: experimentally, for sparse networks abrupt drops of electrical resistance are observed. Such an original phenomenon was called ‘geometrically quantized percolation’ and was observed by lock-in thermography which evidenced the existence of individual hotter pathways through the network [39]. For larger amd values, one observes the percolative regime for which the electrical resistance is proportional to (amd-amdc)-γ where γ = 4/3, as shown by Lagrange et al. [30]. The previous expression has been used to fit the data of Figure 3, and a good agreement is observed for a large range of amd values, while percolation theory should be only valid for amd values slightly above amdc. For very large values of amd, the electrical resistivity does not depend upon amd value, and a metallic bulk behaviour should be then observed.
Electrical conductance of AgNW network versus the relative areal mass density of the network; this shows the different electrical regimes (see
The stability of metallic nanowire networks appears as a crucial issue, specifically when such TEs undergo thermal and electrical stress [29, 30]. This concerns nearly all applications, and the stability is related to electrical and thermal stability but also long-term ageing and chemical degradation. Such instability can stem from different physical mechanisms such as diffusion of metallic atoms, electromigration processes during electrical stress or oxidation of silver or copper if networks are in contact with either humid atmosphere and/or in high temperature conditions and/or under electrical stress.
One of the first investigations of the instability of AgNW networks was reported by Khaligh and Goldthorpe [40]: they showed that when AgNW-based TEs undergo similar electrical currents than those encountered in organic solar cells, the TEs can quickly fail within 2 days. They reported that such failure is associated with local Joule heating which deteriorates AgNW network and eventually leads to the network failure. Similar observations were also reported by Chen et al. [41]. Such stability issues are even more pronounced for CuNWs since oxidation (even at low temperature) of CuNWs can occur [42, 43, 44].
Figure 4 exhibits the electrical failure observations. Figure 4a shows the typical time dependence of the AgNW network electrical resistance during an electrical ramp with the electrical breakdown observed for voltage larger than 9 volts. At first a slight increase of the resistance is observed: thanks to the Joule effect, the network temperature is slightly increased, and since its behaviour corresponds to a metal, its electrical resistance thus increases. For voltage larger than 9 volts, the network electrical resistance drastically increases: this is associated to the electrical breakdown of the network [45].
Electrical failure observations. (a) Time dependence of the electrical resistance of a AgNW network during an electrical ramp of 0.5 V min−1; the electrical breakdown is observed for voltage larger than 9 volts. (b) Corresponding thermal maps captured in situ with an IR camera at specific times during the experiment depicted in (a) (the electrodes at opposite sides of the specimen are vertical); (c) schematic representation of the mechanisms involved in the crack explaining the crack propagation; (d) scanning electron microscopy observation of the AgNW network location where the crack took place during electrical breakdown.
Figure 4b exhibits in situ thermal maps of the same specimen considered in Figure 4a with identical corresponding numbers during the voltage ramp. During the degradation phase (i.e. between (2) and (4)), the heat distribution appears to narrow to a vertical central part of the network parallel to the contact electrodes. At step 4, the accelerated increase in resistance can be associated to the occurrence of a ‘thermal’ crack which is clearly detectable at the bottom at step 5. A schematic representation of the involved mechanism is shown Figure 4c: the propagation mechanism of the crack is related to the displacement of the local current stress peak, which keeps being constricted to the top extremity of the deteriorated area, leading to a runaway-like destruction phenomenon. Finally as shown by Figure 4d, AgNWs located close to the crack do appear fully or partially spheroidized, as a result of a drastic local heating and/or electromigration.
