Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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1. Introduction
The eye as an optical instrument is imperfect with defocus, astigmatism and higher-order aberrations being common. The image formed on the retina is affected by these optical deficiencies. Refractive errors (myopia, hyperopia and astigmatism) are the most common ocular aberrations, and they are called lower-order aberrations. There are numerous higher-order aberrations, of which spherical aberration and coma are most of clinical interest. Refractive errors have been studied for many years and clinicians devote themselves to correct these focusing errors.
Compared to the efforts to understand and optimize the central vision, peripheral vision is not well understood. However, peripheral vision is important for motion and pattern detection and fundus imaging. Also, interest in studying the off-axis optical performance and image quality of humane eye has increased dramatically in recent years because the previous studies suggest a possibility that off-axis aberrations in human eye is important for the development of central refractive error.
Given the hypothesis that off-axis aberrations and image quality may affect central refractive error development, it is important to understand how ordinary ophthalmic lenses, which are used to correct foveal vision, influence the peripheral optics of human eye.
In this chapter, we will describe and discuss the following six major topics: 1) control of ocular growth, 2) axial ocular aberrations, 3) off-axis aberrations, 4) contact lens and myopia progression, 5) peripheral refractions and contact lens correction, and 6) peripheral image quality and contact lens correction.
2. Control of ocular growth
Animal studies have demonstrated that the eyes growth is controlled by local retina mechanism. [1-3] Local retinal mechanism refers to a condition that local retina could minimize the image degradation on the corresponding retinal location by changing the axial eye growth rate. [4] The homeostatic control signals of the eyes growth try to keep the image sharply focused on the retina (“grow to clarity” model). [5] If the eye is in myopic status, the image of a distant object falls in front of the retina and if the eye is hyperopic, the image falls behind the retina. These two situations are simulated in Fig. 1A, inserting a positive lens put the image in front of the retina (myopic focus) and negative lens focus the image behind the retina (hyperopic focus). By increasing the thickness of choroids or slowing the rate of eye’s elongation, the eye can grow to counteract the effect of the lens, regaining a sharp focus (for small amount of myopic defocus). For hyperopic defocus, the choroids will become thinning and the rate of eye’s elongation will increase in order to focus the image on retina again (Fig. 1B). [6-8] These were proved by previous animal studies. [9-13] For example, animals, like birds, consistently experience near objects in their inferior visual field have longer superior ocular length. [14, 15]
Figure 1.
Ocular Compensation for lens-Induced Defocus
A positive lens (blue, convex) causes the image to form in front of the retina (myopic defocus), whereas a negative lens (red, concave) pushes the image plane behind the retina (hyperopic defocus). With no lens (black rays), the image of a distant objects is focused on the retina.
The eye compensates for positive lenses by slowing its rate of elongation and by thickening the choroid, pushing the retina forward toward the image plane. It compensates of negative lenses by increasing the rate of elongation and thinning the choroid, pulling the retina back toward the image plane. The emmetropic eye is intermediate in length and in choroid thickness. (Figure and legend from [1])
As a development of local retina mechanism model in animal study, data from human beings also suggested that peripheral refractive error can influence the ocular growth. [16-19] For example, young pilots that had relatively hyperopic refractive status in both horizontal and vertical meridian, which potentially contributes to the eye’s elongation, were more likely to develop adult-onset myopia than those who showed myopic refractive status at least in one meridian. [16] More recently, Smith and colleagues [20] have tested the hypothesis that the peripheral visual experiences contribute for the ocular growth and central refractive development in primates. Their study provided strong evidence that the peripheral retinal mechanism can influence the refractive development at the fovea and this, most likely, also happens in human beings.
3. Axial ocular aberration
Aberrations are classified as monochromatic and chromatic aberrations. Chromatic aberrations occur when light source has multi-wavelength components. Monochromatic aberrations occur when only one wavelength light source is refracted. The aberration discussed in this chapter is monochromatic aberration.
3.1. Representation of aberration
It is useful to understand wavefront and wavefront aberration before we discuss the measurement and representation of aberration. A wavefront is a surface which is orthogonal to light rays. The wavefront aberration is the distance, in optical path length (product of the refractive index and path length), from the reference plane to wavefront plane at the exit pupil (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The concept of wavefront aberration: wavefront aberration is the departure of the measured wavefront from the ideal spherical wavefront at the exit pupil.
There are different ways to represent wavefront aberrations such as Taylor series and Zernike polynomials. The Taylor series are rarely used these days since each individual term are not orthonormal. [21] People usually use Zernike series which were recommended by Optical Society of America to describe the eye’s wavefront error (Figure 3 & Table 1). [22]
Figure 3.
Zernike polynomials: Each row is a radial order. Each column is a meridional frequency. Each function is defined over the circular domain of the pupil and is mathematically orthogonal to all other functions in the table.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
List of Zernike Polynomials
The normalized Zernike polynomial has two major advantages when applied to quantify the optical aberrations. First, the magnitude of the Zernike coefficient represents the wavefront error in that mode and usually given in the unit micrometers (μm). Second, in the Zernike series, each mode is orthogonal to the other mode, so the coefficients are independent of each other. This will allow us to manipulate each mode individually. RMS (root mean square) error is widely used to indicate the human eyes’ wavefront error in each mode or combined modes. RMS is defined as
RMS=∑n>1,m(Cnm)2E1
\n\t\t\t\t
First and second order aberrations are regarded as lower-order aberrations. 1st-order Zernike terms are tilts which do not cause image blur therefore are usually ignored. Traditional refractive errors refer to 2nd-order Zernike terms. The relationship between 2nd-order Zernike coefficients and sphero-cylindrical components M, J0, J45 (M: the spherical equivalent, J0: with-the-rule (WTR) and against-the-rule (ATR) astigmatism, J45: oblique astigmatism with axes at 45 deg and 135 deg) is given by the following equations. [23]
M=−43r2C20J0=−26r2C22J45=−26r2C2−2E2
\n\t\t\t\t
Where C20, C22, C2-2 are Zernike coefficients for defocus, WTR/ATR astigmatism and oblique astigmatism terms, and r is pupil radius. We can also use the following equation to convert rectangular Fourier form (M, J0, J45) to conventional clinical negative-cylinder form. [24]
S=M+J02+J452C=−2J02+J452α=12tan−1(J45/J0)E3
\n\t\t\t\t
Start from 3rd order Zernike terms, aberrations are referred as higher-order aberrations. Coma (C3±1) and spherical aberration (C40) are the most important higher-order aberrations since they present in higher amounts than the other higher-order aberrations in the population. [25, 26]
3.2. Measurement of aberrations
As a development of autorefractors, aberration measuring instruments bear the same principle (Scheiner disc principle) which illustrated in Figure 4. [27, 28] Aberrations can be measured by “into-the-eye” or “out-of-the-eye” aberrometry technique. [28, 29] “Into-the-eye” aberrometry means an image is formed on the retina and re-imaged out of the eye for analysis, like laser ray tracing and Tscherning aberrometer. “Out-of-the-eye” aberrometry refers to an instrument which project a narrow beam into the eye and trace the rays from the retina out of the eye, like Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor. [28] Aberrometer measure aberrations either sequentially or simultaneously. Sequential aberrometry, like laser ray tracing, measures aberration in one location of the pupil once a time but simultaneous aberrometer (Hartman-Shack wavefront aberrometer) can measure aberration at multiple locations of the pupil at the same time.
Figure 4.
Scheiner disc principle: Light comes from a distant object reduce to two small bundles of light by two pinholes on Scheiner disc. These two rays focus to be a single image on the retina if the eye is emmetropia (Figure 4 a). Double images will be sensed if the eye is myopia or hyperopia (Figure 4 b&c). By adjusting the position of the object until on image is seen, the far point and refractive error of the patient’s eye can be determined. S: Scheiner disc; P: Pupil; R: Retina
Most commercial aberrometers use Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor. Hartmann-Shack technology can be tracked back to early 20th century when Hartmann test was used to measure aberration of optical system. [30, 31] Shack and Platt modified Hartmann technique to invent the Hartmann-Shack aberrometer. [32] This technique was originally developed by astronomers for improving the image quality of the stars and satellites and Liang et al. [33] adapted it to measure conventional refractive errors as well as higher-order aberrations of the eyes. The principle of operation of the Hartmann-Shack aberrometer is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Principle of the Hartmann-Shack (HS) wavefront sensor. HS sensor subdivides the wavefront into hundred small beams which are focused on to a CCD video sensor by an array of small lenses. The displacement of each image relative to the grid of optical axes is determined by the local slope of the wavefront in x-and y-direction at the face of the corresponding lenslet. [Adapted from Thibos [34]]
The critical part of Hartmann-Shack wavefront sensor is a micro-lenslet array. A CCD video sensor is placed in one focal length of those small lenses behind the lenslet array. The reflected wavefront of light emerging from the eye will be partitioned to hundred smaller wavefront and will be focused on the CCD sensor. If the measured eye is a perfect optical system, the wavefront emerging from the eye will be a plane and will be focused perfectly on the intersections of the grids. In the real situation, the aberrated wavefront coming back from the eye will be focused by each lenslet on CCD sensor with displacement corresponding to lenslet axis. The local slopes of the wavefront can be deduced from this displacement.
Hartmann-Shack aberrometer have been widely used to measure aberrations in different area of clinical research [34-40] due to its fast measuring and less affected by scattering of light compared to most other aberrometers. [41] Hartmann-Shack wavefront aberrometer has been reported as a robust and reliable instrument to measure both lower and higher order aberrations. [34, 42, 43]
4. Off-axis aberration
While previous studies concentrated on foveal aberrations, investigations of off-axis (peripheral) vision increased dramatically in recent years because the quality of off-axis optics is important for retina imaging, motion and orientation detection, and development of refractive error. [20, 44-48]
4.1. Measurement of Off-axis aberration
Little is known about off-axis wavefront aberrations and image quality in the eccentric visual fields, for which most studies only reported the changes of defocus and astigmatism in the peripheral visual angle. [16, 46, 47, 49-51] Different techniques, such as retinoscopy, [46, 49, 51, 52] subjective refraction, [47, 50],photorefraction [53] and autorefraction, [54] were used to measure these lower-order aberrations in the peripheral visual field.
The published studies on peripheral refraction [16, 17, 28, 53, 55-58] suggested that hyperopes had relative less hyperopic error in the periphery, while myopes usually had relative less myopic error in periphery. These experimental data was consistent with the previous predictions made by Charman and Jennings [59] and Dunne et al. [60, 61] which used simple models with ray tracing technique on the schematic eye.
In 1998, Navarro et al. first measured higher-order aberrations in four naked eyes using laser ray-tracing method and described aberrations using Zernike polynomials. [62] They measured nasal visual field only and reported that despite large variation between subjects, the four subjects showed the same pattern of the change of the aberrations across the visual field. They found both 3rd-and 4th-order aberrations increasing from center to periphery. Atchison and Scott were the first to use Shack-Hartmann wavefront aberrometer to measure off-axis higher-order aberrations in human eye. [63] They measured aberrations both in nasal and temporal visual field up to 40o. Like Navarro’s study, Atchison’s data also showed large between-subject variability. They reported that 3rd-order aberration increased to both nasal and temporal visual field and with nasal-temporal asymmetry. Unlike Navarro’s study, they didn’t report the large change of 4th-order aberration across the horizontal visual field. Both these two studies only recruited small number of subjects.
