Free radicals (FR) generated in biological systems.
\r\n\tDigital images can be easily distorted by noise during the acquisition, processing, and transmission. Noise level is an important parameter to consider in image processing algorithms, including denoising, compression, feature extraction, motion estimation, optical flow, segmentation, super-resolution, and image quality assessment. Their performance depends on the accuracy of the noise level estimate.
\r\n\r\n\tImage denoising is an important stage to improve the accuracy of many image processing techniques, such as image segmentation and recognition. Image segmentation is another important stage in computer vision applications. Many methodologies utilize both stages in a unique algorithm to solve the problem of the segmentation of noisy images to provide better classification and recognition compared to algorithms that independently use these two stages.
\r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to collect original research chapters that develop or apply new theories and/or hardware or software to process the acquired noisy images to solve the problem of Segmentation of noisy images in the field of medical imaging, remote sensing, engineering, and other research applications.
Oxidative stress in biological systems is a complex process that is characterized by an imbalance between the production of free radicals (FR) and the ability of the body to eliminate these reactive species through the use of endogenous and exogenous antioxidants. During the metabolic processes, a great variety of reactions take place, where the promoters are the reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the superoxide radical anion (O2•−), among others. A biological system in the presence of an excess of ROS can present different pathologies, from cardiovascular diseases to the promotion of cancer. Biological systems have antioxidant mechanisms to control damage of enzymatic and nonenzymatic natures that allow ROS to be inactivated. The endogenous antioxidants are enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase, or non-enzymatic compounds, such as bilirubin and albumin. When an organism is exposed to a high concentration of ROS, the endogenous antioxidant system is compromised and, consequently, it fails to guarantee complete protection of the organism. To compensate this deficit of antioxidants, the body can use exogenous antioxidants supplied through food, nutritional supplements, or pharmaceuticals. Among the most important exogenous antioxidants are phenolic compounds carotenoids and vitamins C and some minerals such as selenium and zinc.
In the study of antioxidant compounds and the mechanisms involved, it is important to distinguish between the concepts of antioxidant activity and capacity. These terms are often used interchangeably. However, antioxidant activity refers to the rate constant of a reaction between an antioxidant and an oxidant. The antioxidant capacity is a measure of the amount of a certain free radical captured by an antioxidant sample [1]. Therefore, during the selection of a method, the response parameter must be considered to evaluate the antioxidant properties of a sample, which may be a function of the concentration of the substrate or concentration and the time required to inhibit a defined concentration of the ROS.
The reaction mechanisms of the antioxidant compounds are closely related to the reactivity and chemical structure of FR as well as the environment in which these reactive species are found. Therefore, it is very important to describe the ROS and, to a lesser degree, the reactive nitrogen species (RNS), which include both precursors and free radicals.
In the literature, there are many
Oxygen is associated with aerobic life conditions [3], representing the driving force for the maintenance of cell metabolism and viability and at the same time involving a potential danger due to its paramagnetic characteristics. These characteristics promote the formation of partially oxidized intermediates with a high reactivity. These compounds are known as reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are free radicals (FR) or radical precursors. In stable neutral molecules, the electrons are paired in their respective molecular orbitals, known as maximum natural stability. Therefore, if there are unpaired electrons in an orbital, highly reactive, molecular species are generated that tend to trap an electron from any other molecule to compensate for its electron deficiency. The oxygen triplet is the main free radical, since it has two unpaired electrons. The reaction rate of triplet oxygen in biological systems is slow. However, it can become highly toxic because it metabolically transforms into one or more highly reactive intermediates that can react with cellular components. This metabolic activation is favored in biological systems, because the reduction of O2 to H2O in the electron transport chain occurs by the transfer of an electron to form FR or ROS [4].
Free radicals in a biological system can be produced by exogenous factors such as solar radiation, due to the presence of ultraviolet rays. Ultraviolet radiation causes the homolytic breakdown of bonds in molecules. FR also occur during the course of a disease. In a heart attack, for example, when the supply of oxygen and glucose to the heart muscle is suspended, many FR are produced. Another exogenous factor is chemical intoxication, which promotes the formation of FR. The organism, because it requires the conversion of toxic substances to less dangerous substances, promotes the release of FR. The toxicity of many drugs is actually due to their conversion into free radicals or their effect on the formation of FR. The presence of contaminants, additives, pesticides, etc., in food can also become a source of FR.
Inflammatory processes are due to endogenous factors that promote the presence of FR in the system. These FR, present inside the cleansing cells of the immune system, have the function of killing pathogenic microorganisms. Tissue damage is caused when FR are excessive during this process. Phagocytic cells (neutrophils, monocytes, or macrophages) use the NADPH oxidase system directly generating the superoxide ion (O2•−). O2•− is considered the primary ROS and when reacting with other molecules through enzymatic processes or catalyzed by metals generates secondary ROS. O2•− is protonated to produce H2O2 and HO2•. O2•− is produced from the irradiation of molecular oxygen with UV rays, photolysis of water, and by exposure of O2 to organic radicals formed in aerobic cells such as NAD•, FpH•, semiquinone radicals, cation radical pyridinium or by hemoproteins. Likewise, it is produced by phagocytic leukocytes as the initial product of the respiratory explosion when consuming O2. The radical O2•− does not react directly with polypeptides, sugars, or nucleic acids.
As a defense mechanism cells generate •NO by the action of nitric oxide-synthase on intracellular arginine. The combination of O2 with •NO results in the formation of ONOO•, which induces lipid peroxidation in lipoproteins. This happens in a very marked way in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, primary biliary cirrhosis, type 1 diabetes, celiac disease, Graves’ disease, Hashimoto’s disease, inflammatory bowel disease, scleroderma, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, and vitiligo.
FR are necessarily present during metabolic processes because many of the chemical reactions involved require these chemical species. For example, the reactions of polymerization of amino acids to form proteins or the reactions of polymerization of glucose to form glycogen involve the participation of FR. FR are also involved in the catalytic activation of various enzymes of intermediary metabolism, such as hypoxanthine, xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, monoamine oxidase, cyclooxygenase, and lipoxygenase [5]. Generally, antioxidant enzymes efficiently control these radicals.
Another generating source of ROS is the structural alteration of essential macromolecules of the cell (DNA, protein, and lipids) by irreversible chemical reactions. These reactions generate derivatives, such as malonaldehyde and hydroperoxides that propagate oxidative damage.
Additionally, there are also RNS, such as nitric oxide (NO•), nitrogen dioxide (NO2•), as well as peroxynitrite (ONOO−), nitrosoperoxycarbonate (ONOOCO2−), and nitronium ions (NO2+), and the neutral species, peroxynitrous acid (ONOOH) and dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3). These species are generated in small amounts during normal cellular processes such as cell signaling, neurotransmission, muscle relaxation, peristalsis, platelet aggregation, blood pressure modulation, immune system control, phagocytosis, production of cellular energy, and regulation of cell growth [6]. Table 1 shows the most representative FR present during the process of energy production in aerobic biological systems.
Specie | Source | Function |
---|---|---|
O2•− | Enzymatic process, autoxidation reaction, and nonenzymatic electron transfer reactions | It can act as reducing agent of iron complexes such as cytochrome-c or oxidizing agent to oxidize ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol |
HO2• | Protonation of O2•− | HO2• initiates fatty acid peroxidation |
HO• | H2O2 generates HO• through the metal-catalyzed Fenton reaction | HO• reacts with both organic and inorganic molecules including DNA, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates |
NO• | Action of nitric oxide-synthase using arginine as a substrate and NADPH as an electron source | NO• is an intracellular second messenger stimulates guanylate cyclase and protein kinases and helps in smooth muscle relaxation in blood vessels |
NO•2 | Protonation of ONOO− or homolytic fragmentation of ONOOCO2− | This radical acts on the antioxidative mechanism decreasing ascorbate and α-tocopherol in plasma |
ONOO• | Reaction of O2 with NO• | ONOO• is a strong oxidizing and nitrating species of methionine and tyrosine residues in proteins and oxidizes DNA to form nitroguanine |
CO3•− | The intermediate of reaction superoxide dismutase (SOD)-Cu2+-OH• react with bicarbonate to generates CO3•− | CO3•− oxidizes biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids |
ONOOCO2− | The peroxynytrite-CO2 adduct is obtained by reaction of ONOO− with CO2 | This anion promotes nitration of tyrosine fragments of the oxyhemoglobin via FR |
Free radicals (FR) generated in biological systems.
There are many ROS that act as biological oxidants, but the O2•− is the largest oxidant; the simple addition of a proton leads to the formation of HO2•, becoming a very active oxidizing agent. These transformations are summarized in Figure 1.
Reaction mechanism of superoxide radical.
Free radicals produce diverse actions on the metabolism of immediate principles, which can be the origin of cell damage [7]:
In the polyunsaturated lipids of membranes, producing loss of fluidity and cell lysis because of lipid peroxidation (Figure 2).
In the glycosides, altering cellular functions such as those associated with the activity of interleukins and the formation of prostaglandins, hormones, and neurotransmitters (Figure 3) [8].
In proteins, producing inactivation and denaturation (Figure 4) [9].
In nucleic acids, by modifying bases (Figure 5) [8], producing mutagenesis and carcinogenesis.
Reaction of hydroxyl radical with polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Reaction of hydroxyl radical with sugar [
Reaction of hydroxyl radical with α-aminoacids [
Reaction of hydroxyl radical with the basepair of DNA guanosine [
The human body responds to oxidative stress with antioxidant defense, but in certain cases, it may be insufficient, triggering different physiological and physiopathological processes. Currently, many processes are identified related to the production of free radicals. Among them are mutagenesis, cell transformation, cancer, arteriosclerosis, myocardial infarction, diabetes, inflammatory diseases, central nervous system disorders, and cell aging [10, 11].
Biological systems in oxygenated environments have developed defense mechanisms, both physiological and biochemical. Among them, at the physiological level, is a microvascular system with the function of maintaining the levels of O2 in the tissues, and at a biochemical level, the antioxidant defense can be enzymatic or nonenzymatic, as well as being a system for repairing molecules.