To mitigate such instability problems, several studies showed that coating of MNW networks with either inorganic nanoparticles or thin films can drastically improve MNW network stability and integration into real devices. One can cite Morgenstern et al. [46] who showed that solution-processed AgNW films coated with ZnO nanoparticles enhance performance of such TEs when integrated in organic solar cells. The observed efficient protection against AgNW oxidation or degradation leads to a photocurrent for the organic solar cell which appears to be enhanced when compared with ITO use [46]. And, Göbelt et al. showed that a thin aluminium-doped zinc oxide layer deposited by atomic layer deposition (ALD) on AgNW leads to similar photovoltaic performances [47], however by using a much lower silver amount. Some other studies also recently reported that the coating with very thin film layers of titanium dioxide (TiO2) [48] and zinc oxide (ZnO) [49] clearly enhances the stability. It is worth noticing that new depositing approaches have been assessed lately, and one of the most promising appears to be the atmospheric pressure spatial atomic layer deposition (AP-SALD) [50, 51]. While maintaining the advantages of ALD (viz., low-temperature deposition, thickness control, high-quality materials, and conformity), it can be much faster (up to 2 orders of magnitude faster) than ALD. Another clear asset is its compatibility with roll-to-roll and open air technology. Lately, our team used AP-SALD [52] to fabricate nanocomposite-based TEs in which AgNWs are protected by a conformal thin oxide layer (ZnO). The AP-SALD method was used to deposit thin layers of 15–30 nm ZnO around the AgNWs with the goal of enhancing the network stability [52]. The ZnO coating improved the adhesion of the AgNW networks to the glass substrate, which is known to be poor for bare AgNW networks. Figure 5 illustrates the positive effects of a coating on MNW-based TE by showing the evolution of the electrical resistance of bare or ZNO-coated AgNW networks during a voltage ramp of 0.1 V/min. A clear enhancement of electrical stability is observed, reducing the degradation of such TEs. As shown by Figure 5 and by Khan et al. [52], the thicker the deposited ZnO layer, the better the stability. This stability enhancement can be explained as follows: the ZnO oxide coating can (at least partially) hinder silver atomic diffusion through the oxide coating [52], avoiding the spheroidization and/or electromigration of AgNWs. A compromise in terms of oxide coating thickness has to be considered depending on the target application since the thicker the ZnO coating, the lower the optical transparency.
Electrical failure observations and stability enhancement thanks to coating of MNWs. Variation of electrical resistance for bare and ZnO-coated AgNW networks when subjected to voltage ramps of 0.1 V/min. The bare AgNW network shows failure at around 9 V, whereas the stability of ZnO-coated AgNW networks increases with the increasing ZnO coating thickness to 14 and 18 volts for, respectively, 15 and 30 nm of ZnO coating.
Another example of stability enhancement was reported by Shi et al. [53] who demonstrated that transfer of CVD grown graphene onto CuNW films drastically enhances the stability of the hybrid films over long time scale (up to 180 days), while different ageing conditions were also investigated. Graphene is shown to play a key role for preventing oxygen species permeation which drastically decreases oxidation rate. This allows to obtain stable CuNW networks associated with both high optical-electrical performance and excellent stability [53].
In summary to avoid any degradation or oxidation, metallic nanowires are nowadays often coated by a protective layer for an improved integration. This protective (nanoparticles or thin inorganic) layer could be either metallic [54], based on graphene, polymeric or a transparent oxide [52]. This leads in general to a much enhanced thermal and electrical stability along with a better adhesion, although this is at the expense of optical transmittance decrease. One can also observe that conformal thin oxide coating deposited either by ALD or by spatial ALD appears to be an efficient protecting coating while keeping rather high network transmittance [52].
Among others, photovoltaic systems, light-emitting diodes (LED) or smart windows constitute sustainable green energy technologies which have been intensively studied lately for energy saving and/or for an alternative to fossil fuel energy. Generally speaking the main goals associated with these technologies concern cost reduction, efficiency improvement and use of abundant materials. For photovoltaic and efficient lighting (LED or OLED), the light should either enter a solar cell or exit the LED requiring the use of an efficient transparent electrode for, respectively, collecting or injecting the carriers. Several investigations have shown that MNW network-based transparent electrodes can be efficiently integrated in such energy devices thanks to their electrical and optical properties. Their excellent flexibility constitutes a clear asset for flexible devices and/or when fast (and then low-cost) technologies such as roll-to-roll are used for the industrial fabrication. And the possibility to coat MNWs allows to tune the work function and band alignments and can therefore lead to better integration possibilities.