In the previous studies, [62-67] researchers didn’t attempt to quantify the image quality in the peripheral visual field. Most researchers talked about the peripheral image quality, speculated that off-axis IQ would drop fast and become worse based on the measurements of peripheral refraction (defocus and astigmatism). They neglected the complex interaction between these lower-order and the higher-order aberrations in eyes. [68] In order to investigate the off-axis image quality, to study the interaction between lower-order aberrations and higher-order aberrations in the large visual angle and to study the potential contributions of the off-axis image quality to the whole eyes refractive development, the first step is to measure the monochromatic aberrations in the peripheral visual field accurately.
4.2. Peripheral vision and development of refractive error
The rationale that peripheral refraction can influence the development of refractive error is pointed out by Wallman [1] that if the peripheral retina is relatively hyperopic, this relatively hyperopic defocus will cause the elongation of the eyeball no matter what the foveal refractive status is. As mentioned above, the homeostatic signals from the hyperopic periphery will guide the eye to elongate. If the fovea retina is emmetropic or myopic, the homeostatic signals from the central retina will direct the eye to elongate less. These two signals, from central retina and from the peripheral retina, will try to keep balance. Although the neurons density is higher in the central than in the peripheral retina, considering the total area of the central retina is quite small, the homeostatic signals from peripheral retina directing the eye to elongate more will be stronger than the signals from central retina that directing the eye to elongate less if these signals have spatial summation. If the larger area of the retina become elongated surrounding the fovea area, the mechanical constrains in eye growth will also make the fovea axially elongated. [1] This mechanism has been hypothesized by several studies. [53, 58, 69]
The critical step to understand the above mechanism is that the peripheral retina has the capacity to detect the changes of image quality which are produced by the off-axis aberrations. [47, 70, 71] Peripheral vision is limited by two factors: the optical image quality and the neurons density in the periphery. It is already known that in large visual angles, the oblique astigmatism increases dramatically. However, these refractive errors can be corrected by ordinary ophthalmic lenses. There are other higher-order aberrations such as coma and spherical aberrations in the off-axis visual field which can also deteriorate the image quality but are difficult to correct. [72] The neurons density (including cones and ganglion cells) is at maximum near the fovea and drops quickly in the periphery. [73] This neurons density constitutes an upper limit of the visual acuity at higher retinal field angles when the off-axis optics is corrected.
The resolution acuity becomes worse with the increasing of the retina eccentricity, but the detection acuity remains high at large eccentricities given the peripheral optics are well corrected. [71, 74] Detection acuity is significantly influenced by the optical defocus and is lower when the retina image is formed by the eye’s natural optics, these suggest that the detection acuity is optically limited. [74, 75] But after correct the major off-axis aberrations (defocus and astigmatism), the detection acuity becomes quite good in the peripheral visual field. [70, 76]
Besides evidences supported by other human studies, [16, 17, 19, 77] Smith and colleagues [20] provided further evidence that visual experience in peripheral retina can influence the refractive development at the fovea. And as a development, other studies made a hypothesis that high level of aberrations will guide ocular elongation by degradation of the retinal image. [78-82] Growth of the eye tends to minimize the image blur on the most part of the retina (known as “grow to clarity” model). [5] Thus peripheral vision is closely related with development of central refractive error.
5. Contact lens and myopia progression
Contact lenses are widely used treatments for refractive errors. They had long been used as an optical correction since their introduction by Eugen Fick in 1888. [83] A large number of studies investigated the effect of different types of contact lenses (silicone acrylate contact lenses, hydrophilic contact lenses, hydrogel lenses) on the progression of myopia had been done. [84-90] Though most of the studies had small sample size or were not randomized, they did suggest that wearing soft contact lenses induced increasing in myopia progression. [84, 91, 92] Another large sample size, randomized study done by Horner et al. suggested that there were no significant different in the rate of myopia progression between the children who wore SCLs and spectacles. [93]
Hard contact lenses have longer history than the SCLs. PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate) hard contact lenses were widely prescribed in the clinic although they have side effects caused by low oxygen permeability. After 1970’, Rigid-Gas-Permeable (RGP) lens becomes popular. These lenses have higher oxygen permeability than soft contact lens, clinically proved to be a suitable and safer alternative for correcting refractive error. [89] In a three years study, 100 children with myopia were fitted with RGP and compared with control group who wore spectacles, significant reduction of myopia progression was found. [94] Another study also reported a similar results. [95]
Although in 2003, a larger randomized clinical trial of rigid contact lenses conducted in Singapore Children didn’t report significant difference of myopia progression between RGP wearers and spectacles wearers, [96] the more recent CLAMP (Contact Lens and Myopia Progression) study [18] has shown that RGP produced a significant slower rate of progression of myopia in children, although this was largely due to flattening of the cornea rather than slowing of axial elongation. [97]
No matter whether the SCLs or RGP lenses can slow the progression of myopia or not, all of the SCLs and RGP studies above tried to relate the lens’ efficacy with the ocular physiological changes. No studies have examined the peripheral optical quality after these ophthalmic corrections although there were attempts to evaluate on-axis optical performance of these lenses. [39, 98] Since the peripheral vision is an important factor to contribute for the development of myopia, experimentally measure the monochromatic off-axis aberrations with these ophthalmic lenses on-eye is my proposed experiment and will discussed in detail in later chapters.
5.1. Contact lens and on-axis ocular aberration
The on-axis optical quality after wearing RGP lenses has been well studied both by theoretically calculation and experimental measurements. [99-101] It is widely accepted in clinic that RGP lenses provided the best optical performance for the central vision compared to SCLs and spectacles. RGP lens can smooth the irregularities of the corneal front surface with its rigidity and smooth lens surface. With the correction of moderate astigmatism by the tear lens between RGP and cornea, RGP lenses provide the best on-axis optical performance. Due to the conformity of SCLs, the corneal astigmatism and corneal irregularity will be preserved in some extent for the SCLs wearer (Fig. 6). Theoretically calculation of the on-axis aberrations of RGP lenses always ignores the interaction between the cornea and contact lenses, also without considering the contribution of inner components of the eye to the total optical aberrations. Only Hong et al. [100] and Dorronsoro et al. [98] have measured aberrations in subjects wearing RGP lenses, finding that RGP lenses provided lower aberrations than SCLs and spectacle lenses. They concluded that wearing RGP lenses can significantly reduce the ocular aberrations, not only defocus and astigmatism, but also higher-order aberrations.
Figure 6.
Schematic diagram of the eye with a) soft contact lens, b) rigid gas-permeable (RGP) contact lens. The shaded regions indicated the tear layer. Corneal distortions are exaggerated to illustrate the differences between different optical corrections. [Adapted from [39]]
5.2. Contact lens and off-axis aberrations
Since contact lens correct central refractive error by adding an appropriate compensating power across the entire eye, it will affect the peripheral vision as well while foveal refractive errors are corrected. And due to the potential role of peripheral vision in the development of central refractive error, it is possible that the ophthalmic corrective methods which only correct the central vision but ignoring peripheral image quality will be less successful for controlling myopia progression. Since the myopic eyes have a relative hyperopic periphery, correcting the central myopic will leave the periphery hyperopic (if the correcting lenses have the same power everywhere across the lens piece). The hyperopic periphery will continue to guide the elongation of the eye and the progression of myopia will not stop. Thus the contact lens correction which only corrects the central vision might actually have no effect or even increase the progression of myopia. However, we lack the knowledge of how contact lenses affect peripheral optics of the eye. Although knowledge of off-axis aberrations of CL in isolation is important to help understanding the effect of CLs on peripheral optics of the eye, [102] to obtain a definitive result of how the peripheral refractive error and image quality changes across the visual field with CLs correction requires that the CLs be worn by a human eye.
6. Peripheral refractions and contact lens correction
Multiple studies [53, 103-105] have shown that hyperopic and emmetropic eyes tend to have peripheral refractive errors that are myopic relative to the fovea. The image shell from a distant, extended object is therefore more curved than the retinal surface, resulting in an increasing amount of myopic blur at greater retinal eccentricities. In this chapter, we will refer to this condition as “myopic field curvature” or “relative peripheral myopia”. By contrast, myopic eyes tend to have less myopia in the peripheral visual field than foveally. Most authors agree on this point for the horizontal field, but there is some controversy regarding the generality of the finding at the other meridian. [53, 54, 106] The image shell from a distant, extended object is less curved than the retinal surface in myopic eyes, resulting in a decreasing amount of myopic blur at greater retinal eccentricities. Thus, relative to foveal refractive error, the eye has an increasing amount of hyperopic blur at greater retinal eccentricities. In this chapter, we will refer to this condition as “hyperopic field curvature” or “relative peripheral hyperopia”.
The rationale that peripheral refraction can influence the development of refractive error is that if the peripheral retina is relatively hyperopic, this relatively hyperopic defocus will cause the elongation of the eyeball no matter what the foveal refractive status is. As mentioned above, the homeostatic signals from the hyperopic periphery will guide the eye to elongate. If the fovea retina is emmetropic or myopic, the homeostatic signals from the central retina will direct the eye to elongate less. These two signals, from central retina and from the peripheral retina, will try to keep balance. Although the neurons density is higher in the central than in the peripheral retina, considering the total area of the central retina is quite small, the homeostatic signals from peripheral retina directing the eye to elongate more will be stronger than the signals from central retina that directing the eye to elongate less if these signals have spatial summation. If the larger area of the retina become elongated surrounding the fovea area, the mechanical constrains in eye growth will also make the fovea axially elongated. This also demonstrated by the local retina mechanism. [58, 69, 107].
More recently, Smith and colleagues [108] have tested the hypothesis that the peripheral visual experiences contribute for the ocular growth and central refractive development in primates. Their study provided strong evidence that the peripheral retinal mechanism can influence the refractive development at the fovea and this, most likely, also happens in human beings.
6.1. Curvature of field and peripheral astigmatism for the naked eye
Consistent with most previous studies, emmetropic eyes showed myopic shift into the periphery (Fig.7 a & b) whereas myopic subjects showed relatively hyperopic shift (Fig.8 a & b). Greater myopia and higher astigmatism in the nasal visual field than in the temporal visual field were found in most of the subjects in the study (Fig.7, 8, 9, 10 & Fig.11). This asymmetry of the changes of M, J0 and J45 across horizontal visual field has been noted in previous, large-scale studies of peripheral refraction. However, the larger error bar indicated that there were considerable differences occur among the subjects. (Within-subject variance was small as indicated from the Fig.7a and\n\t\t\t\t\tFig.8a, but this might be due to the lack of necessary realignments of the instrument between the measurements in each visual angle position.) A more apparent hyperopic shift beyond 20 degree eccentricity was found (Fig.7). (Previous, Atchison et al. reported a subtle changes in refraction across the central 10º of the retina, with changes in M varying by up to half a diopter and with smaller changes in astigmatism [109].)