Aerobic organisms have developed antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and DT-diaphorase. SOD is responsible for the dismutation reaction of O2 to H2O2, which in subsequent reactions, catalyzed by catalase or by GPx, is converted into H2O and O2. SOD is the most important and most powerful detoxification enzyme in the cell. SOD is a metalloenzyme and, therefore, requires a metal as a cofactor for its activity. Depending on the type of metal ion required as a cofactor by SOD, there are several forms of the enzyme [12, 13]. CAT uses iron or manganese as a cofactor and catalyzes the degradation or reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to produce water and molecular oxygen, thus completing the detoxification process initiated by SOD [14, 15]. CAT is highly efficient at breaking down millions of H2O2 molecules in a second. CAT is mainly found in peroxisomes, and its main function is to eliminate the H2O2 generated during the oxidation of fatty acids. GPx is an important intracellular enzyme that breaks down H2O2 in water and lipid peroxides in their corresponding alcohols; this happens mainly in the mitochondria and sometimes in the cytosol [16]. The activity of GPx depends on selenium. In humans, there are at least eight enzymes GPx, GPx1–GPx8 [17]. Among glutathione peroxidases, GPx1 is the most abundant selenoperoxidase and is present in virtually all cells. The enzyme plays an important role in inhibiting the process of lipid peroxidation and, therefore, protects cells from oxidative stress [18]. Low GPx activity leads to oxidative damage of the functional proteins and the fatty acids of the cell membrane. GPx, particularly GPx1, has been implicated in the development and prevention of many diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases [19]. DT-diaphorase catalyzes the reduction of quinone to quinol and participates in the reduction of drugs of quinone structure [20]. DNA regulates the production of these enzymes in cells.
This system of antioxidants consists of antioxidants that trap FR. They capture FR to avoid the radical initiation reaction. Neutralize the radicals or capture them by donating electrons, and during this process, the antioxidants become free radicals, but they are less reactive than the initial FR. FR from antioxidants are easily neutralized by other antioxidants in this group. The cells use a series of antioxidant compounds or free radical scavengers such as vitamin E, vitamin C, carotenes, ferritin, ceruloplasmin, selenium, reduced glutathione (GSH), manganese, ubiquinone, zinc, flavonoids, coenzyme Q , melatonin, bilirubin, taurine, and cysteine. The flavonoids that are extracted from certain foods interact directly with the reactive species to produce stable complexes or complexes with less reactivity, while in other foods, the flavonoids perform the function of co-substrate in the catalytic action of some enzymes.
Enzymes that repair or eliminate the biomolecules that have been damaged by ROS, such as lipids, proteins, and DNA, constitute the repair systems. Common examples include systems of DNA repair enzymes (polymerases, glycosylases, and nucleases) and proteolytic enzymes (proteinases, proteases, and peptidases) found in both the cytosol and the mitochondria of mammalian cells. Specific examples of these enzymes are GPx, glutathione reductase (GR), and methionine sulfoxide reductase (MSR). These enzymes act as intermediaries in the repair process of the oxidative damage caused by the attack of excess ROS. Any environmental factor that inhibits or modifies a regular biological activity becomes a condition that favors the appearance or reinforcement of oxidative stress.
The main characteristic of a compound or antioxidant system is the prevention or detection of a chain of oxidative propagation, by stabilizing the generated radical, thus helping to reduce oxidative damage in the human body [21]. Gordon [22] provided a classification of antioxidants, mentioning that characteristic. There are two main types of antioxidants, the primary (breaking the chain reaction, free radical scavengers) and the secondary or preventive. The secondary antioxidant mechanisms may include the deactivation of metals, inhibition of lipid hydroperoxides by interrupting the production of undesirable volatiles, the regeneration of primary antioxidants, and the elimination of singlet oxygen. Therefore, antioxidants can be defined as “those substances that, in low quantities, act by preventing or greatly retarding the oxidation of easily oxidizable materials such as fats” [23].
A compound that reduces
The phenolic compounds constitute a wide group of chemical substances, with diverse chemical structures and different biological activities, encompassing more than 8000 different compounds which are a significant part of the human and animal diet [24]. The phenolic compounds are important components in the mechanism of signaling and defense of plants. These compounds combat the stress brought about by pathogenic organisms and predators. The function of these compounds in plants is diverse: they are found as precursors of compounds of greater complexity or the intervention in the processes of regulation and control of plant growth, as well as the defensive medium of plants. Phenolic compounds have the capacity to act as hydrogen donors or to chelate metal ions such as iron and copper, by inhibiting the oxidation of low-density lipoproteins (LDL). These characteristics in the phenolic compounds are associated with a decrease in risks of neurodegenerative diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases [25], gastrointestinal cancers [26], colon [27], breast and ovarian cancers [28], and leukemia [29, 30, 31]. Phenolic compounds also have vasorelaxation and anti-allergenic activity [32]. The phenolic compounds inhibit the oxidation of
Phenolic compounds reduce or inhibit free radicals by transfer of a hydrogen atom, from its hydroxyl group. The reaction mechanism of a phenolic compound with a peroxyl radical (ROO•) involves a concerted transfer of the hydrogen cation from the phenol to the radical, forming a transition state of an H-O bond with one electron. The antioxidant capacity of the phenolic compounds is strongly reduced when the reaction medium consists of a solvent prone to the formation of hydrogen bonds with the phenolic compounds. For example, alcohols have a double effect on the reaction rate between the phenol and the peroxyl radical. On the one hand, the alcohols act as acceptors of hydrogen bonds. On the other hand, they favor the ionization of the phenols to anion phenoxides, which can react rapidly with the peroxyl radicals, through an electron transfer. The overall effect of the solvent on the antioxidant activity of the phenolic compounds depends to a great extent on the degree of ionization of the last compounds [34]. Leopoldini et al. [35] conducted a theoretical study to determine the dissociation energy of OH bonds and the adiabatic ionization potentials of phenolic compounds of varied structure and polarity, among them tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, and gallic and caffeic acids. These studies were performed simulating solvated and vacuum conditions. The results showed a clear difference in the behavior of these phenolic compounds. The compounds most likely to undergo a HAT were tocopherol, followed by hydroxytyrosol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, and epicatechin (Figure 6), while the phenolic compounds, which were better able to SET, were kaempferol and resveratrol (Figure 7). This undoubtedly gives us an indication that phenolic compounds can suffer both HAT and SET and that this depends mainly on the chemical structure of the phenolic compounds.
Phenolic compounds with ability to HAT.
Phenolic compounds with ability to SET.
The method based on the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent is commonly used to determine and quantify total phenols. This method evaluates the ability of phenols to react with oxidizing agents. The Folin-Ciocalteu reagent contains sodium molybdate and tungstate, which react with any type of phenol [36]. The transfer of electrons at basic pH reduces the sodium molybdate and tungstate in oxides of tungsten (W8O23) and molybdenum (Mo8O23), which have a bright blue color in solution. This color intensity is proportional to the number of hydroxyl groups of the molecule [37].
Carotenoids are found in virtually all plants, animals, and microorganisms, and more than 700 carotenoids have been identified and characterized [38]. Most carotenoids have a characteristic symmetrical tetraterpene skeleton. The linear hydrocarbon skeleton is made up of 40 carbons and is susceptible to various structural modifications. These structural characteristics are related to degree of hydrogenation,
The carotenoids react as antioxidant agents through three mechanisms: the first is the SET, the second from the formation of one adduct, and the third by HAT. In general, the antioxidant properties of carotenoids are related to their high capacity for electron donation. Everett et al. [41] found that β-carotene reacts with NO2• via SET. Carotenoid reactivity studies have also been carried out in the presence of the benzyl peroxyl radical, which has low reactivity, and it was concluded that in this case, the reaction mechanisms involved the formation of an adduct, while reactions by HAT are of little relevance [42].
Other studies have evaluated the effect of the chemical structure of carotenoids on the reactivity toward FR. One of these studies found that carotenoids substituted with electrons are more susceptible to oxidation than carotenoids with withdrawn electron groups. A study of carotenoid reactivity with phenoxy radicals shows the order of reactivity to be lycopene > β-carotene > zeaxanthin > lutein > echinenone > astaxanthin [43].
The effect of the solvent on the reactivity of carotenoids in the presence of FR has also been evaluated, and it was found that in nonpolar solvents, the reactions are promoted via adduct formation; while in polar solvents, the formation of adducts takes place first and then the SET [44].
Vitamin C refers to a group of ascorbic acid analogs that can be both synthetic and natural molecules. Ascorbic acid is a water-soluble ketolactone with two ionizable hydroxyl groups. Anion ascorbate is the dominant form at physiological pH (Figure 8). Ascorbate is a potent reducing agent and undergoes two subsequent losses of an electron, to form an ascorbate radical and dehydroascorbic acid. The ascorbate radical is relatively stable because the unpaired electron is delocalized by resonance. The ascorbate concentration in plasma of healthy humans is around 10 μg/mL. At these concentrations, the ascorbate is a co-antioxidant with vitamin E to protect LDL from peroxyl radicals [45]. The ascorbate radical is poorly reactive and can be reduced to ascorbate by reductase-dependent NADH and NADPH [46]. The ascorbate radical can alternatively undergo a disproportionation reaction that depends on pH, resulting in the formation of ascorbate and dehydroascorbic acid [47].
Chemical species related to vitamin C.
Vitamin C is chemically capable of reacting with most of the physiologically important ROS and acts as a hydrosoluble antioxidant. The antioxidant reaction mechanisms of vitamin C are based on the HAT to peroxyl radicals, the inactivation of singlet oxygen, and the elimination of molecular oxygen [48, 49]. For example, ascorbic acid can donate a hydrogen atom to a tocopheroxyl radical at the rate of 2 × 105 mol/s [50]. Also, it has been proven that ascorbate can produce reactions with oxidizing agents through SET [51] or a concerted transfer of electron/protons (SET/HAT) [52].
The antioxidant activity of a compound can be evaluated
When the antioxidant activity of a sample is studied, it is necessary to consider the source of ROS as well as the target substrate. An antioxidant can protect lipids against oxidative damage, while, on the other hand, it can promote the oxidation of other biological molecules [53].
Most assays of antioxidant activity involve inducing accelerated oxidation in the presence of a promoter and controlling one or more variables in the test system, for example, temperature, antioxidant concentration, pH, etc. However, the oxidation mechanisms can change when modifications are carried out on some of these variables. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the intervals in which the quantification of the antioxidant activity is done to generate reliable results.