For solar cells, MNW networks have been mainly tested in organic solar cells. One of the first demonstrations was reported by Leem et al. [55]: these authors used AgNW network as electrode in P3HT/PCBM organic solar cells, and it showed an efficiency of 2.5% which was equivalent to ITO-based devices. And Yang et al. showed that by using fully solution-processed polymer, bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells with anodes composed of AgNWs were successfully fabricated with performances slightly lower than when ITO is used [56]. Interestingly they showed that the BHJ solar cells were highly flexible since the fabricated solar cells exhibited recoverable efficiency even under large bending deformation up to 120°.
AgNW and CuNW can also be efficiently integrated in OLED devices. AgNW networks were the first to be integrated in OLED devices: The obtained electrode was shown to be suitable for the fabrication of high-performance polymer-based LED [57]. A very recent study by Lian et al. reported the use of CuNW-based composite film for OLED integration [58]. A good electrical conductivity (22 Ω/sq), high transmittance (88%), low surface roughness and good adherence to the substrate were observed. The good adherence originates from the presence of the polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) coating on CuNWs. The fabricated CuNW/PMMA composite film appears to be stable since it can resist air, water and ethanol exposure without electrical deterioration. With this CuNW/PMMA composite film as anode for the OLED, the device performances appear even better than those with using ITO anode [58].
Several articles clearly also showed that MNW network-based transparent electrodes can be efficiently integrated within electrochromic devices. Thanks to the chrono-amperometry curves and the corresponding in situ transmittance curve at 1100 nm for a WO3/AgNW film, it was clearly demonstrated that good performances can be obtained when the fabricated electrochromic device uses AgNW network [59]. Such fabricated films exhibit excellent cycling stability as well as distinct modulation of near-infrared light compared with ITO-based electrochromic devices.
Another energy application which appears promising for MNW integration in energy area concerns supercapacitor. Yuksel et al. [22] fabricated nanocomposite electrochromic supercapacitor electrodes: AgNW network electrodes and a green to transmissive electrochromic polymer (PDOPEQ). These authors showed that the obtained supercapacitors have a changing colour from vibrant green to transparent with very good characteristics (i.e. specific capacitance of 61.5 F/g at a current density of 0.1 A/g, capacity retention upon 20,000 galvanostatic charge-discharge cycles). Such characteristics appear very promising for use of MNW-based transparent electrodes in electrochromic supercapacitors [22].
As discussed MNW networks exhibit strong potential to act as efficient transparent electrodes for many applications. Indeed, MNW exhibits high transparency and low electrical resistance levels, which are associated with excellent bendability and good stretchability. This contribution reports briefly the influence of main parameters on the MNW network-based TE, the prevailing parameters being MNW chemical nature and dimensions as well as network density. Still, for approaching an efficient integration into industrial devices such as organic solar cells, efficient light production or smart windows, several other requirements have to be considered. One of the most important ones concerns their stability which appears to be a crucial issue: it can involve either electrical, thermal and mechanical aspects or ageing and chemical degradation. The origin of failure in MNW networks was discussed in this contribution with the following stages: optimization, degradation and breakdown of the MNW network. The breakdown occurs via a localized mechanism thanks to the creation and propagation of a crack. To prevent such instability, encapsulation of MNW network is performed by thin oxide layers: this leads to a drastic enhancement of the MNW networks stability. Moreover such approach shows improved adhesion and much better thermal and electrical stability. Finally this contribution shows that the scientific community has worked in several directions and has demonstrated that MNW network-based transparent electrodes can be integrated in industrial devices such as organic photovoltaic, light-emitting diode, in smart windows or supercapacitors. The prospects concern the replacement of AgNW by cheaper MNW such as CuNW while the stability might be a stronger issue than for AgNW, a better optimization of the many parameters (MNW chemistry and dimensions, coating, etc.) for a given application and to make MNW deposition and optimization fast and low-cost enough to be compatible with industrial challenges (for instance, compatible with the very fast roll-to-roll technology).