Figure 7.
a) Spherical equivalent refractive error (M) relative to the fovea as a function of visual field angle for Sub.1 and Sub.2. Both of these two subjects are emmetropes. Symbols show the means and Error bar indicate the standard deviation of 5 repeated measurements. b) The mean value of Spherical equivalent (M) as a function of visual field angle for the two emmetropes. Error bar indicate the standard deviation of the two emmetropic subjects.
Figure 8.
a) Relative M as a function of visual field angle for the naked eye of 4 myopic subjects separately. Error bar indicate the within-subject variance of 5 repeated measurements. b) Relative M as a function of retina eccentricity for myopes. Error bar indicate the standard deviation of the four myopic subjects.
Figure 9.
a) Relative J0 and J45 as a function of visual field angle for the six naked eye. Symbols show the mean and error bar indicate the standard deviation of 5 repeated measurements. b) Mean value of the relative J0 and J45 of the six subjects. Error bar indicate the standard deviation of these six subjects.
In another published study, the mean data show a monotonic increase in PRM with eccentricity that is approximately linear with a slope of 0.01 diopters/deg of eccentricity. Thus for an eccentricity of E degrees, PRM is approximately E percent of foveal refractive error in the naked eye. [110]
6.2. Effect of contact lenses on field curvature and peripheral astigmatism
In the group with 4 myopic subjects, the mean value of the change of mean spherical and astigmatism across the horizontal visual field without any correction and with full SCLs correction were shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11. With the SCLs corrections, which rendered the fovea conjugate to infinity, the M component still showed a relatively hyperopic shift to the peripheral visual field away from the center. In most of the measurement positions, spherical equivalent had larger hyperopic value after subjects wearing SCLs than their naked eye’s data. This suggested that using Acuvue 2 SCLs in this experiment to fully correct the foveal refractive error might cause more hyperopic shift in the peripheral visual field. The nasal-temporal asymmetry after wearing the SCL was not apparent anymore (Fig.10). This result suggested that either corneal shape was responsible for the asymmetry or it was an artifact of CL movement. In the new experiment, the measurements will be taken by rotate subject’s head instead of eye rotation. This can eliminate the artifact of SCLs movement and will give us answer about this issue. J0 was the major contributor for the increase of astigmatism in large visual angle. After full correction with SCLs, J45 did not change much across the horizontal visual field, but greater J0 (more negative) was found in the experiment (especially across the temporal retina) (Fig.11). However, large between-subject differences were found. Only 4 subjects who had very different center refractive error participated in the study. Hopefully, the variance will be reduced by recruiting more subjects who have similar central refractive status in the future study.
Figure 10.
The effect of SCLs on relative M as a function of visual field angle with and without SCLs correction. Error bar indicate the standard deviation.
Figure 11.
The effect of SCLs on relative J0 and J45 across the horizontal visual field with and without SCLs. Red lines are J45, blue lines are J0. Dash lines indicate the astigmatisms after subjects wear the SCLs. Error bar shows the standard deviation.
Compared to the naked eye, curvature of field was reduced, and in some cases reversed in sign, by contact lenses.
6.3. Contact lens effect on total sphero-cylindrical blur
The results described above show that defocus (M) and astigmatism (J0) both vary across the visual field. If image quality is a driving force for myopia progression as suggested previously, [78-82] then it is important to determine the combined effects of M and J0. The effect of contact lenses may be complex because, as shown above, relative hyperopic defocus is reduced by contact lenses, but peripheral astigmatism increases. Therefore, to determine the effect of contact lenses on peripheral image quality, we need to quantify and compare the total sphero-cylindrical image blur on the peripheral retina before and after wearing contact lenses.
In one of our published studies, [110] the average image blur caused by sphere and cylinder in naked eye increased to 2 D at 35o periphery relative to the eye’s optical axis. SCLs did not have a consistent effect on sphero-cylindrical blur but RGP lenses consistently reduced the blur across the visual field (p < 0.01, non-parametric sign test) by approximately 0.25 diopter.
7. Peripheral image quality and contact lens correction
7.1. Variation of higher-order aberrations with visual field eccentricity
The data was also analyzed in Zernike coefficient terms in order to study the change of high-order aberrations as a function of the visual field angle. Coefficients from 2nd-to 6th-order were used to describe the wavefront aberrations. The change of mean (all 6 subjects) relative 2nd-order aberration as a function of visual field angle was shown in Fig.12. The 2nd-order aberration increased with the visual field angle. Across the horizontal visual field, C22 was the major contributor for the change of 2nd-order aberration (Fig.13 b). Since positive value of C22 indicates Against-The-Rule (ATR) astigmatism and negative value of C22 indicates With-The-Rule (WTR) astigmatism, mean value of C22 in this experiment suggested that the astigmatism changed from WTR to ATR with the increasing of visual field angle from center to periphery (Fig.13 a). Considerable differences occurred among the 6 subjects. This might partly due to the different center refractive error of these six subjects had effects on the peripheral refraction shift.
Figure 12.
Relative RMS in 2nd-order aberration across the horizontal visual field of the naked eye. Error bar indicate the standard deviation among the six subjects.
Figure 13.
a) The change of Zernike coefficients in the 2nd-order aberration without any correction with the increasing of visual field angle. The data is the mean value of six subjects. Error bar indicate the standard deviation. b) Relative Zernike coefficients in 2nd-order aberration as a function of visual field angle. Error bar indicate the standard deviation.
The high order aberrations (3rd-to-6th-, in this experiment) basically showed the same pattern with Atchison & Navarro’s data [62, 111]. The 3rd-, 4th-and 5th-order aberrations showed an increasing magnitude with the visual field angle. Changes of 6th-order aberration were quite small across the horizontal visual field. The nasal-temporal asymmetry of 3rd-order aberration was not as apparent as Atchison’s data. In the nasal visual field, there was a factor of 2.8 increasing in 3rd-order aberration. Which reported by Atchison was 5 and by Navarro was 2.5. For temporal visual field, there was a factor of 2.6 for 3rd-order aberration, which reported by Atchison was 3. For 4th-and 5th-order aberrations, a small increase of magnitude with the increasing visual field angle was also noticed. Big individual variance was found in our data as well as in Atchison and Navarro’s data (Fig. 14). The sample size was small both in this experiment and previous studies.
Figure 14.
Relative RMS value of high order aberrations’ change across the horizontal visual field without any correction for the all six subjects. Error bar indicate the standard deviation.
Horizontal coma (C31) was a major contributor to the increase of 3rd-order aberration in the peripheral visual field and it showed a linear dependence on the visual field position. This contrasted with changes of vertical coma (C3-1) and trefoils (C33 and C3-3), which were quite flat across the visual field. This linear relationship between horizontal coma and retina eccentricity was predicted by Seidel theory [112], and both Atchison’s data and my data showed this relationship in the human eye (Fig.15). Although there were large individual variances, both spherical aberrations (C40) and secondary astigmatism (C42) showed a quadratic dependence on visual field position. This relationship between C40, C42 and visual field position was also predicted by Seidel Theory. The spherical aberration (C40) showed a positive value in the fovea (most people have positive spherical aberration in the un-accommodated state for foveal vision [28]). However, the magnitude of spherical aberration reduced into the horizontal periphery and finally became negative (Fig. 16).
Figure 15.
Relative Zernike coefficients in 3rd-order aberration across the horizontal visual field without any correction. Data is mean value of 6 subjects. The blue line is the horizontal coma (C31). Error bar indicate the standard deviation.
Figure 16.
a) The change of Zernike coefficients in 4th-order aberration across the horizontal visual field without any correction. Blue line and red line are spherical aberration (C40) and secondary astigmatism (C42), respectively. Data is mean value of 6 subjects. Error bar indicate the standard deviation. (From the figure, we can notice the C40 is positive value in the fovea and finally become negative in the far periphery) b) Relative Zernike coefficients in the 4th-order aberration. Error bars was omitted in order only to show the change pattern of C40 and C42 more clearly.
After wearing SCLs, the changes of 2nd-to 6th-order aberrations kept the similar pattern from center to periphery as those uncorrected eyes. Large individual variances still existed, and the 2nd-to 5th-order aberration increased with the visual field angle. The nasal-temporal asymmetry was not apparent as well. In the 3rd-order aberration, after wearing soft contact lens, the horizontal coma still somehow showed a linear dependence with the horizontal visual angle. The spherical aberration and secondary astigmatism continued to show quadratic dependences on the visual field positions after soft contact lenses wearing. (Fig. 17 a, b, c & d)
Figure 17.
The relative value of 2nd-to 6th-order aberrations and Zernike coefficients across the horizontal visual field with SCLs fully corrected the subjects’ foveal vision. Error bar indicate the standard deviation of the 4 SCL wearer subjects. a). Mean relative value of 2nd-order aberration. b). Mean relative value of 3rd-to 4th-order aberrations. c). Relative Zernike coefficients in the 3rd-order aberration. d). Relative Zernike coefficients in the 4th-order aberration.
7.2. Effect of contact lens correction on ocular higher-order aberrations
After wearing SCLs to fully correct the foveal refractive error, 2nd-order aberration increased in the most positions in temporal visual field but decreased in most positions in nasal visual field (Fig. 18 a & b). This was consistent with the data shown in Fig.7 & 8.
Figure 18.
a) The change of 2nd-order aberrations across the horizontal visual field with and without SCL correction. Error bar indicate the standard deviation. b) By subtracting the naked eye’s data, the curves in the figure indicate the effect of SCLs on relative wavefront RMS of the subjects. Negative value means the RMS becomes smaller after wearing SCL.
When comparing 3rd-to 6th-order aberrations before and after wearing soft contact lenses, we found that the magnitude increasing rate of 3rd-order aberration decreased after SCLs correction compared to that in the naked eyes, especially beyond 20 degree nasal visual field (Fig. 19 a & b). A 1.4 fold increase in 3rd-order aberration of the nasal visual field after wearing soft contact lenses compared to the 2.5 fold before wearing the soft contact lenses was found. Since the irregular corneal anterior surface contributed significantly to the asymmetric aberrations, the eye with soft contact lenses more or less smoothed the anterior corneal surface, thus the reduction of 3rd-order aberration after contact lens fitting was anticipated. Another more possible reason might be the movement of SCLs in the eye. When the eye turned around to the far periphery to fixate on the target, SCLs would move in the opposite direction, thus the measurements taken by aberrometer in these visual angles would not be the exact reading taken if the SCLs could move with the eyes perfectly but this might be a great advantage of SCLs in real life. RGP lens can probably reduce 3rd-order aberration more since RGP lenses have larger movement than SCLs (if the measurements are still taken in the same way with the eye rotation to fixate on target in different visual angle). After wearing SCLs, the 4th-order aberration increased to the far horizontal periphery beyond center 50 degrees. This, again, might be caused by the movement of the contact lenses. The 5th-and 6th-order aberrations also slightly increased after wearing soft contact lenses in the temporal visual field (Fig. 19 a & b).