The methods to determine the antioxidant capacity are divided into two general groups. This division is based on the reaction mechanisms involved in the RF reduction process. The first group of methods is based on the SET and the second group is based on the HAT. The result is the same: the inactivation of free radicals; however, the kinetics and secondary reactions involved in the process are different. The methods based on SET detect the capacity of a potential antioxidant for the transmission of a chemical species, including metals, carbonyls, and radicals. SET is shown through a change in color as the oxidant is reduced by antioxidant [54]. The group of methods based on HAT measures the ability of an antioxidant to inactivate FR through the donation of a hydrogen atom. HAT reactions are theoretically independent of solvent nature and pH. These reactions are rapid and occur in no more than a few minutes. The presence of other reducing agents in samples, in addition to the antioxidants under study, makes HAT testing difficult and can lead to significant errors [55]. Table 2 shows the methods of evaluation of the antioxidant activity
Method | Reaction mechanism | Characteristics | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Total radical-trapping antioxidant parameter (TRAP) | HAT | TRAP assay involves the initiation of lipid peroxidation by generating water-soluble ROO• and is sensitive to all known chain-breaking antioxidants | [58] |
Total oxyradical scavenging capacity total assay (TOSCA) | HAT | Evaluates inhibition oxidation of α-keto-γ-methiolbutyric acid (KMBA) by ROS. The antioxidant activity is measured through ethylene concentration, generated during decomposition of KMBA, relative to a control reaction monitored by headspace gas chromatography (HS-GC) | [59] |
Crocin-bleaching assays (CBAs) | HAT | CBA is based on the abstraction of hydrogen atoms and/or addition of radical to the polyene structure of crocin and results in a disruption of the conjugated system accounting for crocin bleaching | [60] |
Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) | HAT | ORAC assay is based upon the inhibition of peroxyl radical induced oxidation initiated by thermal decomposition of azo compounds such as AAPH | [61] |
Inhibition of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydracyl radical (DPPH•) | SET or HAT | Colorimetric method based on the measurement of the scavenging capacity of antioxidants towards DPPH• | [62] |
Inhibition of 2,2′-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS•+) cation radical | SET or HAT | Colorimetric method to evaluate the decay of ABTS•+ in the presence of an antioxidant agent | [63] |
Total phenols assay by Folin-Ciocalteu reagent | SET | A mixture of phosphomolybdate and phosphotungstate in highly basic medium oxidized phenolic compounds | [64] |
Ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) | SET | Colorimetric method that evaluates the reduction of Fe3+-tripyridyltriazine complex (Fe3+-TPTZ) by turning it into a ferrous form (Fe2+-TPTZ) | [65] |
Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) | SET | This method is used to measure the peroxide level during the initial stage of lipid oxidation. Peroxides are formed during the linoleic acid oxidation, which reacts with Fe2+ to form Fe3+ and later these ions form a complex with thiocyanate | [66] |
Methods most commonly used to evaluate antioxidant capacity/activity
The methods of evaluation of antioxidant activity must be fast, reproducible, and require small amounts of the chemical compounds to be analyzed, in addition to not being influenced by the physical properties of said compounds [56]. The results of
These methods are briefly described below.
The TRAP is used to determine the status of a secondary antioxidant in plasma. The results (TRAP value) are expressed as μmol of ROO• trapped per liter of plasma [58]. The test is based on the measurement of O2 uptake during a controlled peroxidation reaction, promoted by the thermal decomposition of 2,2′-azobis-(2-amidopropane) (ABAP), which produces ROO• at a constant rate (Figure 9). This starts with the addition of ABAP to human plasma; the parameter to be evaluated is the “delay time” of the O2 absorption in plasma induced by the antioxidant compounds present in the medium. The delay time is measured from the O2 concentration data in plasma diluted in a buffer solution monitored with an electrode. In addition to ABAP, other free radical initiators have been used, such as the ABTS [67], dichlorofluorescein diacetate [68], phycoerythrin [69], and luminol [70].
Formation of peroxyl radical from ABAP.
One of the main disadvantages of the TRAP method is the possibility of an error in the detection of the end point caused by the instability of the O2 electrode, because this point can take 2 h to reach. To minimize this problem, the electrochemical detection of O2 can be performed with a chemiluminescent detection based on the use of luminol and horseradish peroxidase [71].
This method is based on the evaluation of antioxidant activity in the gas phase, which consists of exposing α-keto-γ-methylthiobutyric acid (KMBA) to powerful oxidizing agents, such as •OH, ROO•, and ONOO− [59] (Figure 10). These oxidizing agents induce a transformation of KMBA to ethylene. To evaluate the effect of antioxidants, the ethylene formation is evaluated and compared to a control reaction by the use of headspace gas chromatography (HS-GC). The TOSCA assay is based on the inhibition of ethylene formation in the presence of antioxidant compounds that compete with KMBA for ROS.
Reaction between ROO• and KMBA.
The TOSCA method is not suitable for a high performance analysis because multiple injections of each sample are required to measure ethylene production [55]. The reaction kinetics of this method do not allow a linear relationship between the percentage of inhibition of KMBA oxidation and the concentration of antioxidants [72], which is a serious limitation.
The crocin bleaching test (CBA) is a method originally proposed to evaluate the inhibition of alkoxyl radicals produced photolytically. This is done by measuring the protective effect exerted by antioxidant compounds on crocin, a carotenoid that presents an intense red color, under the effect of alkoxyl radicals [60] (Figure 11). To achieve this, reaction kinetics are carried out in a UV-Vis spectrophotometer, measuring the absorbance at a wavelength of 440 nm to obtain the relative velocity constants. These constants present a good correlation with the known antioxidant activity of reference compounds. The absolute bleaching velocity of crocin depends strongly on the type of radical that attacks the polyene structure of crocin. Crocin exhibits a high selectivity toward the alkoxyl radicals produced during the photolysis of hydroperoxides, as well as peroxyl radicals produced after the thermolysis of azo initiators. Ordoudi and Tsimidou [73] carried out a detailed evaluation of the CBA, and among the factors, they considered the crocin probe, the antioxidant compound to be evaluated, the peroxyl radical generation conditions, and the monitoring of the reaction. As a result of this, they found that any commercial saffron could be used as a source of crocin for the preparation of the probe, because it is possible to eliminate interferences, such as tocopherols. They also found that the concentration of the working solution could be adjusted and that changes in the stock solution of the probe can occur during storage. Ordoudi and Tsimidou [74] also evaluated a group of 39 phenolic compounds of diverse structures, including hydroxybenzoic, hydroxyphenylacetic, hydroxyphenylpropanoic, and hydroxycinnamic acids. The results of that study showed that the activity depends strongly on the position of -COOH groups in relation to the position of the -OH groups. Therefore, the CBA allows evaluation of the effect of the position of functional groups that cause antioxidant activity in a chemical compound.
Chemical structure of crocin.
The ORAC method is based on the inhibition of oxidation induced by peroxyl radicals and simultaneously evaluates the time effect and the inhibition degree. The ORAC test is based on hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and uses a reaction mechanism that competes between antioxidants and a fluorescence probe (fluorescein) for a radical [61]. The test begins with the thermal decomposition of azo compounds, such as [2,2′-azobis-(2-amidino-propane)dihydrochloride (AAPH)], which is the source of free radicals that promotes the degradation of fluorescein. The antioxidant to be evaluated promotes the elimination of the peroxyl radicals, protecting the fluorescein from degradation. The decay in fluorescence due to the attack of the radicals and the protection by the antioxidants results in a curve. The antioxidant capacity is calculated from the area under the fluorescence decrease curve (AUC). This assay uses trolox as a standard; therefore, generally the antioxidant activity in this assay is expressed in terms of trolox equivalents. The ORAC method has been widely used to measure the antioxidant capacity of beverages [75], supplements [55], and vegetables and fruits [55, 76].
There are modifications to this assay that include the use of fluorescein as a probe, adaptation to a high performance format, and the ability to measure the lipophilic, hydrophilic, and total antioxidant capacity of a substance.
The ORAC assay is carried out at pH 7.4, adjusted with a phosphate buffer, in the presence of the antioxidant, AAPH, and fluorescein at a constant temperature of 37°C. Fluorescence is monitored at 1 min intervals for 35 min at an excitation wavelength of 485 nm and an emission wavelength of 520 nm [77].
The ORAC method can also be used for the detection of •OH and other radicals by modifying the initiators. In addition, the method has been modified for the detection of lipophilic antioxidants, encapsulating these compounds in β-cyclodextrins [78].
The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH•) (Figure 12) is characterized as a stable free radical because pi electrons of the aromatic systems present in the molecule can compensate for the lack of an electron. DPPH• does not dimerize, as most other free radicals do. The delocalization of the electron also gives rise to a deep violet color, characterized by absorption in solution at around 517 nm. Brand-Williams et al. [62] evaluated the activity of specific compounds or extracts using DPPH• in solution. When a solution of DPPH• is in contact with a substance that can donate a hydrogen atom or with another radical (R•), the reduced form DPPH-H or DPPH-R is produced with the consequent loss of color and therefore the decrease or loss of absorbance (Figure 8). Consequently, the reduction of DPPH• provides an index to estimate the ability of the test compound to trap radicals. The alcoholic solutions of 0.5 mM are densely colored, and in this concentration, the law of Lambert-Beer is fulfilled in the useful absorption interval [79].
DPPH• reduction by an antioxidant.
ArOH is an antioxidant that acts by donating hydrogen atoms, to obtain radicals with stable molecular structures that will stop the chain reaction. The new radical (ArO•) can interact with another radical to form stable molecules (DPPH-OAr, ArO-OAr). The reaction between DPPH• and an antioxidant compound depends on the structural conformation of the same, so quantitative comparisons are not always appropriate.
The basis of this methodology is focused on measuring the reduction of free radicals by antioxidant compounds. Different concentrations and the time of the reaction are measured (30 min or until the steady state is reached). So far, there are no reports about the existence of a mathematical kinetic model that helps to understand the behavior of antioxidants [80].