The authors warmly thank Y. Bréchet, C. Celle, D.P. Langley, T. Sannicolo, S. Aghazadehchors and J.-P. Simonato for fruitful discussions. This work was performed within the framework of the Centre of Excellence of Multifunctional Architectured Materials ‘CEMAM’ n° AN-10-LABX-44-01. This work was funded by the Agence Nationale de Recherche (ANR, France) via the programme ANR-16-CE05-0021 (Despatch), ANR-18-CE09-0041 (Meaning), ANR-18-CE09-0036 (Panassé) and ANR-15-CE05-0019 (Indeed). This work was as well supported by Région Auvergne Rhône-Alpes through the project Pack Ambition Recherche 2018 Eternité. The Carnot Energies du Futur is acknowledged through the project FREE.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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This will pose serious problems with food, water and energy supply, particularly in less-developed countries. Considering that the human pressure over natural resources has already reached critical levels, international agencies such as the World Bank and UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) are soliciting scientific research in order to identify innovative solutions to support the primary sector. Nanotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with the potential to take forward the agriculture and food industry with new tools which promise to increase food production in a sustainable manner and to protect crops from pests. Such expectations are coupled with some uncertainties about the fate of nanomaterials in the agro-environment. However, the field application of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) has not been properly investigated yet, and many aspects have only been considered theoretically or with models, which make it difficult to properly assess the usefulness of ENMs for plant fertilization and protection.",book:{id:"6763",slug:"new-visions-in-plant-science",title:"New Visions in Plant Science",fullTitle:"New Visions in Plant Science"},signatures:"Luca Marchiol",authors:[{id:"163884",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Marchiol",slug:"luca-marchiol",fullName:"Luca Marchiol"}]},{id:"67311",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86341",title:"Wheat Production in India: Trends and Prospects",slug:"wheat-production-in-india-trends-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2333,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:37,abstract:"Trends in Indian wheat production before and after the inception of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat have been analyzed to show its significant progress over the years. A brief intercountry comparison of productivity, production and area coupled with regional comparison within India has been attempted to give an idea about the contribution of country and regions, respectively, for global and national food security. The milestones in Indian wheat programme and research outcomes were highlighted post-AICRP along with the vision and strategies set for 2050 against diverse production challenges. Regional disparities, zone-wise production constraints and research programmes for achieving the set production target were briefed. The chapter concludes with possible interventions in strengthening the complete wheat value chain for ensuring food security for the future generation.",book:{id:"8168",slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research"},signatures:"Sendhil Ramadas, T.M. 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Miscellaneous neglected and underutilized grain legumes (MNUGLs) are crops primarily characterized by inherent features and capabilities to withstand the effects of abiotic stress and climate change, significantly replenish the soil, as well as boost food and protein security. This chapter provides insight into the benefits of MNUGLs as food and nutritional security climate smart crops, capable of growing on marginal lands. Exploring and improving MNUGLs depend on a number of factors among which are concerted research efforts, cultivation and production, as well as utilization awareness across global populace geared toward reawakening the interest on the abandoned legumes. The emergence of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR/cas9) technology combined with marker-assisted selection (MAS) offers great opportunities to improve MNUGLs for sustainable utilization. Advances in improvement of MNUGLs using omic technologies and the prospects for their genetic modification were highlighted and discussed.",book:{id:"8168",slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research"},signatures:"Jacob Popoola, Omena Ojuederie, Conrad Omonhinmin and Adegoke Adegbite",authors:[{id:"246358",title:"Prof.",name:"Conrad",middleName:null,surname:"Omonhinmin",slug:"conrad-omonhinmin",fullName:"Conrad Omonhinmin"},{id:"294662",title:"Dr.",name:"Omena",middleName:null,surname:"Ojuederie",slug:"omena-ojuederie",fullName:"Omena Ojuederie"},{id:"294740",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",middleName:null,surname:"Popoola",slug:"jacob-popoola",fullName:"Jacob Popoola"},{id:"294766",title:"Prof.",name:"Adegoke",middleName:null,surname:"Adegbite",slug:"adegoke-adegbite",fullName:"Adegoke