Figure 19.
a) The change of 3rd-to 6th-order aberrations across the horizontal visual field with and without SCLs correction. Error bar indicate the standard deviation. b) Data after wearing SCLs subtract naked eye’s data. Negative value means after wearing SCLs, the RMS wavefront error become smaller.
Only horizontal coma was shown in Fig. 20a), because the other coefficients were quite small across the horizontal visual field comparing to horizontal coma in both before and after SCLs fitting. After wearing SCLs, the slope of that linear relationship between the C31 and visual field angle became flatter (Fig.20 a). This contributed to the overall decrease of 3rd-order aberration after wearing SCLs. For the 4th-order aberration, since the spherical aberration (C40) and secondary astigmatism (C42) were the two major components which contributed to the 4th-order aberration change across the horizontal visual field, data were plotted of these two coefficients only with and without SCLs correction (Fig.20 b & c). The spherical aberration (C40) did not show significant differences across all the retina eccentricity before and after contact lenses fitting. However, secondary astigmatism (C42) showed larger magnitudes to the horizontal periphery compared to the uncorrected eye (Fig.20 b & c). This might help to explain the increase in the magnitude of 4th-order aberration in the far periphery. Both the primary astigmatism and secondary astigmatism became larger in the large off-axis visual angle after wearing SCLs, but there was no adequate explanation currently to explain this.
Figure 20.
The change of Zernike coefficients as a function of visual field angle. The data are the mean value got from 4 myopic subjects with and without SCL correction. Error bar indicate the standard deviation. a). Change of the relative horizontal coma (C31) across the horizontal visual field before and after SCLs correction. b). Change of spherical aberration (C40) and secondary astigmatism (C42) across the horizontal visual field before (solid lines) and after (dash lines) SCLs correction. c). Data after wearing SCLs subtract naked eye’s data. Negative value means Zernike coefficients of C42 became larger after wearing SCLs comparing to naked eyes.
7.3. Peripheral image quality with and without contact lens correction
Image quality was assessed with the VSOTF metric [113, 114] for the complete wavefront aberration (including 2nd order aberrations) measured over the full entrance pupil of each eye in another published study Without contact lens correction, VSOTF gradually decreases from center to periphery. With contact lens correction, image quality improves greatly both in the center and in the periphery. This improvement is due mainly to a reduction in 2nd order aberrations. RGP lens correction shows a trend of better image quality than SCLs across the whole visual field. Image quality drops quickly from center to the periphery after contact lens correction.
8. Conclusion
Both SCL and RGP lenses reduce the degree of hyperopic field curvature present in myopic eyes, but only RGPs reduce the relative amount of image blur on the peripheral retina. Although our study was motivated by the myopia question, the results pertain also to the perceptual quality of peripheral vision. The visual benefit of improved image contrast for peripheral vision obtained by RGP lenses should outweigh the visual benefit of SCLs. The tradeoff between reduced field curvature but increased peripheral astigmatism with RGP correction limits the net improvement of image blur on the peripheral retina that might, in turn, limit RGP lens effectiveness for improving vision or controlling myopia progression. Our results suggest that axial growth mechanisms that depend on retinal image quality will be affected more by RGP than by SCL lenses. These results provide some guidance for future designs of contact lenses to control myopia progression.
Contact lens increases higher-order aberrations in the peripheral visual field except 3rd-order Zernike terms. RGP lenses improve peripheral image quality for objects located at the foveal far point. Increased HOA after contact lens correction reduces image quality by an amount that depends on the eye’s initial IQ. If the eye has good IQ initially, changes in HOA have a relatively large effect on IQ. But if the eye has poor IQ initially, HOA will have relatively small effect on IQ. These results suggest contact lens designer and manufacturers should aim to improve the capabilities of contact lens for correcting HOA while simultaneously providing best sphero-cylinder correction for the eye across the visual field.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/47075.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/47075.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47075",totalDownloads:2256,totalViews:434,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:58,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 19th 2013",dateReviewed:"March 7th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 3rd 2014",dateFinished:"June 23rd 2014",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/47075",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/47075",book:{id:"3848",slug:"ophthalmology-current-clinical-and-research-updates"},signatures:"Jie Shen",authors:[{id:"169655",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",middleName:null,surname:"Shen",fullName:"Jie Shen",slug:"jie-shen",email:"jshen@westernu.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Western University of Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Control of ocular growth",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Axial ocular aberration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Representation of aberration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Measurement of aberrations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Off-axis aberration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Measurement of Off-axis aberration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Peripheral vision and development of refractive error",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Contact lens and myopia progression",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1. Contact lens and on-axis ocular aberration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2. Contact lens and off-axis aberrations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Peripheral refractions and contact lens correction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1. Curvature of field and peripheral astigmatism for the naked eye",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.2. Effect of contact lenses on field curvature and peripheral astigmatism",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.3. Contact lens effect on total sphero-cylindrical blur",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Peripheral image quality and contact lens correction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.1. Variation of higher-order aberrations with visual field eccentricity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"7.2. Effect of contact lens correction on ocular higher-order aberrations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.3. Peripheral image quality with and without contact lens correction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Wallman, J.J.W., Homeostasis of Eye Growth and the Question of Myopia. Neuron, 2004. 43: p. 447-468.'},{id:"B2",body:'Hodos, W. and W.J. Kuenzel, Retinal-image degradation produces ocular enlargement in chicks. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 1984. 25: p. 652-659.'},{id:"B3",body:'Diether, S. and F. 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1. Introduction
Figure 1 displays the flowchart of the HMMC development. During stir casting, a non-homogeneous mixture pattern has been an apprehension. The inclination is due to inappropriate segregation of reinforcement because of incorrect process parameters (rotation of stirrer, angle of stirring application, condition of wetting, and density). The material properties likewise have been reported to modify the characteristics of the homogeneous mix. The main metal matrix melted to obtain a molten state by melting it above its liquid temperature. The preheated reinforcement material is combined gradually so that a semi-solid-state is achieved. Repeatedly, the entire mix is needed to get heated to produce a molten state, and in between, stirring is done to attain the entirely conceivable consistency. The capability of the stir casting method predominantly rests on stirring speed, stirring duration, and stirring temperature [3, 4].
Figure 1.
Flow-chart of HMMC development.
Here a crucible composed of ceramic or graphite is being utilized to melt the parent metal in a furnace. A mechanized stirrer with a graphite impeller with a rotation speed of around 150–800rpm is engaged to agitate the melt (see Figure 2) periodically. The reinforcement materials are preheated to eliminate the humidity substances, facilitating wettability during stirring. Sakthivelu [2] had recommended a maximum limit of 30% of reinforcement for stable composites.
Figure 2.
Stir casting technique for the MMCs fabrication [1].
1.1 Stirring speed
The uniform dissemination of the reinforcement materials in the parent metal is essential for the advance in the coveted properties such as stiffness, toughness, tensile strength, etc. The stirrer with inadequate rpm provides an ineffectual activating force on the central metal matrix, contributing to an inadequate association [5]. Cluster arrangement and agglomeration inclination were recorded at slow rpm of mixing. The stirrer operated at high rpm provides considerable benefits in the creation of the expected composite since, at high rpm, the shear force supports the reinforced material to get the transfer inside the metal matrix dispersed phase and better bonding action with the metal matrix deep inside it, thereby setting up a coherent mix [5]. It has also been reported that porosity inclination can be stepped up at enhanced stirrer speed since gas particles induce inside the matrix.
1.2 Stirring duration
Stirring time likewise influences the distribution of dispersion into the metal matrix. Clustering of the material is observed at the lower stirring time, and further non-uniform mixture with fewer inclusions of reinforcement materials [6].
1.3 Stirring temperature
With a rise in temperature of the matrix metal, the viscosity was established to reduce, generating an effect in the reinforcement materials distribution. In extension, the chemical reaction was further revealed to develop with a rise in the temperature of the molten material [7].
2. Preparation of HMMC materials
The development of HMMC through stir casting typically uses the following phases. Figure 3 illustrates the phases of melting of metal matrix composite to its melting point. The stirring of molten metal is managed to utilize an electric motor.
Figure 3.
Phases of the stir casting process.
Table 1 displays the stir casting process parameters retained during the fabrication of HMMC.
S. No.
Parameters
Values
1
Preheating chamber temperature
850°C
2
Furnace temperature
900°C
3
Core temperature
750-800°C
4
Voltage
440 V
5
Frequency
50 Hz
6
Stirrer speed
300–400 rpm
7
Die pre-heating temperature
200°C
Table 1.
Stir casting process parameters.
The reinforcement material is delivered with continuous stirring movement through a stirrer to associate the reinforcements in the matrix of the parent metal. The mixture is eventually poured into the mold and solidifies naturally. The pertinent equipment employed for HMMC development is summarized.
2.1 Furnace
Figure 4 presents the original furnace adopted for the development of the HMMC. It has a temperature gauge with a regulator switch to regulate the temperature. The maximum temperature obtainable is around 1400°C. A convenient mechanical stir system generates a vortex in the melt, facilitating an exquisite melt blending, composing the metal matrix and related reinforcements. In order to evade the chances of solid particles settlement at the base of the crucible, a bottom pouring furnace is likewise suggested.
Figure 4.
Electric furnace used for HMMC development.
2.2 Mechanical stirrer rotor
The mechanical stirrer plays an essential role in forming an acceptable vortex in the melt to bring about the best possible coherence. Distinctive impeller stirrers can be used, i.e., single, double, and multiblade impeller. The double blade impeller (Figure 5) is employed mainly to develop AMCs. The single and multiblade impeller is handled primarily in chemical industries.
Figure 5.
Actual photo of mechanical stirrer used.
Figure 6 displays impeller stirrers accepted for HMMC development. The blade was applied with a coating of zirconia onto a stainless-steel stirrer. The zirconia layer helps in averting probable reactions between the molted aluminum material and stainless steel of the stirrer. The impellers have been investigated for developing a sufficient vortex during the mixing process.
Figure 6.
Impeller stirrer and types.
2.3 Crucible
Crucible is a container in which the metal matrix is melted to its molten temperature and the desired refracting materials are being added. Nowadays, diverse materials consisting of Alumina, Tungsten, Graphite, etc. are being adopted as a crucible. For HMMC development, the reinforcement materials (SiC and B4C) were pre-heated in the Alumina crucible (Figure 7), whereas the parent metal (Al6063) is melted in a graphite crucible shown in Figure 8.
The Graphite crucible experiences the following advantages.
High melting temperature (2500°C).
It is easily accessible.
The cost is less in comparison to tungsten.
Graphite has good electrical conductivity.
Figure 7.
Alumina crucible.
Figure 8.
Graphite crucible.