The experimental models use the percentage of DPPH• remaining to obtain the necessary quantities that are required to reduce the initial concentration to 50% (EC50). In addition, kinetics is performed to determine the amount of time needed for the steady state to reach EC50 from the curves. EC50 and effective concentration 50 (TEC50) are used to calculate antiradical efficiency (AE). Low values of EC50 and TEC50 show a high antioxidant strength, and a rapid decrease in absorption is observed during the reaction [81]. The antiradical efficiency can be estimated based on the scale contained in Table 3.
Range | Antiradical efficiency classification |
---|---|
AE = 1 × 10−3 | Low |
1 × 10−3 < AE = 5 × 10−3 | Medium |
5 × 10−3 < AE = 10 × 10−3 | High |
AE ≫ 10 × 10−3 | Very high |
Scale of antiradical efficiency (AE) against DPPH• [81].
It is a fast, simple, inexpensive, and widely used method to measure the ability of compounds to act as free radical scavengers or hydrogen donors. It can also be used to quantify antioxidants in complex biological systems, for solid or liquid samples. The method is applied to measure the overall antioxidant capacity [82] and the activity of eliminating free radicals from fruit and vegetable juices [83]. It has been successfully used to investigate the antioxidant properties of wheat grain and bran, vegetables, oils, and flours in various solvents, including ethanol, aqueous acetone, methanol, and benzene [84, 85, 86, 87].
The radical scavenging DPPH• method allows for a reaction with almost any type of antioxidant due to the stability of DPPH•. This means there is sufficient time for even weak antioxidants to react with DPPH• [82]. This method can be used with both polar and nonpolar organic solvents to evaluate hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants [55].
The method has some disadvantages, among which is that DPPH• can react with other radicals and consequently the time to reach the stable state is not linear to the concentration ratio of the antioxidant/DPPH• [62, 80]. The stability of DPPH• can be affected by solvents with properties of a Lewis base, as well as the presence of dissolved oxygen [88]. The absorbance of DPPH• in methanol and acetone is lower than with other solvents [89].
Because the radical scavenging DPPH• method is quite simple and used in various fields of chemistry, automated assays combined with analytical techniques have been developed (Table 4).
Automation | Characteristics | References |
---|---|---|
Flow injection analysis (FIA) by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) | Bioassay-guided fractionation of natural products or food samples | [90] |
PC-controlled sequential injection analysis (SIA) | SIA is a FIA technique modified by using a pump to continuously draw sample and reagent solutions into different lines of tubing | [91] |
Electrochemical selective determination of antioxidant activity based on DPPH•/DPPH | Current intensity is proportional to the residual concentration of DPPH• after reaction with the antioxidant | [92] |
Relative DPPH radical scavenging capacity (RDSC) | The RDSC uses the area under the curve, expressed as trolox equivalents. These approaches take into account both the kinetic and the thermodynamic measurements of the radical-antioxidant reactions | [93] |
High performance thin layer chromatography (TLC)-DPPH• | Post-chromatographic derivatization is carried out with DPPH•. The plates are scanned before DPPH• and 30 min after DPPH derivatization in absorption-reflection mode at optimized wavelengths | [94] |
Hyphenated high speed counter current chromatography (HSCCC)-DPPH• | After the HSCCC separation, the effluent is split into two streams by use of an adjustable high-pressure stream splitter. One portion is sent through the detector and the fraction collector, while the second portion is sent to a secondary coil for on-line radical-scavenging detection | [95] |
Automated modes to evaluate radical scavenging capacity DPPH•.
The FRAP analysis was introduced by [65, 96] to measure total antioxidant activity and is based on the ability of samples to reduce ferric ion Fe3+ to ferrous ion Fe2+, forming a blue complex. A high absorption at a wavelength of 700 nm indicates a high reduction power of the chemical compound or extract [66]. The value of FRAP has been used to determine the antioxidant activity of red wines [97]. The work of Schleisier et al. [98] was designed to determine the antioxidant activity in tea extracts and juices expressed in Fe2+ equivalents. The absolute initial index of the reduction of ferrylmyoglobin determined by spectroscopy in the visible region has been suggested to characterize the antioxidant activity of individual flavonoids [99]. There are several trials to evaluate FRAP; one of them is to evaluate the power of a compound or extract to reduce the complex of 2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine-Fe2+ (TPTZ-Fe2+). An antioxidant reduces the ferric ion (Fe3+) to ferrous ion (Fe2+) in the TPTZ complex; the latter forms a blue complex (Fe2+/TPTZ), which absorbs at a wavelength of 590 nm (Figure 13). The reaction must be carried out under acidic conditions (pH 3.6) to preserve the solubility of Fe. The reducing power is related to the degree of hydroxylation and the conjugation in the phenols [55].
Reaction mechanism for the FRAP assay in the presence of an antioxidant [
The FRAP assay has an incubation time of 4 min at 37°C for the antioxidant activity of most samples. This is done because the redox reactions, involved in the assay, occur within the incubation period. However, it has been shown that FRAP values can vary significantly, depending on the time scale of analysis [55, 96].
ABTS is a target molecule used to evaluate the reactivity of antioxidant samples in the presence of peroxides. The ABTS initially is subjected to an oxidation reaction with potassium permanganate, potassium persulfate or 2,2′-azo-bis (2-amidinopropane), producing the radical cation of the ABTS (ABTS•+) with a blue greenish color that absorbs at wavelengths of 415, 645, 734, and 815 nm [100, 101, 102]. The ABTS•+ is stable for several minutes. The ABTS•+ is subjected to the antioxidant sample causing the reduction of ABTS•+ and consequently the discoloration of the reaction mixture (Figure 14). Therefore, the degree of discoloration can be expressed as the inhibition percentage of ABTS•+, which is determined as a function of antioxidant concentration and time. This method can be used at different pH and is useful to study the effect of pH on antioxidant activity. ABTS is soluble in both aqueous and organic solvents and consequently is useful for evaluating the antioxidant activity of samples in different media and is commonly used in solutions that simulate an ionic serum (pH 7.4) based on a phosphate buffer (PBS) containing 150 mM NaCl. When a medium of PBS is used, the samples react in a time interval of approximately 30 min, while in alcohol, they require longer reaction times [103]. The level of peroxide is determined by the absorbance at some of the above-mentioned wavelengths. The IC50 is calculated by plotting the percentage of inhibition against different concentrations of the antioxidant sample [104]. The IC50 values indicate the sample concentration required to eliminate 50% of the ABTS•+. Low IC50 values indicate high radical uptake activity. The antioxidant activity against ABTS•+ can also be evaluated through the unit of antioxidant activity (TAA), which expresses the equivalents of trolox in μmol with respect to each gram of sample extract in dry base.
Reaction of ABTS•+ with antioxidant compounds.
The inhibition of ABTS•+ activity in an antioxidant sample has a strong correlation with the radical scavenging capacity DPPH• because both radicals have the capacity to accept electrons and H• from the antioxidant compounds present in the samples [105, 106].
TAC is defined as the ability of a compound to inhibit the oxidative degradation of lipids [66]. Lipid peroxidation involves the oxidative deterioration of lipids with unsaturation. This peroxidation, called the initiation process, begins with the formation of conjugated dienes and trienes, known as primary oxidation products due to the abstraction of a hydrogen atom. Subsequently, a propagation process is carried out that consists of the reaction of the deprotonated species derived from the lipids with O2, leading to the formation of peroxyl radicals (ROO•). The high energy of free radicals promotes the abstraction of hydrogen atoms from neighboring fatty acids. This leads to the formation of hydroperoxides that promotes the formation of new R• radicals. The latter radicals react with each other to produce stable molecules of the R-R and ROOR type [107]. To encourage the antioxidant activity of a chemical compound, it is necessary to inhibit the peroxidation of a fatty acid emulsion; linoleic acid is generally used as a model. The hydroperoxides derived from linoleic acid subsequently react with Fe2+, causing the oxidation of this ion to produce Fe3+. The Fe3+ ions form a complex with thiocyanate (SCN−), and this complex has a maximum absorbance at 500 nm [108]. This complex is used to measure the peroxide value.
The ferric thiocyanate method is used to measure the peroxide value in edible oils. To avoid errors in the determination of the peroxide value, it is important to avoid the presence of oxygen in the reaction medium and this can be achieved by bubbling nitrogen [109]. These authors found that the results of the thiocyanate assay also depend on the solvent, reducing agent and type of hydroperoxides present in the sample.
The reaction mechanisms involved in the antioxidant activity/capacity of different groups of compounds depend on several factors. Among these factors are the chemical structure of these compounds, the nature of the solvent, the temperature and pH, as well as the reactivity and chemical structure of free radicals. All these factors can also influence the reaction rate. Consequently, it is very important that, for studies of antioxidant properties, at least three evaluation methods are selected: one to exclusively evaluate the HAT, another the SET, and a combined method, HAT/SET. Also, it is important to perform reaction kinetics. In addition to this, it is essential to consider that in mixtures of antioxidant compounds, possible synergistic effects are present and can enhance the activity/capacity or even modify their reaction mechanisms.
The authors thank Carol Ann Hayenga for her English assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. Support was provided by the Technological University of the Mixteca.
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare and are responsible for the content and writing of the manuscript.
This chapter does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
There are five components to a petroleum system - hydrocarbon charge, reservoir, seal, trap, and overburden [1]. When assessing exploratory risk each of these elements is directly assessed except for overburden, which is incorporated into the different risk elements (e.g., overburden is incorporated into charge through thermal maturity, seal and reservoir through porosity and permeability reduction associated with compaction). The absence of any of these elements brings the chance of exploratory success to zero. Hydrocarbon charge is considered the most important component of any petroleum system evaluation [2] because there is no alternative. In frontier regions and play extensions, post-drill assessments have indicated that the absence of hydrocarbon charge is a disproportionate cause of exploratory failure [3, 4]. Significant improvement in exploration efficiency was reported when geochemistry was taken into consideration as compared to simply assessing opportunities by trap size alone [5]. Fundamental to understanding hydrocarbon charge is clarity on its components which include the source rock presence and quality, generation process (maturation), and alteration (e.g., biodegradation, thermal cracking, phase segregation).
The importance of the organic matter to the formation and accumulation of hydrocarbons was fundamentally established by (1) the identification of porphyrins, a chlorophyll derivative, in shales, coals, and crude oils [6], and (2) the observation of threshold level of total organic carbon (TOC), approximately 1.5% as a mean of petroliferous basins, rather than the 0.35% of non-petroliferous basins of the Russian Platform [7].