Adegbite"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63134",title:"Transgenic Plants: Gene Constructs, Vector and Transformation Method",slug:"transgenic-plants-gene-constructs-vector-and-transformation-method",totalDownloads:5501,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The human population has reached 7 billion by 2015 and is estimated to exceed 10 billion by the end of 2050. As such, crops which are the main food source must be produced at a higher pace in order to cater in tandem with the food demand. In the past, traditional plant breeders practice classical breeding techniques to propagate plants with desirable traits. However, traditional breeding technique lies in that only individuals of the same or closely related species can be crossbred. Moreover, traditional breeders will not be able to obtain traits which are not inherent within the gene pool of their target plants through classical breeding. With recent advancements in the field of genetic engineering, it is now possible to insert beneficial genes from a completely different species or even kingdom into a target plant, yielding transgenic plants with multiple ideal traits. To develop a transgenic plant, parameters such as vector constructions, transformation methods, transgene integration, and inheritance of transgene need to be carefully considered to ensure the success of the transformation event. Hence, this chapter aimed to provide an overview of transgenic plants’ development, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as its application for the betterment of mankind.",book:{id:"6763",slug:"new-visions-in-plant-science",title:"New Visions in Plant Science",fullTitle:"New Visions in Plant Science"},signatures:"Lee-Yoon Low, Shun-Kai Yang, De-Xian Andrew Kok, Janna Ong-\nAbdullah, Ngai-Paing Tan and Kok-Song Lai",authors:[{id:"195386",title:"BSc.",name:"Shun Kai",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"shun-kai-yang",fullName:"Shun Kai Yang"},{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai"},{id:"240035",title:"Ms.",name:"Lee Yoon",middleName:null,surname:"Low",slug:"lee-yoon-low",fullName:"Lee Yoon Low"},{id:"240036",title:"Mr.",name:"Kok",middleName:null,surname:"Andrew-De-Xian",slug:"kok-andrew-de-xian",fullName:"Kok Andrew-De-Xian"},{id:"257891",title:"Dr.",name:"Janna Ong",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",slug:"janna-ong-abdullah",fullName:"Janna Ong Abdullah"},{id:"257892",title:"Dr.",name:"Ngai Paing",middleName:null,surname:"Tan",slug:"ngai-paing-tan",fullName:"Ngai Paing Tan"}]},{id:"67311",title:"Wheat Production in India: Trends and Prospects",slug:"wheat-production-in-india-trends-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2335,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:37,abstract:"Trends in Indian wheat production before and after the inception of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on wheat have been analyzed to show its significant progress over the years. A brief intercountry comparison of productivity, production and area coupled with regional comparison within India has been attempted to give an idea about the contribution of country and regions, respectively, for global and national food security. The milestones in Indian wheat programme and research outcomes were highlighted post-AICRP along with the vision and strategies set for 2050 against diverse production challenges. Regional disparities, zone-wise production constraints and research programmes for achieving the set production target were briefed. The chapter concludes with possible interventions in strengthening the complete wheat value chain for ensuring food security for the future generation.",book:{id:"8168",slug:"recent-advances-in-grain-crops-research",title:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Grain Crops Research"},signatures:"Sendhil Ramadas, T.M. 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Therefore, a full understanding of plant-NP interaction and phytotoxicological mechanism is required for accurate risk assessment to ensure the safe use of nanoparticle. A range of analytical techniques have been developed to detect and characterize the uptake, translocation, cellular internalization and intracellular biotransformation of nanoparticles in plants. Imaging methodologies, including various electron microscopy, spectrometry-based techniques, together with ICP-based techniques such as ICP-OES, ICP-MS and SP-ICP-MS, have been widely used to obtain information about NPs size, morphology, size distribution, cellular localization, elemental speciation, mass concentration and so on. Due to the complexity of biological samples to be analyzed, these techniques are often combined accordingly to provide complementary information regarding plant-NP interaction. 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His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",slug:"cecilia-cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"gil-goncalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",slug:"johann-f.-osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",slug:"mani-t.-valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",slug:"marco-chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew 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