2.4 Power supply
The induction resistance furnace with a temperature regulator is linked with a three-phase electricity supply. To control the current and voltage supply, an ammeter and voltmeter were associated with the circuit. Figure 9 illustrates the ammeter and voltmeter. The ammeter indicates the instantaneous current flowing in the circuit. The induction resistance furnace is engaged with moving iron type (M-Tech industries) with range 0-10A. The Voltmeter is likewise utilized for measuring the instantaneous voltage value across the circuit with a range 0–300 volt.
Figure 9.
Ammeter and voltmeter.
The current drawn by the electrical inductor furnace, depends on the furnace size, shape, and capabilities. The furnace shown withdraws around 55A to 75A. The efficiency spectrum of an electrical furnace is surprisingly modest; all modern electrical furnaces have an AFUE of 100%. That means that entire electric furnaces convert electricity into heat energy without any losses. Due to energy losses in ducts and the energy required to run a blower, the electric furnace is slightly expensive for operation [8]. The energy requirement is AC 380/7kw/50 Hz. The induction furnace also comprises a temperature regulator and digital display unit of temperature. Figure 10 shows the Digital display unit with a regulator switch.
Figure 10.
Digital display unit with regulator switch.
2.5 Die
A graphite material die was utilized to shape and solidify molten material obtained after the rigorous stirring of Al 6063, SiC, and B4C. The size of the die is 100 × 50 × 30 with a tapered shape. Figure 11 displays the die adopted for fabrication.
Figure 11.
Graphite die with HMMC brick.
3. Steps accepted for HMMC fabrication
STEP 1: The stir casting setup employed for fabricating 84% Al-10% SiC-5% B4C-1% Mg is shown in Figure 12. It consists of a furnace with a temperature range up to 14,000°C for heating the materials utilizing electrical resistance heating, which is the generally used technique of heat development. The mechanical stirrer fixed to the motor was supported inside the graphite crucible.
Figure 12.
Electric furnace.
STEP 2: A correct weight measurement of the constituents is determined utilizing an electronic balancer (see Figure 13a–c). The silicon carbide and boron carbide particles were preheated at 850-900°C to eliminate any traces of moisture and oxidize their surface, forming a silicon oxide (SiO2) layer (see Figure 14). This layer enhances the wettability of the composite [9].
Figure 13.
Wt. measurement of (a) Al 6063 material, (b) SiC (c) B4C.
Figure 14.
Preheating of SiC and B4C.
STEP 3: The Al 6063 billets were later melted in a new graphite crucible (see Figure 15). The temperature of the furnace was controlled between 850 and 950°C. A less slag was observed on the edges and was cut out by a graphite spoon. A uniform temperature of 700-750°C was secured, and flux was included in the melt to restrain oxidation [10].
Figure 15.
Aluminum billets melting in furnace.
STEP 4: The molten metal was later cooled naturally to a semi-solid state at around 550-600°C, and gradually preheated SiC, and B4C was included in the melt in fragments, and mechanical stirring was performed at 300–400 rpm (Figure 16).
Figure 16.
Motorized stirring of HMMC.
STEP 5: Less than 1% wt of magnesium (Mg) was also added to develop the wettability of the mixture [7]. The mix was continuously stirred for 5 minutes, and the consistent mixture was poured into the die. Figure 17 exhibits the graphite die along with the developed HMMC brick.
Figure 17.
Graphite die with HMMC brick.
STEP 6: The solidified HMMC brick (Figure 18) is taken out from the die and is processed and cut into suitable identical pieces (30 × 20× 5 mm) further for experimentation. The specimens were then packed in polythene pouches with unique identification marks. Few specimens were then forwarded to authorized labs for SEM analysis and mechanical testing.
Figure 18.
Solidified HMMC bricks.
4. Samples of HMMC
Figure 19(a) and (b) show the weight measurement of brick one and brick two. The brick was cut into a smaller size of 30 mm × 20mm × 5 mm for experimentation on Die Sinking EDM. The wire EDM (Annexure 4) was used for preciously cutting the bricks so that the internal grain structures were not disturbed. Figure 20 shows the line diagram of the HMMC sample, and Figure 21 shows the actual sample.
Figure 19.
(a). Wt. measurement of brick 1. (b). Wt. measurement of brick 2.
Figure 20.
Line diagram of the specimen.
Figure 21.
View of the sample.
5. HMMC properties and test analysis
5.1 Properties of the individual constituents
Aluminum 6063 is broadly employed as a general-purpose alloy in many engineering applications such as the extrusion process, owing to its fair strength [11]. Table 2 exhibits the constituents of Al6063.
Table 3 (a-c) presents the physical and thermal properties of B4C [12], Al6063 [4], and SiC [13], respectively.
(a) B4C
(b) SiC
(c) Al 6063
Properties
Value
Properties
Value
Properties
Value
Specific Heat (°C)
700
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (°C)
4
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (per o C)
0.000022
Melting Point (°C)
2783
Specific Heat (°C)
750
Thermal Conductivity (cal/cm2/ cm/ Celsius at 25°C)
0.285
Density (g/cm3)
2.55
Melting Point (°C)
2730
Electrical Conductivity (% copper standard at 20 °C)
33.5
Thermal Conductivity (W/mk)
17–42
Density (g/cm3)
3.21
Density (g/cm3)
2.64
Hardness (Kg/mm2)
2900–3580
Thermal Conductivity (W/mk)
120
Freezing Range (°C) approx.
625–525
Table 3.
(a, b) physical properties of B4C and SiC (c) thermal properties of Al6063.
Boron carbide (B4C) is one of the hardest materials available. Above 1250°C, it has been harder than cubic boron nitride and diamond. B4C is an alluring reinforcement substance owing to its unique balance between thermal and chemical properties. Moreover, it possesses a smaller density and greater hardness value of order 30 GPa. Thus, B4C-reinforced HMMCs fabricated through the moderate-cost stir casting structure have gained higher attractiveness among researchers [14, 15]. B4C has good mechanical strength with desired properties of neuron absorption [16].
Silicon carbide (SiC) is constituted of tetrahedra of silicon and carbon atoms with influential bonds in the crystal lattice. The SiC material has less thermal enlargement, immense strength, and thermal conductivity of greater order and has been recorded to be resistant against thermal shock [17, 18]. The SiC can tolerate severe temperatures and has got high hardness coupled with low density.
Magnesium (Mg) is acknowledged for promoting grain refinement, wettability, and reinforcing the solid solution [19].
5.2 Properties of the HMMC
The spark atomic emission spectrometry (SAES) was conducted with ASTM E1251–11 standards (test procedure for Al and Al alloys) to determine the elements present in the HMMC samples. Table 4(a) illustrates the composition and %wt of elements. Table 4(b) indicates the HMMC significant properties. The density of HMMC (2637 kg/m3) as obtained through the test report has been used to calculate the MRR and EWR [20, 21].
(a)
(b)
HMMC
% Wt
HMMC
% Wt
Properties
Value
Al
91.43
Mg
0.087
Si
4.151
Cr
0.037
Melting point
750–800
Cu
1.516
Ti
0.027
U.T.S
110Mps
Zn
1.498
Sn
0.022
Tensile Strength
118 Mpa
Fe
0.806
V
0.006
Break Load
9.44KN
Mn
0.149
Cd
0.0019
Yield Stress
82 Mps
Ni
0.13
Co
<0.001
Hardness
72HB
Pb
0.089
Density
2637 kg/m3
Table 4.
(a) Composition of HMMC (b) significant properties of HMMC.
5.3 SEM analysis of the HMMC
For establishing the homogeneity of the HMMC, the sample was tested by employing scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Figure 22 displays the uniform dispersion of SiC and B4C in the specimen. No segregation of SiC grains along with B4C particles was stationed along the grain edges. Dissemination of grains is acknowledged to be intra-granular, in which the maximum particles locate inside the grains. The uniform distribution is commensurate with the efficient and timely stirring action during the stir casting process [22]. The crater’s size is less with B4C particles this could be because of the creation of a boron oxide (B2O3) layer on the B4C ceramic, because of liquid-to-liquid reaction leading to an expansion in the wettability, which is observable at a specialized high temperature [23]. Many researchers proposed that reinforcement in the particulate form up to wt. 30% may be included in a molten metal matrix to perform a more substantial reinforcement distribution [24]. Reinforcement is added emphatically into the molten stage of aluminum. The stirring speed, time of stir, stirrer blade angle, pouring temperature, solidification rate, reinforcement size, and elements percentage influence the fabricated composite consistency.
Figure 22.
SEM image of the stir casted HMMC.
6. Environmental concerns
The stir casting process involves melting the metal at around 800-1000°C. The metal matrix used is Aluminum 6063 with Boron Carbide (B4C) and Silicon Carbide (SiC) as reinforced materials. The melting operation produces specific unwanted gases and residual waste, which must be discussed. Table 5 illustrates the relevant unwanted gases/residual waste with apprehensions on the environment and human beings [27].
Sr. No
Unwanted Gases/ Residual Waste
Environmental concerns and human health
1
Aluminum hydroxide
Exposure to Aluminum hydroxide may cause repulsion, vomiting, hyperacidity, pungency, Low blood phosphates (hypophosphatemia), distaste, causticity leading to bowel obstruction, Fecal impaction [25].
2
Aluminum oxides
Indicative toxicity has been reported, followed by chronic inhalation of the aluminum oxides. Long-term aluminum oxide inhalation may cause pneumoconiosis with cold and exertion and a restrictive pattern of rib cage function. In severe cases, death has been reported due to respiratory failure.
3
Aluminum sulfates
Eating or gulping aluminum sulfate produces serious disturbance to the digestive organs and stomach. An influenced individual may encounter retching, queasiness, and runs, adding water to aluminum sulfate can make a sulfuric acid structure. The sulfuric acid may cause soil damage by reducing its constituents.
4
Boron Oxides
Acute effects: The boron oxides contacts can aggravate the skin and eyes. Breathing in Boron Oxide can bother the nose and throat, causing hacking and wheezing. Introduction to Boron Oxide may cause heaving wooziness, cerebral pain, sickness, and so forth.
Chronic Effects: The accompanying long-haul wellbeing influences may happen after some time getting an introduction to Boron Oxide and can keep going for months to years [26]. Boron oxide may make permanent damage to kidney and livers.
5
Silicon Dioxide
Silicon Dioxide exists naturally on earth and our bodies. No evidence has been reported to advocate its implication on human health, but more research is required to ascertain its role on the body. Inhalation of silica dust may cause diseases related to breathing.
6
Fly Ash particles
It can get placed in the deepest part of the lungs, where it may cause an asthmatic attack, inflammation, and immunological reactions. They contribute to Particulate Matter 2.5 and 10.
7
Magnesium Oxide
Exposure to Magnesium Oxide can cause “metal fume fever” which is a symptom in which the patent gets a metallic taste in the throat with headache, sneezing symptoms, cold symptoms.
Table 5.
List of unwanted gases/residual waste/effects on the environment.