Since these works, and especially over the past five decades, there has been considerable advancement in the foundational understanding of hydrocarbon charge. There have effectively been two major periods of advancement in petroleum geochemistry. The first growth episode occurred, in part, as a result of advances in analytical methods as well as insights into the controls on source rock development and the processes of hydrocarbon generation, expulsion, migration, and alteration. During this period the application of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) became routine for the assessment of source rock depositional setting and thermal maturity; and basin models became commonplace, requiring an understanding of the kinetics of hydrocarbon generation. The second growth period came with the increase in the importance of self-sourced petroleum systems and tight rock resources. During this recent phase, the focus has been on the identification of landing zones, hydrocarbon expulsion and retention, hydrocarbon cracking, and the development of organic porosity.
This overview discusses the identification, characterization, and formation of hydrocarbon source rocks, the generation process, the characterization of produced fluids including post-accumulation alteration processes, hydrocarbon migration, and establishing genetic relationships among hydrocarbon accumulations, and to their source rock(s), and organic porosity.
It is important to establish a consistent definition of source rock. A source rock is a rock that contains sufficient quantities of organic matter that after having achieved the appropriate thermal maturity will generate and expel sufficient quantities of hydrocarbons to result in an accumulation. At this point issues of commerciality are not considered because they are dependent on logistics, the presence of prior infrastructure as well as commodity price.
Petroleum source rocks are atypical and are not uniformly distributed either stratigraphically or spatially [8]. The mean value for organic carbon in fine-grain sedimentary is ~0.7 wt.% with a standard deviation of 0.3 wt.% as established using a statistical approach and more than 15,000 fine-grained rock samples worldwide [9]. It was then noted that source rocks should display above-average TOC levels establishing a threshold TOC of 1.00 wt.% (Figure 1). However, a review of data from a number of world-class source rocks such as the Kimmeridge Clay (North Sea Basin), Green River Formation (western United States), Pematang Formation (Central Sumatra Basin, Indonesia), Bucomazi Formation (Lower Congo Basin, Angola), Hydria-Hanifa Formation (Saudi Arabia), Maykop Formation (South Caspian Basin, Azerbaijan), Shublick Formation (Alaska) and Kazhdumi Formation (Mesopotamian Foreland Basin, Iran), all contained significant stratigraphic intervals where organic carbon contents exceeded several weight percent organic carbon. This indicates that source rocks, in fact, typically contain TOC levels that significantly exceed the 1.0% wt.% TOC threshold.
Global distribution of total organic carbon within fine-grain sedimentary rocks. Insert represents the organic carbon measured at the type locality of the Kimmeridge clay (United Kingdom), after Bissada 1982 [
It has also been suggested that there is an upper limit for TOC that limits a source rock’s effectiveness. It is suggested that at TOC levels of 12 to 15 wt.%, oil is retained within the source rock limiting its effectiveness [10]. This upper limit may also partially explain why most coals do not act as an effective source [11].
It was, however, established early that not all organic matter is the same with respect to hydrocarbon generation and that the assignment of source rock potential based on organic carbon is insufficient. Similar quantities of organic matter can have yields that range over several orders of magnitude depending on the type of organic matter and the thermal maturity (Figure 2). This question of yield was approached using the total generation potential (free hydrocarbons + generatable hydrocarbons: S1 + S2) as determined using Rock-Eval pyrolysis. A threshold of 2.5 mg HC/g rock [9] was considered for a possible oil-prone source rock (Figure 3). This threshold was established as outlined above for organic carbon. A physical reason for this threshold also appears present. This reported threshold is consistent with the previously reported minimum of 825–850 ppm hydrocarbons thought to be required for expulsion to occur [10]. A rock having a total generation potential of ~2.5 mg HC/g rock as it approaches the main stage of hydrocarbon generation approaches a free hydrocarbon content consistent with this threshold. Thresholds for possible gas-prone source rocks are less well-defined, in part, because of their different expulsion mechanisms [12]. Oil expulsion requires that the pore network becomes saturated, and the rock becomes over-pressured. In contrast, gas expulsion can occur through diffusion which simply requires a concentration gradient once the sorption capacity of the source is achieved [13] or in solution within a liquid hydrocarbon phase.
Comparison of residual generation potential (S2) of samples with similar total organic carbon content. Note that for the same TOC, hydrocarbon yield can vary by order of magnitude.
Global distribution of total generation potential of fine-grain samples containing a minimum of 0.5 wt.% TOC. Insert represents the total generation potential measured on samples greater than 0.5 wt.% TOC at the type locality of the Kimmeridge clay (United Kingdom), after [
The atomic H/C and O/C ratios were used to define three primary kerogen types as an explanation for the observed differences in hydrocarbon yield and product character [14]. This van Krevelen diagram has been modified to provide more specific guidance on product characterization (i.e., oil yield) [15] and visualized here in Figure 4.
Conventional van Krevelen diagram based on the atomic H/C and O/C ratios. Relative oil and gas yields have been added.
Type I kerogen was defined using the Green River Formation and algal kerogens and has the greatest hydrocarbon yield for a given mass resulting from the abundance of hydrogen. When mature type I kerogen will yield principally oil with a lesser amount of gas. The kerogen structure contains abundant long-chain hydrocarbons [16]. This type of kerogen is principally derived from algal material and often appears associated with marine and lacustrine carbonate depositional systems.
Type II kerogen displays lower atomic H/C and higher atomic O/C ratios than Type I organic matter. It produces both oil and gas upon maturation and was defined using the Schistes Carton Formation (lower Toarcian, Paris Basin, France) and Silurian shales of North Africa. The kerogen structure is much more diverse than Type I kerogen due to the diversity of the organic material that led to its development, which includes algal material, plant cuticle, spores, pollen, and resin, which may be microbially reworked. Although often considered to represent a marine depositional system, such kerogen was found to also dominate in siliciclastic-dominated lacustrine systems, such as the Pematang Formation of Central Sumatra.
As implied, the difference in organic matter type between a clay-rich mudstone and a carbonate source rock rest with one of the foundational differences in the development of these two rock types. Carbonate rocks are generally considered to be autochthonous with both the mineral and organic matter forming at or very near to the depositional site. In contrast, clay-rich mudstones are derived from both inorganic and organic material that is transported to their depositional site, reflecting the provenance of the drainage basin, with the lesser autochthonous contribution.
A subset of Type II kerogen is Type II-S, which contains greater than 6% organic sulfur [17]. This differentiation is important because the C-S bond is weaker than the C-C bond and generation proceeds at lower levels of thermal maturity, producing products with greater amounts of asphaltenes and resins.
Type III kerogen was defined using Cretaceous shales from the Douala and Western Canadian Sedimentary basins. It has lower H/C and more elevated O/C ratios than Type II kerogen. It produces the lowest amounts of hydrocarbons per unit mass and yields principally gas. The kerogen structure is envisioned to be dominated by interconnected aromatic rings, with shorter chain hydrocarbon elements. Although this type of organic matter is often associated with vitrinite (a wood derivative) it may also be derived through the poor preservation (oxidation) of marine organic matter.
As a consequence of thermal maturation and the generation of products including organic acids and hydrocarbons both the atomic H/C and O/C ratios decrease. In the case of Type I kerogen, there is a rapid decrease in the atomic H/C ratio and a modest decrease in O/C ratio with increasing thermal maturation. In contrast, there is a rapid decrease in the atomic O/C ratio and a modest decrease in the atomic H/C ratio for Type III kerogen. These changes result in an inability to differentiate among the different kerogen types using their elemental composition at more advanced levels of thermal maturity and alternative means are required for such kerogens.
Subsequently, a fourth kerogen type has been defined, which represents residual organic matter [18]. It displays very low atomic H/C ratios and highly varied atomic O/C ratios. This material is largely inert and incapable of yielding any significant amount of hydrocarbons. It is dominated by inertinite. This material commonly forms through prolonged transport, very slow sedimentation rates leading to long exposure times, or forest fires.
The aforementioned approach to organic matter characterization requires the isolation of kerogen from the rock matrix. This is a time-consuming process that utilizes hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids as well as requiring relatively large sample volumes. An alternative was proposed that was rapid and required only grinding as sample preparation and did not require large sample volumes. This method was Rock-Eval pyrolysis, where the sample was heated in an inert atmosphere. Two of the measured parameters are used to calculate the hydrogen index (S2*100/ TOC) and the oxygen index (S3*100/TOC, where S3 represents the CO2 yield) are substituted for the atomic H/C and O/C ratios, respectively (Figure 5).
Modified van Krevelen diagram based on the rock-Eval parameters the hydrogen and oxygen indices. Arrows represent changes in parameters as a function of increasing thermal maturity, increasing carbonate (especially siderite) content, and decreasing organic carbon.
Although these indices have become routinely accepted for kerogen characterization there are some limitations that are known to exist and should be considered when interpreting the data. For samples with very high generation potentials, the use of the standard sample size may result in the saturation of the flame ionization detector, which produces an apparent reduction in S2 yield and consequently the hydrogen index making the sample appear more gas-prone than would be implied if elemental analysis on isolated kerogen was used. In addition, several studies have shown that there are mineral matrix effects. These effects are especially notable for samples with lower organic carbon contents. It is suggested that for samples with less than 2 wt.% TOC hydrocarbons are retained by the rock matrix, especially in clay-rich samples. This retention reduces the apparent generation potential and the derived hydrogen index [19]. It was also observed that the oxygen index was sensitive to the presence of carbonate minerals, especially siderite. These effects cause the organic matter to appear more gas-prone than in kerogen isolates. Alternative means of correcting the oxygen index for the presence of siderite-derived CO2 have been proposed [20, 21], however, these approaches alter the value proposition, which was a rapid and simple means to assess generation potential, organic matter type, and thermal maturity. An alternative approach to organic matter characterization without the possible oxygen index complication relies on the relationship between the hydrogen index and Tmax (Figure 6). This approach is still limited at lower TOC values.
Alternate means of characterizing organic matter utilizing the hydrogen index and Tmax. Arrows represent changes in parameters as a function of increasing thermal maturity and decreasing organic carbon.