7. Summary
This chapter focuses on the comprehensive development stages of the HMMC (84%wt of Al 6063–10%wt of SiC-5%wt of B4C with 1%wt. of Mg) through the stir casting method. A comprehensive description of the essential ingredients (electric furnace, stirrer, the crucible, die) required for HMMC fabrication and the procedures has been covered. Reinforcement is added emphatically into the molten stage of aluminum. The stirring speed, time of stir, stirrer blade angle, pouring temperature, solidification rate, reinforcement size, and elements percentage influence the fabricated composite consistency. The developed HMMC was further analyzed for composition and specific mechanical and thermal tests. The HMMC density of 2700 kg/m3 was noted for MRR calculations. For confirming the homogeneity of the HMMC, the sample was analyzed using an SEM test. Dissemination of grains was noticed to be intra-granular, in which the maximum particles reside inside the grains. The uniform distribution is proportional due to the efficient and timely stirring action during the stir casting process. The crater’s size is observed to be less with B4C particles because of the creation of a boron oxide (B2O3) layer on the B4C ceramic because of liquid-to-liquid reaction leading to an expansion in the wettability, which is observable at a specialized high temperature. During the stir casting process, the melting action of material emits out certain gases and residuals apart from the required composite. The residuals have specific environmental concerns. The severe effects caused by aluminum hydroxide, aluminum oxide, aluminum sulfate, boron oxide, silicon dioxide, magnesium oxide, and fly ash on the environment have also been covered.
\n',keywords:"hybrid metal matrix composite, stir casting, aluminum composite, environment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82183.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82183.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82183",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82183",totalDownloads:5,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 19th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 2nd 2022",datePrePublished:"June 10th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 10th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This unit deals with the selection and fabrication of HMMC (Al6063-10SiC-5B4C-Mg) constituents by extensive biography review and satisfactory fabrication design. Researchers have promoted an extensive collection of Al6063 composites employing organic and inorganic reinforcements. The fundamental purpose of the broken-up stages is to constrain the metal matrix in a relevant capacity to strengthen the properties of the base materials. In the case of Al6063, the reinforcement weighty subject matter in the composite varies from 5 wt.% to 30 wt.%. Diverse classes of reinforcements had sought to integrate and operate in the composite formulation as hybrid reinforcements. This chapter further discusses the comprehensive development stages of 84% wt of Al 6063, 10% wt of SiC, 5% wt of B4C with 1% wt of Mg hybrid metal matrix composite (HMMC) through the stir casting approach. During the stir casting process, the melting action of the material emanates numerous gases and residuals apart from the expected composite. The residuals have numerous environmental concerns, which require discussion since some of the vapors and substantial waste can lead to detrimental effects on the environment in terms of air and soil pollution.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82183",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82183",signatures:"Gurpreet Singh Matharou and Simran Kaur",book:{id:"11462",type:"book",title:"Recent Developments in Nanofibers Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Nanofibers Research",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Maaz Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11462.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-387-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-386-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-388-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Stirring speed",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Stirring duration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Stirring temperature",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Preparation of HMMC materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Furnace",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.2 Mechanical stirrer rotor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Crucible",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.4 Power supply",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.5 Die",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Steps accepted for HMMC fabrication",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Samples of HMMC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. HMMC properties and test analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 Properties of the individual constituents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 Properties of the HMMC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.3 SEM analysis of the HMMC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Environmental concerns",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"7. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Mishra D, Tulasi T. Experimental Investigation on Stir Casting Processing and Properties of Al 6082/SiC Metal Matrix Composites. In: GSVL N, Babu AV, Reddy SS, Dhanasekaran R, editors. Recent Trends in Mechanical Engineering. Vol. 14. Singapore: Springer; 2020. pp. 159-168. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-15-1124-0_14'},{id:"B2",body:'Sakthivelu S, Sethusundaram PP, Meignanamoorthy M, Ravichandran M. Synthesis of metal matrix composites through stir casting process – a review. Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering. 2018;22:357-370. DOI: 10.2478/mme-2018-0029'},{id:"B3",body:'Kareem A, Qudeiri JA, Abdudeen A, Ahammed T, Ziout A. A review on AA 6061 metal matrix composites produced by stir casting. Materials. 2021;14:175. DOI: 10.3390/ma14010175'},{id:"B4",body:'Matharou GS, Bhuyan BK. Experimental investigation of surface roughness in electric discharge machining of hybrid metal matrix composite. In: Govindan K, Kumar H, Yadav S, editors. Advances in Mechanical and Materials Technology. Vol. 20. Singapore: Springer; 2022. pp. 333-343. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-2794-1_30'},{id:"B5",body:'Mehta VR, Sutaria MP. Investigation on the effect of stirring process parameters on the dispersion of SiC particles inside melting crucible. Metals and Materials International. 2020;27:2989-3002. DOI: 10.1007/s12540-020-00612-0'},{id:"B6",body:'Sahu MK, Sahu RK. Fabrication of aluminum matrix composites by stir casting technique and stirring process parameters optimization. In: Vijayaram TR, editor. Advanced Casting Technologies. London, UK: InTech; 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73485'},{id:"B7",body:'Sozhamannan GG, Prabu SB, Venkatagalapathy VSK. Effect of processing Paramters on metal matrix composites: Stir casting process. JSEMAT. 2012;02:11-15. DOI: 10.4236/jsemat.2012.21002'},{id:"B8",body:'Ravichandran M, Meignanamoorthy M, Chellasivam GP, Vairamuthu J, Kumar AS, Stalin B. Effect of stir casting parameters on properties of cast metal matrix composite. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2020;22:2606-2613. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.03.391'},{id:"B9",body:'Bodukuri AK, Eswaraiah K, Pradeep V. Investigation on machining of hybrid metal matrix composite. MSF. 2019;969:846-851. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.969.846'},{id:"B10",body:'Bains PS, Sidhu SS, Payal HS. Fabrication and machining of metal matrix composites: A review. Materials and Manufacturing Processes. 2016;31:553-573. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2015.1025976'},{id:"B11",body:'Venkatesulu M, Rama Kotaiah K. Production and mechanical properties of AL 6063/B4C composites. JMERD. 2019;42:46-49. DOI: 10.26480/jmerd.01.2019.46.49'},{id:"B12",body:'Gudipudi S, Nagamuthu S, Subbian KS, Chilakalapalli SPR. Enhanced mechanical properties of AA6061-B4C composites developed by a novel ultra-sonic assisted stir casting. Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal. 2020;23:1233-1243. DOI: 10.1016/j.jestch.2020.01.010'},{id:"B13",body:'Das S, Acharya U, Rao SVVNS, Paul S, Roy BS. Assessment of the surface characteristics of aerospace grade AA6092/17.5 SiCp-T6 composite processed through EDM. CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology. 2021;33:123-132. DOI: 10.1016/j.cirpj.2021.03.005'},{id:"B14",body:'Patidar D, Rana RS. Effect of B 4 C particle reinforcement on the various properties of aluminium matrix composites: A survey paper. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2017;4:2981-2988. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2017.02.180'},{id:"B15",body:'Toptan F, Kilicarslan A, Karaaslan A, Cigdem M, Kerti I. Processing and microstructural characterisation of AA 1070 and AA 6063 matrix B4Cp reinforced composites. Materials & Design. 2010;31:S87-S91. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2009.11.064'},{id:"B16",body:'Naidu VVB, Varaprasad KC, Prahlada Rao K. Machinability analysis on wire electrical discharge machining of stir casted AA2024/Al 2 O 3/BN hybrid composite for aerospace applications. Materials and Manufacturing Processes. 2021;36:730-743. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2020.1854466'},{id:"B17",body:'Pul M. Effect of sintering on mechanical property of SiC/B 4 C reinforced aluminum. Materials Research Express. 2018;6:016541. DOI: 10.1088/2053-1591/aacee1'},{id:"B18",body:'Sivananthan, S., Ravi, K., Samson Jerold Samuel, C., 2020. Effect of SiC particles reinforcement on mechanical properties of aluminium 6061 alloy processed using stir casting route. Materials Today: Proceedings 21, 968–970. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2019.09.068'},{id:"B19",body:'Suneesh E, Sivapragash M. Comprehensive studies on processing and characterization of hybrid magnesium composites. Materials and Manufacturing Processes. 2018;33:1324-1345. DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2018.1453155'},{id:"B20",body:'Matharou GS, Bhuyan BK. Parametric optimization of EDM processes for aluminum hybrid metal matrix composite using GRA-PCA approach. International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering Research and Development. 2020; 10: 367–378. DOI: 10.24247/ijmperdjun202034.'},{id:"B21",body:'Matharou GS, Bhuyan BK. Modelling and combined effect analysis of electric discharge Machining process using response surface methodology. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2021;46:6638-6643. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.04.103'},{id:"B22",body:'Senthilkumar TS, Muralikannan R. Role of TiC and h-BN particles on morphological characterization and surface effects of Al 4032 hybrid composites using EDM process. Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology. 2019;33:4255-4264. DOI: 10.1007/s12206-019-0822-z'},{id:"B23",body:'Bystrenko O, Jiang J, Dong F, Li X, Qiu J, Liu J, et al. Kinetics of bonds at structural breakdown in boron carbide under intensive loads: A molecular dynamics study. Computational Materials Science. 2020;180:109711. DOI: 10.1016/j.commatsci.2020.109711'},{id:"B24",body:'Garg P, Jamwal A, Kumar D, Sadasivuni KK, Hussain CM, Gupta P. Advance research progresses in aluminium matrix composites: Manufacturing & applications. Journal of Materials Research and Technology. 2019;8:4924-4939. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.06.028'},{id:"B25",body:'Bahrami A, Soltani N, Pech-Canul MI, Gutiérrez CA. Development of metal-matrix composites from industrial/agricultural waste materials and their derivatives. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 2016;46:143-208. DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2015.1077067'},{id:"B26",body:'Wang QG, Crepeau PN, Davidson CJ, Griffiths JR. Oxide films, pores and the fatigue lives of cast aluminum alloys. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B. 2006;37:887-895. DOI: 10.1007/BF02735010'},{id:"B27",body:'Matharou GS, Bhuyan BK. Hybrid Metal Matrix Composite Development by Stir Casting and Environmental Concerns. Vol. 17. Singapore: Advances in Engineering Materials Springer; 2021. pp. 377-386. DOI: 10.1007%2F978-981-33-6029-7_35'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Gurpreet Singh Matharou",address:null,affiliation:'
Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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Brian Sun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:142,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"26862",doi:"10.5772/27413",title:"Titanium as a Biomaterial for Implants",slug:"titanium-as-a-biomaterial-for-implants",totalDownloads:16268,totalCrossrefCites:52,totalDimensionsCites:128,abstract:null,book:{id:"938",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroplasty",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty"},signatures:"Carlos Oldani and Alejandro Dominguez",authors:[{id:"70012",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Oldani",slug:"carlos-oldani",fullName:"Carlos Oldani"},{id:"73445",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:"Anibal",surname:"Dominguez",slug:"alejandro-dominguez",fullName:"Alejandro Dominguez"}]},{id:"58199",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71963",title:"Virtual and Augmented Reality in Medical Education",slug:"virtual-and-augmented-reality-in-medical-education",totalDownloads:3099,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) are two contemporary simulation models that are currently upgrading medical education. VR provides a 3D and dynamic view of structures and the ability of the user to interact with them. The recent technological advances in haptics, display systems, and motion detection allow the user to have a realistic and interactive experience, enabling VR to be ideal for training in hands-on procedures. Consequently, surgical and other interventional procedures are the main fields of application of VR. AR provides the ability of projecting virtual information and structures over physical objects, thus enhancing or altering the real environment. The integration of AR applications in the understanding of anatomical structures and physiological mechanisms seems to be beneficial. Studies have tried to demonstrate the validity and educational effect of many VR and AR applications, in many different areas, employed via various hardware platforms. Some of them even propose a curriculum that integrates these methods. This chapter provides a brief history of VR and AR in medicine, as well as the principles and standards of their function. Finally, the studies that show the effect of the implementation of these methods in different fields of medical training are summarized and presented.",book:{id:"6211",slug:"medical-and-surgical-education-past-present-and-future",title:"Medical and Surgical Education",fullTitle:"Medical and Surgical Education - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Panteleimon Pantelidis, Angeliki Chorti, Ioanna Papagiouvanni,\nGeorgios Paparoidamis, Christos Drosos, Thrasyvoulos\nPanagiotakopoulos, Georgios Lales and Michail Sideris",authors:[{id:"211650",title:"M.D.",name:"Panteleimon",middleName:null,surname:"Pantelidis",slug:"panteleimon-pantelidis",fullName:"Panteleimon Pantelidis"},{id:"211654",title:"Ms.",name:"Angeliki",middleName:null,surname:"Chorti",slug:"angeliki-chorti",fullName:"Angeliki Chorti"},{id:"220557",title:"Ms.",name:"Ioanna",middleName:null,surname:"Papagiouvanni",slug:"ioanna-papagiouvanni",fullName:"Ioanna Papagiouvanni"},{id:"220558",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Paparoidamis",slug:"georgios-paparoidamis",fullName:"Georgios Paparoidamis"},{id:"220559",title:"Mr.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Lales",slug:"georgios-lales",fullName:"Georgios Lales"},{id:"220560",title:"Mr.",name:"Thrasyvoulos",middleName:null,surname:"Panagiotakopoulos",slug:"thrasyvoulos-panagiotakopoulos",fullName:"Thrasyvoulos Panagiotakopoulos"},{id:"220561",title:"Mr.",name:"Christos",middleName:null,surname:"Drosos",slug:"christos-drosos",fullName:"Christos Drosos"},{id:"220562",title:"Dr.",name:"Michail",middleName:null,surname:"Sideris",slug:"michail-sideris",fullName:"Michail Sideris"}]},{id:"50915",doi:"10.5772/63266",title:"Doped Bioactive Glass Materials in Bone Regeneration",slug:"doped-bioactive-glass-materials-in-bone-regeneration",totalDownloads:3499,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"In the arena of orthopaedic surgery, autograft is considered to be the gold standard for correction of fracture repair or other bone pathologies. But, it has some limitations such as donor site morbidity and shortage of supply, which evolved the use of allograft that also has some disadvantages such as immunogenic response to the host, low osteogenicity as well as possibilities of disease transmission. Despite the benefits of autografts and allografts, the limitations of each have necessitated the pursuit of alternatives biomaterials that has the ability to initiate osteogenesis, and the graft should closely mimic the natural bone along with regeneration of fibroblasts. A variety of artificial materials such as demineralised bone matrix, coralline hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate-based ceramics such as hydroxyapatite (HA), β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and bioactive glass have been used over the decades to fill bone defects almost without associated soft tissue development. Most of them were having only the properties of osteointegration and osteoconduction. Only bioactive glass possesses osteogenic property that stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and in some cases influencing the fibroblastic properties. But, this material has also some disadvantages such as short-term and low mechanical strength along with decreased fracture resistance; but, this was further minimised by ion doping that positively enhanced new bone formation. There are many metal ions such as magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag) and some rare earths that have been doped successfully into bioactive glass to enhance their mechanical and biological properties. In some of the cases, mesoporous bioactive glass materials with or without such doping have also been employed (with homogeneous distribution of pores in the size ranging between 2 and 50 nm). These biomaterials can be served as scaffold for bone regeneration with adequate mechanical properties to restore bone defects and facilitate healing process by regeneration of soft tissues as well. This chapter encompasses the use of bioactive glass in bulk and mesoporous form with doped therapeutic ions, their role in bone tissue regeneration, use as delivery of growth factors as well as coating material for orthopaedic implants.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Samit Kumar Nandi, Arnab Mahato, Biswanath Kundu and Prasenjit\nMukherjee",authors:[{id:"60514",title:"Dr.",name:"Samit",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",slug:"samit-nandi",fullName:"Samit Nandi"}]},{id:"37120",doi:"10.5772/29607",title:"Trigeminocardiac Reflex in Neurosurgery - Current Knowledge and Prospects",slug:"the-trigeminocardiac-reflex-in-neurosurgery-current-knowledge-and-prospects",totalDownloads:3434,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"749",slug:"explicative-cases-of-controversial-issues-in-neurosurgery",title:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery",fullTitle:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery"},signatures:"Amr Abdulazim, Martin N. Stienen, Pooyan Sadr-Eshkevari, Nora Prochnow, Nora Sandu, Benham Bohluli and Bernhard Schaller",authors:[{id:"78171",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernhard",middleName:null,surname:"Schaller",slug:"bernhard-schaller",fullName:"Bernhard Schaller"},{id:"78525",title:"Mr.",name:"Amr",middleName:null,surname:"Abdulazim",slug:"amr-abdulazim",fullName:"Amr Abdulazim"},{id:"78530",title:"Dr",name:"Pooyan",middleName:null,surname:"Sadr-Eshkevari",slug:"pooyan-sadr-eshkevari",fullName:"Pooyan Sadr-Eshkevari"},{id:"126039",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",middleName:"Nikolaus",surname:"Stienen",slug:"martin-stienen",fullName:"Martin Stienen"},{id:"126040",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",middleName:null,surname:"Prochnow",slug:"nora-prochnow",fullName:"Nora Prochnow"},{id:"126041",title:"Dr.",name:"Benham",middleName:null,surname:"Bohluli",slug:"benham-bohluli",fullName:"Benham Bohluli"}]},{id:"26863",doi:"10.5772/26362",title:"The Bearing Surfaces in Total Hip Arthroplasty – Options, Material Characteristics and Selection",slug:"the-bearing-surfaces-in-total-hip-arthroplasty-options-material-characteristics-and-selection",totalDownloads:9526,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"938",slug:"recent-advances-in-arthroplasty",title:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Arthroplasty"},signatures:"Hamid Reza Seyyed Hosseinzadeh, Alireza Eajazi and Ali Sina Shahi",authors:[{id:"66361",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",middleName:null,surname:"Eajazi",slug:"alireza-eajazi",fullName:"Alireza Eajazi"},{id:"74857",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamid Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Seyyed Hosseinzadeh",slug:"hamid-reza-seyyed-hosseinzadeh",fullName:"Hamid Reza Seyyed Hosseinzadeh"},{id:"173207",title:"Dr.",name:"Alisina",middleName:null,surname:"Shahi",slug:"alisina-shahi",fullName:"Alisina Shahi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65467",title:"Anesthesia Management for Large-Volume Liposuction",slug:"anesthesia-management-for-large-volume-liposuction",totalDownloads:6165,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The apparent easiness with which liposuction is performed favors that patients, young surgeons, and anesthesiologists without experience in this field ignore the many events that occur during this procedure. Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"42855",title:"Critical Care Issues After Major Hepatic Surgery",slug:"critical-care-issues-after-major-hepatic-surgery",totalDownloads:8929,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ashok Thorat and Wei-Chen Lee",authors:[{id:"52360",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"wei-chen-lee",fullName:"Wei-Chen Lee"},{id:"157213",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Thorat",slug:"ashok-thorat",fullName:"Ashok Thorat"}]},{id:"72175",title:"Fontan Operation: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"fontan-operation-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:1286,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Since the first description of the Fontan operation in the early 1970s, a number of modifications have been introduced and currently staged, total cavopulmonary connection with fenestration has become the most commonly used multistage surgery in diverting the vena caval blood flow into the lungs. The existing ventricle, whether it is left or right, is utilized to supply systemic circuit. During Stage I, palliative surgery is performed, usually at presentation in the neonatal period/early infancy, on the basis of pathophysiology of the cardiac defect. During Stage II, a bidirectional Glenn procedure is undertaken in which the superior vena caval flow is diverted into the lungs at an approximate age of 6 months. During Stage IIIA, the blood flow from the inferior vena cava (IVC) is rerouted into the pulmonary arteries, typically by an extra-cardiac conduit along with a fenestration, generally around 2 years of age. During Stage IIIB, the fenestration is closed by transcatheter methodology 6–12 months after Stage IIIA. The evolution of Fontan concepts, the indications for Fontan surgery, and the results of old and current types of Fontan operation form the focus of this review.",book:{id:"9585",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",fullTitle:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease"},signatures:"P. Syamasundar Rao",authors:[{id:"68531",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Syamasundar",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"p.-syamasundar-rao",fullName:"P. Syamasundar Rao"}]},{id:"45712",title:"Serdev Sutures® in Middle Face",slug:"serdev-sutures-in-middle-face",totalDownloads:4950,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2989",slug:"miniinvasive-face-and-body-lifts-closed-suture-lifts-or-barbed-thread-lifts",title:"Miniinvasive Face and Body Lifts",fullTitle:"Miniinvasive Face and Body Lifts - Closed Suture Lifts or Barbed Thread Lifts"},signatures:"Nikolay Serdev",authors:[{id:"32585",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",middleName:null,surname:"Serdev",slug:"nikolay-serdev",fullName:"Nikolay Serdev"}]},{id:"55812",title:"Postural Restoration: A Tri-Planar Asymmetrical Framework for Understanding, Assessing, and Treating Scoliosis and Other Spinal Dysfunctions",slug:"postural-restoration-a-tri-planar-asymmetrical-framework-for-understanding-assessing-and-treating-sc",totalDownloads:7694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Current medical practice does not recognize the influence of innate, physiological, human asymmetry on scoliosis and other postural disorders. Interventions meant to correct these conditions are commonly based on symmetrical models of appearance and do not take into account asymmetric organ weight distribution, asymmetries of respiratory mechanics, and dominant movement patterns that are reinforced in daily functional activities. A model of innate, human asymmetry derived from the theoretical framework of the Postural Restoration Institute® (PRI) explicitly describes the physiological, biomechanical, and respiratory components of human asymmetry. This model is important because it gives an accurate baseline for understanding predisposing factors for the development of postural disorders, which, without intervention, will likely progress to structural dysfunction. Clinical tests to evaluate tri-planar musculoskeletal relationships and function, developed by PRI, are based on this asymmetric model. These tests are valuable for assessing patient’s status in the context of human asymmetry and in guiding appropriate exercise prescription and progression. Balancing musculoskeletal asymmetry is the aim of PRI treatment. Restoration of relative balance decreases pain, restores improved alignment, and strengthens appropriate muscle function. It can also halt the progression of dysfunction and improve respiration, quality of life, and