Alternative pyrolysis approaches have been developed that provide additional information. The first adds gas chromatography to the pyrolysis unit and is known as Py-GC. This analytical approach provides a more detailed understanding of the products generated beyond a simple assessment of oil- and gas-proneness [22, 23]. A chromatogram of isolated kerogen through Py-GC with vented free hydrocarbons below 320°C (equivalent to Rock-Eval S1 peak) and then pyrolyzed up to 600°C is produced from what essentially was the Rock-Eval S2 peak (Figure 7). These chromatograms provide information on such geochemical properties as waxiness, relative abundance of naphthenes, and aromatic compounds. The relative abundance of C1-C5, C6-C14, and C15+ in the Py-GC was used to assess the oil and gas-proneness of different types of kerogens [23].
Pyrolysis-gas chromatograms of A - Green River formation (Utah, United States); B - Kimmeridge clay (United Kingdom); C - Talang Akar formation (Indonesia); D - Banquereu shale (Atlantic Canada).
Another thermal extraction-pyrolysis innovation has been developed, which has a more complex temperature ramp and is designed to better characterize the free hydrocarbons present in the rock, where the free hydrocarbons are broken down into four fractions (thermal extraction <350°C), representing C4-C5, C6-C10, C11-C19, and C20-C36 (the four oil fractions in Figure 8). The K-1 peak in Figure 8 represents pyrolysis of kerogen at 350–600°C. The Petroleum Assessment Method (PAM) was developed to better assess the nature of the hydrocarbons present in self-sourced petroleum systems [24].
Representative PAM pyrolysis of Devonian shale (Western Canadian Basin).
Part of the assessment of the validity of a geochemical assessment is a determination as to whether a sample has been stained (natural processes) or contaminated (anthropogenic processes). This assessment is based on the relationships between the abundance of free hydrocarbons (S1) and the total organic carbon content (Figure 9), and the relationship between Tmax (temperature of maximum hydrocarbon yield) and the transformation ratio (S1/(S1 + S2); Figure 10). These assessments do not differentiate between natural and anthropogenic hydrocarbons additional analyses would be needed for this differentiation.
The relationship between total organic carbon and S1 yield is used to define the presence of staining or contamination.
The relationship between Tmax and the production index is used to define the presence of staining or contamination.
The S1*100/TOC (OSI; oil saturation index) ratio was proposed for identifying potentially productive zones, with values greater than 100 mg HC/g TOC being zones of interest [25]. This approach is essentially limited, however, to wells not drilled with an oil-based drilling fluid system.
There has been some recent work that has also led to questions on the validity of source rock assessment and characterization when organic-based drilling fluids are used. Organic-based drilling fluids are becoming more commonly used because of their greater stability at higher temperatures and improved hole stability when shales are water-sensitive [26]. It was reported that the often-used solvent pretreatment of contaminated samples does not permit an assessment of the original in situ characters of the rock [27]. The reported organic carbon, generation potential, hydrogen, and oxygen indices were all impacted by the contamination by the drilling fluid and the solvent extraction of the contaminated samples.
As a consequence of the uniqueness of petroleum source rocks, it has been generally accepted that they form under somewhat distinct sedimentary conditions. It was suggested that nearly half of the known source rock systems lack modern analogs (e.g., anoxic epeiric seaways and anoxic oceans [28]). In general, there have been three principal schools of thought on source rock deposition: 1) enhanced organic preservation, often associated with anoxia; 2) enhanced primary productivity, often associated with oceanic upwelling or riverine transport of nutrients; and 3) sedimentation rate, often associated with either rapid removal of the sediment from the various microbial zones or through the concentration of organic matter through a lack of dilution by sediment (i.e., a condensed section). Arguments have been presented to support each as a stand-alone model.
The enhanced preservation model is largely based on the argument that anoxic environments, where oxygen consumption exceeds supply, favored preservation [29]. Such settings are associated with stratification, reduced circulation, water body isolation, or estuarine flow. The primary argument for this was the presumed relative inefficiency of anaerobic processes, which slows decomposition [30]. However, activity levels of anoxic and oxic microbial communities have been shown to display similarities [31]. It appears that the absence of meibenthos and macrobenthos may be more important than microbial rates because they are more efficient consumers of organic matter compared to microbes [32] and also provide a means to irrigate the sediment through bioturbation [33]. Similarly, the absence of alternative oxidizers such as sulfates also leads to more efficient preservation. This limits the source rock potential of evaporitic settings once gypsum precipitation is initiated, and sulfate reduction may occur. Another argument for enhanced preservation was associated with settling or exposure time within the oxic portion of the water column. It was observed that there were order of magnitude reduction in organic matter preservation efficiency from the shelf to the central ocean basin as a result of exposure time [34]. Further reports suggest that settling time could be reduced through the pelletization process, where the increase in particle size and the incorporation of mineral matter increased the settling rate with added protection coming from the mucilaginous cover that the pellets have after passing through the digestive system [35]. It should be noted, however, that stratification may limit nutrient renewal and lead to oligotrophic conditions, suggesting limited autochthonous input and that under such circumstances terrestrial input may be favored.
The primary productivity model was based on the general concept that elevated amounts of organic matter would be incorporated into the sedimentary record if productivity was high [36]. Higher levels of productivity are associated with regions of nutrient renewal such as coastal upwelling, seasonal water body turnover (which is especially common in lake systems and temperate water bodies), as well as riverine input. Numerous publications attempted to highlight areas of high productivity through time through paleoclimate and paleocirculation modeling (e.g., see [37]). In the modern ocean, there are numerous regions of high productivity, however, that lack significant organic carbon in the sediment. This is clearly documented in the Southern Ocean where an intense upwelling system has been established but is also a region where freshly-oxygenated bottom waters are present. Here the sediment appears dominated by siliceous tests and TOC is minimal, (typically below 1.0 wt.%) as a result of organic carbon’s brief residence time of 15 to 150 years [38]. Attempts to correlate regions of modeled high productivity have had limited success. In part, this is because of factors beyond nutrient availability that influence productivity such as turbidity. For example, the suspended load of the Mississippi River results in limited light penetration at the river’s mouth. The region of elevated productivity is thus shifted further offshore to where the sediment has salted-out.
The discussion on the role of sedimentation rate follows two paths. Early arguments suggested greater potential for organic matter preservation when sedimentation rate was high [39]. It was suggested that rapid sedimentation would reduce the time spent within the various microbial zones ranging from oxidation through sulfate reduction and eventually methanogenesis. This concept appears supported by the positive correlation between sedimentation rate and total organic carbon [40, 41]. The specific relationship appears to differ among lithologies. However, when the sedimentation rate exceeds approximately 20 m/MY, the organic carbon content begins to decrease as a result of dilution by sediment. An increase in carbon content with an elevated sedimentation rate can only occur if the level of primary productivity increases. In contrast, it’s suggested that source rocks are associated with condensed sections, where dilution by sedimentary material has been minimized. An often-cited example of a condensed section source rock is the Shublick Formation in Alaska [42], which also appears to be associated with elevated productivity as suggested by the presence of phosphorites [43]. Not all sediment starved areas develop oil-prone source rocks. It was reported that for a condensed section deposited under oxic conditions such as the Upper Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous of SE France the section is bioturbated and TOC values are less than 0.25% [44]. The influence of sedimentation rate was also noted as part of the preservation model, where more oil-prone material was associated with higher sedimentation rates and inert material was preserved with slow sedimentation rates [29].
In addition to the three working models, it is also important to understand that the reactivity of organic matter is not uniform. It was noted that under oxic conditions planktonic material would degrade more rapidly than the remnants of vascular plants because of chemical differences [38]. Algal amorphous material was easier to decompose than structured organic matter [45]. This was, in part, a result of the greater surface area of amorphous organic material.
It was reported that the three single factor models proposed were insufficient and that a more robust model requires the integration of the three taking into consideration the interplay among them (Figure 11, [46]).
Workflow to assess the probability of source rock presence and quality based on primary productivity, preservation potential, and sedimentation rate [
Organic matter in source rocks are composed of extractable organic matter (EOM) - bitumen and insoluble organic matter including oil/gas prone kerogen and inert carbon. Under sufficient thermal stress, petroleum is formed incrementally from the decomposition of kerogen and secondary cracking of generated petroleum molecules. This process can be simulated as a series of parallel first-order reactions following the Arrhenius law. A simple reaction of an initial reactant X with mass x generating a product Y with mass y can be represented by:
where t is the reaction time, k is the reaction rate, A is the frequency factor, E is the activation energy, and R is the universal gas constant 8.314 J∙K−1∙mol−1.
Laboratory anhydrous and hydrous pyrolysis are used to simulate the processes of natural petroleum generation, retention, and expulsion [23, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53]. Burnham systematically documented integration of kinetics and pyrolysis methods to simulate petroleum generation reactions [54]. As shown in Figure 12, it is observed that (1) Type I kerogen generates petroleum over a narrower oil window to decompose a more uniform composition; (2) Type II-S kerogen enters oil-window earlier with lower reaction activation energies to breakdown weaker bonds; in contrast to (3) Type II and Type III kerogens that react with an extended and elevated range of reaction activation energies, respectively, to breakdown mixed kerogens with more complex structures.
Comparison of activation energy distributions for hydrocarbon generation of four representative different kerogen types (modified after [
In most cases, source rocks contain mixed kerogens. Compositional kinetics was developed to simulate a series of reactions from mixed types of kerogens to form complex petroleum compositions and the secondary cracking of products [56, 57, 58]. Figure 13 shows an example of petroleum primary generation and secondary cracking reactions. Figure 14 shows how these reactions work in a closed system through modeling calibrated with Vaca Muerta Formation data [56]. It shows that (1) asphaltenes and NSO-bearing polar components are formed in the early oil window at 0.5–0.7%Ro, (2) followed by secondary cracking of these components and continuous cracking of kerogens forming saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons in the main oil window at 0.7–1.3%Ro, by then, asphaltenes, NSO-bearing polar components, and large (C15+) aromatic compounds are fully cracked; (3) Beyond 1.3%Ro, large (C15+) saturated and small (C6-C14) aromatic hydrocarbons start cracking, forming light oils (dominant light saturates) and gas hydrocarbons, (4) until 2%Ro where all liquid components are fully cracked to gas and eventually forming dry gas - methane.