appearance. PRI’s extensive body of targeted exercise progressions are highly effective due to their basis in the tri-planar asymmetric human model.",book:{id:"5816",slug:"innovations-in-spinal-deformities-and-postural-disorders",title:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders",fullTitle:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders"},signatures:"Susan Henning, Lisa C. Mangino and Jean Massé",authors:[{id:"204825",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Henning",slug:"susan-henning",fullName:"Susan Henning"},{id:"206242",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa C",middleName:null,surname:"Mangino",slug:"lisa-c-mangino",fullName:"Lisa C Mangino"},{id:"206245",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Massé",slug:"jean-masse",fullName:"Jean Massé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"202",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82020",title:"Minimally Invasive Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion: A Novel Technique and Technology with Case Series",slug:"minimally-invasive-transforaminal-lumbar-interbody-fusion-a-novel-technique-and-technology-with-case",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105187",abstract:"Minimally invasive spine surgery (MIS) transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (MI-TLIF) has been utilized to treat a variety of spinal disorders. Like other minimally invasive spine surgery techniques and technology, the MI-TLIF approach has the potential to limit the morbidity associated with larger exposures required for open surgery. The MI-TLIF approach has a number of advantages over many other minimally invasive spine surgery approaches including direct decompression of neural elements, collection of morselized autograph from the surgical site to achieve high fusion rates, restoration of spinal canal diameter, foraminal diameter, disk height, and reduction of spondylolisthesis. In this chapter, we discuss a novel technique for performing MI-TLIF developed by the senior author who is a leading minimally invasive spine surgeon. The technique and technology illustrated in this chapter were developed out of a recognition of a need to reduce the learning curve for performing MI-TLIF, as well as need for a cost-effective method that provides a high fusion rate, excellent clinical outcomes, and low complication rate. The indications, surgical planning, postoperative care, complications, and patient outcomes in a large series will be reviewed using this novel MI-TLIF technique.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Mick J. Perez-Cruet, Ramiro Pérez de la Torre and Siddharth Ramanathan"},{id:"78335",title:"Safety and Efficiency of Cervical Disc Arthroplasty in Ambulatory Surgery Centers",slug:"safety-and-efficiency-of-cervical-disc-arthroplasty-in-ambulatory-surgery-centers",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99589",abstract:"Introduction Anterior cervical surgeries have been safely performed in ambulatory surgery centers since 1995 with the first cases being one level anterior cervical discectomies without fusion, then in 1996, one level anterior cervical discectomies with fusion (ACDF). When it is was certain that outpatient fusion was safe, the number of ACDF levels slowly and methodically were increased to the now standard outpatient maximum of four level ACDF. During this evolution, with the introduction of arthroplasty surgery, one level arthroplasties were considered appropriate for outpatient surgery and now two-level outpatient cervical arthroplasties are routine and some three level arthroplasties have been performed with no additional morbidity compared to one level procedures. The author first reported a series of 27 patients in 2010 who underwent cervical disc replacement at an ASC. (Wohns, R. Safety and cost-effectiveness of outpatient cervical disc arthroplasty. Surg. Neurol. Int. 1, 77, 2010). The average operative time was 40 minutes and the patients were observed over a period of three hours prior to discharge. None of the patients had major complications and there were no reports of worsening or persistent pain. The results of a Delphi study in 2018 compared the safety and efficiency of one-level and two-level arthroplasty procedures performed in an ASC and in a hospital setting. (Gornet et al. Safety and Efficiency of Cervical Disc Arthroplasty in Ambulatory Surgery Centers vs Hospital Settings. Int’l J of Spine Surgery. Vol. 12, No.5, 2018, pp. 557-564). The study analyzed outcomes of 145 ASC patients, 348 hospital outpatients and 65 hospital inpatients and the conclusion was that both one and two-level arthroplasties may be performed safely in an ASC. Surgeries in ASCs are of shorter duration and performed with less blood loss without increased AEs. At the present time, there does not appear to be any contra-indication to performing the vast majority of cervical arthroplasties in an ambulatory surgery center (ASC). Furthermore, the cost of an outpatient arthroplasty is commonly 30% to 50% of the cost of hospital-based procedures.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Richard N.W. Wohns"},{id:"82255",title:"Minimally Invasive Laminectomy for Lumbar Stenosis with Case Series of Patients with Multi-level (3 or More Levels) Stenosis",slug:"minimally-invasive-laminectomy-for-lumbar-stenosis-with-case-series-of-patients-with-multi-level-3-o",totalDownloads:28,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105186",abstract:"Lumbar stenosis is the most common pathology seen and treated by spine surgeons. It is often seen in the elderly population who frequently have multiple medical co-morbidities. Traditional approaches remove the spinous process and detach paraspinous muscles to achieve adequate canal decompression. This approach can damage the posterior tension band leading to permanent muscle damage, scar tissue formation, iatrogenic flatback syndrome, and increase risk of adjacent segment disease requiring reoperation. Performing lumbar laminectomy in a cost-effective manner is critical in effectively treating patients with lumbar stenosis. This chapter reviews a minimally invasive muscle-sparing approach to treating lumbar stenosis. The technique is performed through a tubular retractor. Direct decompression of the spinal stenosis is achieved while preserving the paraspinous muscle attachments and spinous process. This technique has multiple advantages and can potentially reduce load stress on adjacent levels and subsequent adjacent level pathology leading to further surgical intervention. In addition, the procedure shows how facet fusion is performed using the patient’s own locally harvested drilled morselized autograph to achieve bilateral facet fusion. By fusing the facets, we have shown that restenosis at the operative level is less likely to occur. This chapter will review a case series of multilevel lumbar stenosis including clinical outcomes.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Mick J. Perez-Cruet, Ramiro Pérez de la Torre and Siddharth Ramanathan"},{id:"80705",title:"Cervical Arthroplasty",slug:"cervical-arthroplasty",totalDownloads:37,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102964",abstract:"Technological advances have allowed spine surgery to follow the trend toward minimally invasive surgery in general. Specifically, we have seen a corresponding rise in the popularity of cervical arthroplasty. For the treatment of cervical disc disease, arthroplasty is a less invasive option than the gold standard of cervical discectomy and arthrodesis, which by nature is more disruptive to surrounding tissues. Arthroplasty preserves the facets, maintains motion, and reduces the rate of adjacent segment breakdown. These factors counteract the negative impacts of fusion while maintaining the benefits. Arthroplasty implants themselves have become more streamlined to implant as well with less native bone destruction, and biomechanics more compatible with the native disc. While initial implants were ball and socket devices with complex fixation and plane-specific movements, later devices incorporated such motions as translation and compression. Viscoelastic components and materials more closely resembling native tissues afford a more biocompatible implant profile. Until cell-based therapies can successfully reproduce native tissue, we will rely on artificial components that closely resemble and assimilate them.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Jason M. Highsmith"},{id:"80605",title:"Minimally Invasive Treatment of Spinal Metastasis",slug:"minimally-invasive-treatment-of-spinal-metastasis",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102485",abstract:"Advancements in the treatment of systemic cancer have improved life expectancy in cancer patients and consequently the incidence of spinal metastasis. Traditionally, open spinal approaches combined with cEBRT (conventional external beam radiation therapy) allowed for local tumor control as well as stabilization and decompression of the spine and neural elements, but these larger operations can be fraught with one complications and delayed healing as well as additional morbidity. Recently, minimally invasive spine techniques are becoming increasingly popular in the treatment of spinal metastasis for many reasons, including smaller incisions with less perioperative complications and potential for expedited time to radiation therapy. These techniques include kyphoplasty with radiofrequency ablation, percutaneous stabilization, laminectomy, and epidural tumor resection through tubular retractors, as well as minimally invasive corpectomy. These techniques combined with highly conformal stereotactic radiosurgery have led to the advent of separation surgery, which allows for decompression of neural elements while creating space between neural elements and the tumor so adequate radiation may be delivered, improving local tumor control. The versatility of these minimally invasive techniques has significantly improved the modern management of metastatic disease of the spine by protecting and restoring the patient’s quality of life while allowing them to quickly resume radiation and systemic treatment.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Eric R. Mong and Daniel K. Fahim"},{id:"76620",title:"Minimally Invasive Lateral Approach for Anterior Spinal Cord Decompression in Thoracic Myelopathy",slug:"minimally-invasive-lateral-approach-for-anterior-spinal-cord-decompression-in-thoracic-myelopathy",totalDownloads:145,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97669",abstract:"Myelopathy can result from a thoracic disc herniation (TDH) compressing the anterior spinal cord. Disc calcification and difficulty in accessing the anterior spinal cord pose an operative challenge. A mini-open lateral approach to directly decompress the anterior spinal cord can be performed with or without concomitant interbody fusion depending on pre-existing or iatrogenic spinal instability. Experience using stand-alone expandable spacers to achieve interbody fusion in this setting is limited. Technical advantages, risks and limitations of this technique are discussed. We conducted a retrospective chart review of all patients with thoracic and upper lumbar myelopathy treated with a lateral mini-open lateral approach. Review of the literature identified 6 other case series using similar lateral minimally invasive approaches to treat thoracic or upper lumbar disc herniation showing efficient and safe thoracic disc decompression procedure for myelopathy. This technique can be combined with interbody arthrodesis when instability is suspected.",book:{id:"10634",title:"Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery - Advances and Innovations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10634.jpg"},signatures:"Edna E. Gouveia, Mansour Mathkour, Erin McCormack, Jonathan Riffle, Olawale A. Sulaiman and Daniel J. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82858",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility a Case of the Provision of Recreational Facilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105608",signatures:"Peter Musa Wash, Shida Irwana Omar, Badaruddin Mohamed and Mohd Ismail Isa",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-a-case-of-the-provision-of-recreational-facilities",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82786",title:"Discussion of Purchasing Virtual Digital Nature and Tourism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105869",signatures:"Hiroko Oe and Yasuyuki Yamaoka",slug:"discussion-of-purchasing-virtual-digital-nature-and-tourism",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"A New Era of Consumer Behavior - Beyond the Pandemic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11581.jpg",subseries:{id:"88",title:"Marketing"}}},{id:"82289",title:"Consumer Culture and Abundance of Choices: Having More, Feeling Blue",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105607",signatures:"Ondřej Roubal",slug:"consumer-culture-and-abundance-of-choices-having-more-feeling-blue",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"A New Era of Consumer Behavior - Beyond the Pandemic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11581.jpg",subseries:{id:"88",title:"Marketing"}}},{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? 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Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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