Schematic reaction mechanism of petroleum primary generation and secondary cracking with 17 species (modified after [
Simulation of petroleum primary generation and secondary cracking in a closed system using calibrated compositional kinetics based on Vaca Muerta Formation data (adapted from [
Natural petroleum systems in the subsurface are semi-closed systems with not only petroleum generation/cracking reactions, but also retention and expulsion. Kinetics and retention models are incorporated into basin modeling together with other necessary geochemical and geological inputs to simulate and quantify petroleum generation, retention, and expulsion in subsurface [56, 59, 60]. Figure 15 shows an example of petroleum generation, retention, and expulsion of Vaca Muerta petroleum system through time and temperature.
Basin model showing petroleum generation, retention, and expulsion through time and temperature changes, a Vaca Muerta Formation example (adapted from Mei [
Organic matter and clay minerals in source rock have a high sorption capacity for petroleum [61, 62, 63]. As shown in Figure 15 using the Vaca Muerta Formation as an example, the initially high sorption capacity decreases through petroleum generation and sorption with increasing time and temperature. Until the quantity of generated petroleum exceeds source rock sorption capacity, major petroleum expulsion occurs at about 0.85–1%Ro and 120–140°C. This process associates with increasing pore pressure, permeability, and organic porosity. The sorbed components can be further cracked with elevated temperature over time. When thermal maturity is increased to above 1.3%Ro and 160°C, intensive petroleum cracking creates volume expansion and excess pore pressure, which in turn induces rock fracturing and the second stage of major expulsion. Tectonic uplift decreases pressure and temperature, which temporarily stops petroleum generation and expulsion. Continuous burial can result in further cracking and expulsion.
Within this study, migration is considered the movement of hydrocarbons within a carrier system once they have been expelled from the source rock. This includes the initial movement to the trap as well as any remigration that may occur following the initial accumulation as a result of tectonic movements or the subsequent addition of hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon migration is considered the least understood aspect of the petroleum system. This, in part, is a result of our limited ability to observe migration and that we typically see only the results of migration (i.e., the position of the accumulations [64]). Migration is driven by buoyancy, which is controlled by density differences between the migrating hydrocarbons and pore fluids, largely controlled by brine salinity and API gravity [65]. Hydrocarbon migration can occur laterally, vertically, or a combination of the two.
Lateral migration occurs in stratigraphic proximity to the source, but over significant distances potentially exceeding 100 km, with accumulations developing beyond the limits of the generative kitchen. A single stratigraphic unit may contain multiple accumulations. The flow paths or migration patterns are, in general, controlled by structural patterns, where hydrocarbons may be focused or dispersed as shown in Figure 16. Regions of focus are preferred sites for exploration, while dispersive regions are to be avoided [66]. Flow paths are established at the base of low permeability layers. These flow patterns may change through time as a consequence of structural evolution. Carriers may include permeable beds, fracture networks, and certain unconformity surfaces. Depending on the availability of hydrocarbons an examination of structural patterns may also aid in the identification of migration shadows, as well as opportunities for fill and spill establishing up-dip hydrocarbon charge potential. These migration patterns can be altered by strong water movement and the distribution, character (including variability in permeability), and extent of the carrier beds. Sheet sands provide potentially the longest and least controlled migration patterns, whereas isolated reef bodies such as those of the Michigan Basin provide no continuity and are not effective carriers.
Structural patterns establish general hydrocarbon migration patterns. Regions of focusing and dispersion are identified.
Vertical migration provides a means of transferring fluids across stratigraphic horizons. Accumulations develop above or near the active source. Stacked reservoirs with a common source exist. Surface seepage is common. Although the lateral movement in such systems can be limited, vertical fluid movement can be quite significant, on the order of several kilometers [67, 68].
There are examples where multiple generative kitchens can focus on a common trap. In some cases, these oils may remain distinct, and in others where the oils may mix. Situations exist where sealing faults are present within a structure and no mixing occurs. Such is the case in the Minas field (Central Sumatra, Indonesia) where distinct oils are present on the two sides of the Main Minus Fault Zone.
Migration may be episodic, potentially as a result of fault movement as in the case of deep-water Nigeria, where unaltered oil is introduced into a shallow reservoir where the oil pool has undergone biodegradation [69] or largely continuous and potentially in near real time such as at Eugene 330 Field in Gulf of Mexico [70].
Remigration or dysmigration may result in the loss of hydrocarbons, the repositioning of the remaining hydrocarbons, and changes in oil character (e.g., phase segregation). Remigration may take place as a result of fault movement or structural inversion.
Integrating geochemical inversion, oil to oil and oil to source rock correlations, basin modeling, and regional geology is important to understanding the petroleum system and significantly reducing the risks of petroleum exploration [71, 72]. For clarification, geochemical inversion entails utilizing diagnostic molecular and isotopic characteristics of petroleum collected from seeps, various types of rock samples, and produced fluids to infer (1) the organic-matter type and thermal maturity of the source rock as well as that of the oil or gas at time of generation [72]; (2) the depositional environment (salinity, redox conditions, and lithology) of the source beds [73]; (3) the age of the likely source rocks [74]; (4) accumulation history; and (5) secondary alteration such as biodegradation [75] and migration after expulsion from the source rocks with anomalous or mixing signatures [76, 77, 78]. In addition, petroleum to source correlation entails comparison of the geochemical markers in source-rock candidates with equivalent markers in the petroleum to better understand oil origin and migration history. Furthermore, basin modeling entails analyzing the geological and thermal settings for a stratigraphic sequence in a basin to understand the burial and thermal histories of the source bed, and to deduce the probable occurrence of petroleum generation, expulsion, and migration relative to reservoir deposition and trap formation.
To understand whether an oil accumulation is charged from the direct contact source rock or migration from deeper or downdip kitchens, it is critical to understand source rock maturity based on maturity indicators in source rock and calibrated basin modeling. Maturity indicators such as vitrinite reflectance (Ro) and spore-color thermal alteration index (TAI) are commonly measured using microscopic technologies. Uncertainties include (1) indicators that are based on terrigenous organic matter that are commonly deposited in fluvial deltaic environments or transported to marginal marine settings in post-Silurian age. However, oils generated from aquatic kerogen (amorphous alginate and exinite) in marine or lacustrine environments or older source rocks contain limited or no higher plant materials such as vitrinites to measure Ro, or spores and pollen to measure TAI. When bitumen exists, bitumen reflectance can be used to estimate vitrinite reflectance [79, 80], although discrepancies in derived vitrinite reflectance are common using different algorithms. (2) Recycled vitrinite may not experience the same thermal history as the primary kerogen. (3) Even with the same thermal history, different types of kerogen may achieve different extents of maturity via different kinetics. Therefore, it is important to develop direct measurements of thermal maturity for aquatic kerogens and correlate them to the thermal maturity standard Ro [81]. Transmission light spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy show promising results [82].
In addition, to infer oil origin, identify oil families (oil to oil correlation), and correlate oil with possible source rocks, it is important to analyze and interpret the chemical compositions of oil and bitumen in source rock(s) when available. Crude oil and bitumen are complex mixtures of organic compounds consisting of four major group types: saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, resins, and asphaltenes (SARA). Among these compounds are numerous trace components such as biomarkers that are organic compounds derived from ancient living organisms (algae, bacteria, and plants), that can provide source-diagnostic information and relatively resistant to alteration.
To analyze biomarkers in oil and rock samples, SARA group-type separation is used to prepare saturated and aromatic fractions of oils for GC-MS analysis. This sample preparation is required to avoid coelution interference and enhance the sensitivity and accuracy of the analytical method [83, 84, 85, 86]. Recent advancements using modern analytical technologies such as GC tandem triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-QQQ-MS/MS) and 2D-Gas-chromatography/time of flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-TOF) with enhanced analytical resolution enabled simultaneous analysis of diverse trace components in whole oil and minimized volatile loss during sample preparation [87, 88, 89]. Sometimes, many of the biomarkers are absent or occur at much-reduced abundance as a result of alteration. New proxies using alteration-resistant compounds such as diamondoids have been investigated [90, 91, 92]. Diamondoids are saturated hydrocarbons with cage-like (bridged cyclohexane) structures. They are derived from the structural rearrangements of saturated hydrocarbons catalyzed by lewis acids (chemical species with an empty orbital that is capable of accepting an electron pair; commonly associated with clay minerals and thermal cracking). Diamondoids are resistant to many alteration processes, particularly stable at higher maturity, and can be used to indicate advanced thermal maturity and cracking.
The analytical results of relative abundances of chemical compositions such as biomarker ratios are commonly used as geochemical indices. The concept, history, and guidelines for geochemical data interpretations with case studies using global samples were systematically documented in the Biomarker Guide [93]. In brief, alteration, source facies, and maturity are interpreted using multiple intact and diagnostic signatures. These interpretations can then be compared with source rock data in a geologic context. Figure 17 shows examples of geochemical interpretations using GC-MS
Examples of GC-MS
With respect to shale, resource plays geochemistry plays a role in establishing source rock potential as well as reservoir potential. Within unconventional reservoirs three porosity types have been characterized: 1) interparticle pores; 2) intraparticle pores; and 3) organic pores. The importance of pore type varies among the different shale plays [95]. Organic porosity is the porosity that has developed or exists with the kerogen, bitumen, and/or pyrobitumen present within the shale play. Organic porosity within plays such as the Barnett Shale (Forth Worth Basin, Texas) and the Longmaxi Formation (Sichuan Basin, China) provides important storage capacity. These pores, because of their small size (often less than 1 μm), are potentially more important for gas systems [96] although organic pores may play a limited role in some oil plays.
Organic pores may be primary, associated with the kerogen’s initial structure, or secondary, where it is hosted in bitumen or pyrobitumen as a function of generation and alteration. The assignment to primary and secondary pores may be complicated because the visual differentiation between the kerogen and bitumen is not simple. The means to differentiate between kerogen and bitumen pores were proposed in the literature [97, 98].
Organic pores display multiple morphologies, bubbly, spongy, or fracture/crack-based pores as shown in Figure 18 [99]. These forms have different formation mechanisms and associations. For example, the bubbly pore type seems to be largely associated with the oil window and maybe artifacts of water droplets [100]. While cracks and fractures may form through devolitization of solid bitumen [101] or volume changes [102]. The distribution of pores further suggests that the nature of the organic matter, as well as the relationship with the mineral matrix, may play a controlling role. Some of the pores may reflect the initial kerogen character.
SEM photomicrographs of organic matter from the Kimmeridge clay (United Kingdom): A - bubbly organic pores and B - spongy organic pores [
Thermal maturity is one of the key controls on organic porosity. The specifics remain poorly understood and are evolving. Porosity has been observed in immature kerogen (e.g., Eagle Ford Shale [100]), with amorphous kerogen being inherently porous, while the cell structure of vitrinite may also provide primary pores. There is some evidence that as the shales enter the oil-window there is a reduction in observed porosity. This is thought to be a result of the generation of bitumen and oil, which fills pre-existing pore space [103], although there are contradictory data that indicates that porosity may begin to develop within the oil-window [100], not at the onset of generation but at a slightly higher thermal maturity (Ro between 0.8 and 0.9% [104, 105]). It was suggested that the pore generation begins with the onset of hydrocarbon generation and increases through the oil-window, with a decreasing rate of organic-pore generation in the gas-window and terminating at 3.5%Ro [106]. These changes in porosity reflect the release of volatiles and the restructuring of the organic matter. It was noted that changes in porosity are not monotonic [107]. It was further suggested that there is an evolution of the porosity type as maturity increases [108]. Pores may coalesce with increasing maturity causing an increase in pore size and complexity. At advanced levels of thermal maturity, there is also some evidence that pores size decreases [109].
In addition to thermal maturity, organic richness has been considered an important controlling factor in the availability of organic pores. In general, a positive correlation appears to exist between organic porosity and carbon content for TOC levels less than 5.5 wt.% [110]. At the higher levels of organic enrichment, the lack of a correlation may be a result of pore collapse facilitated by greater organic matter connectivity and a less-developed mineral framework. It should also be noted that the greater the organic matter network, the greater the potential for interconnectivity within the organic pore network.
The nature of organic matter is also considered a controlling factor in organic porosity. For example, in humic kerogen, there appears to be little organic pore development beyond what was initially present [111]. In contrast, porosity increases can be observed in solid bitumen. It was suggested that the ratio of bitumen to kerogen was a key factor in determining organic porosity [112]. The greater the solid bitumen content the greater the organic porosity.
Since the 1970s, numerous geochemical studies have been conducted around the world, including improvements in analytical methods, the establishment of data interpretation guidelines, analogs for geochemical inversion and correlation, and improvements in fundamental understanding of petroleum generation, retention, expulsion, and migration. Application of geochemical characterization and interpretation plays a significant role in reducing risk in petroleum exploration. Nevertheless, many interpretation ambiguities and uncertainties still exist due to complex and unclear subsurface conditions. As advanced analytical data and greater volumes of data become available, integrating geochemistry, geology, data analytics, and modeling may help to further understand petroleum systems with fewer ambiguities and uncertainties. This integration will establish new concepts, workflows and improve estimates of unknown values in time and space.
The authors wish to thank Chevron Corporation for permission to publish this work and thank Jessica Little and Michael Hsieh especially for performing Chevron’s internal review before submission. We also would like to thank GeoMark for permission of using GC-MS traces in their database in this book chapter to show examples of different biomarker patterns in different types of oils.
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Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. 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Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. 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So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21566,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14246,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7604,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2957,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82624",title:"Protective Forests for Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) in the Alpine Space",slug:"protective-forests-for-ecosystem-based-disaster-risk-reduction-eco-drr-in-the-alpine-space",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99505",abstract:"Mountain forests are an efficient Forest-based Solution (FbS) for Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) by lowering the frequency, magnitude, and/or intensity of natural hazards. Technical protection measures are often poor solutions as stand-alone measures to reduce disaster risk limited by material wear and fatigue or financial resources and aesthetical values. Protective forests should therefore be considered as key elements in integrated risk management strategies. However, the definition of protective forests and the understanding and assessment of their protective functions and effects differ greatly among Alpine Space countries. In this chapter, we present a short introduction to the concept of Eco-DRR and companion terms and propose a definition of FbS as a specific case of Nature-based Solutions for an ecosystem-based and integrated risk management of natural hazards. That is, we guide the reader through the maze of existing definitions and concepts and try to disentangle their meanings. Furthermore, we present an introduction to forest regulations in the Alpine Space and European protective forest management guidelines. Our considerations and recommendations can help strengthen the role of protective forests as FbS in Eco-DRR and the acknowledgment of the key protective function they have and the crucial protective effects they provide in mountain areas.",book:{id:"10812",title:"Protective forests as Ecosystem-based solution for Disaster Risk Reduction (ECO-DRR)",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg"},signatures:"Michaela Teich, Cristian Accastello, Frank Perzl and Frédéric Berger"},{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",slug:"agroforestry-an-approach-for-sustainability-and-climate-mitigation",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",abstract:"Agroforestry Systems (AFS), or the association of trees with crops (or animals), is a strategy for land management and use that allows production within the sustainable development: (a) environmentally (production environmentally harmonic); (b) technically (integrating existing resources on the farm); (c) economically (increase in production), and (d) socially (equality of duties and opportunities, quality of life of the family group). As an intentional integration of trees or shrubs with crop and animal production, this practice makes environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers. Given that there is a set of definitions, rather than a single definition of Agroforestry (AF) and AFS, it is justified to explore the historical evolution and the minimum coincidences of criteria to define them and apply them in the recovery of degraded areas. Knowing how to classify AFS allows us to indicate which type or group of AFS is suitable for a particular area with its characteristics. The greatest benefit that AFS can bring to degraded or sloping areas lies in their ability to combine soil conservation with productive functions. In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82754",title:"Impact of Revegetation on Ecological Restoration of a Constructed Soil in a Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",slug:"impact-of-revegetation-on-ecological-restoration-of-a-constructed-soil-in-a-coal-mining-in-southern-",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105895",abstract:"The main problems in the constructed soils are the generation of acid mine drainage promoted by the presence of coal debris in the overburden layer and the compaction of the topsoil promoted by the machine traffic when the material used in the overburden cover is more clayey. This book chapter aimed to show an overview of the impact of more than a decade of revegetation with different perennial grasses on the chemical, physical, and biological quality of constructed soil after coal mining. The study was carried out in a coal mining area, located in southern Brazil. The soil was constructed in early 2003 and the perennial grasses, Hemarthria altissima; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola; Cynodon dactylon cv Tifton; and Urochloa brizantha; were implanted in November/December 2003. In 11.5, 17.6 and 18 years of revegetation soil samples were collected and the chemical, physical, and biological attributes were determined. Our results show that liming is an important practice in the restoration of these strongly anthropized soils because this positively impacts the plants’ development, facilitating the roots system expansion. Biological attributes such as soil fauna and the microorganism’s population are the attributes that possibly takes longer to establish itself in these areas.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Maria Bertaso De Garcia Fernandez, Pablo Miguel, Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto, Ryan Noremberg Schubert, Luís Carlos Iuñes de Oliveira Filho, Tania Hipolito Montiel, Lucas Da Silva Barbosa, Jeferson Diego Leidemer and Thábata Barbosa Duarte"},{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",abstract:"Forest degradation impairs ability of the whole landscape adaptation to environmental change. The impacts of forest degradation on landscape are caused by a self-organization decline. At the present time, the self-organization decline was largely due to nitrogen deposition and deforestation which exacerbated impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, forest degradation processes are either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible forest degradation begins with soil damage. In this paper, we present processes of forest soil degradation in relation to vulnerability of regulation adaptability on global environmental change. The regulatory forest capabilities were indicated through soil organic matter sequestration dynamics. We devided the degradation processes into quantitative and qualitative damages of physical or chemical soil properties. Quantitative soil degradation includes irreversible loss of an earth’s body after claim, erosion or desertification, while qualitative degradation consists of predominantly reversible consequences after soil disintegration, leaching, acidification, salinization and intoxication. As a result of deforestation, the forest soil vulnerability is spreading through quantitative degradation replacing hitherto predominantly qualitative changes under continuous vegetation cover. Increasing needs to natural resources using and accompanying waste pollution destroy soil self-organization through biodiversity loss, simplification in functional links among living forms and substance losses from ecosystem. We concluded that subsequent irreversible changes in ecosystem self-organization cause a change of biome potential natural vegetation and the land usability decrease.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová"},{id:"82828",title:"Vegetation and Avifauna Distribution in the Serengeti National Park",slug:"vegetation-and-avifauna-distribution-in-the-serengeti-national-park",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106165",abstract:"In order to examine the bird species changes within different vegetation structures, the variations were compared between Commiphora-dominated vegetations with those of Vachellia tortilis and Vachellia robusta-dominated vegetations, and also compared the birds of grassland with those of Vachellia drepanolobium and Vachellia seyal-dominated vegetations. This study was conducted between February 2010 and April 2012. A total of 40 plots of 100 m × 100 m were established. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used to examine differences in bird species between vegetations. Species richness estimates were obtained using the Species Diversity and Richness. A total of 171 bird species representing 103 genera, 12 orders, and 54 families were recorded. We found differences in bird species distribution whereby V. tortilis has higher bird species richness (102 species), abundance, and diversity when compared with Commiphora with 66 species and V. robusta with 59 species. These results suggest that variations in bird species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed to differences in the structural diversity of vegetation. Therefore it is important to maintain different types of vegetation by keeping the frequency of fire to a minimum and prescribed fire should be employed and encouraged to control wildfire and so maintain a diversity of vegetation and birds community.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi and Pius Y. Kavana"},{id:"82808",title:"Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts on the Ecosystem of the Transgressive Mud Coastal Region of Bight of Benin, Nigeria",slug:"climate-change-and-anthropogenic-impacts-on-the-ecosystem-of-the-transgressive-mud-coastal-region-of",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105760",abstract:"The transgressive mud coastal area of Bight of Benin is a muddy coastal complex that lies east of the Barrier/lagoon coast and stretches to the Benin River in the northwestern flank of the Niger Delta Nigeria. It constitutes a fragile buffer zone between the tranquil waters of the swamps and the menacing waves of the Atlantic Ocean. Extensive breaching of this narrow coastal plain results in massive incursion of the sea into the inland swamps with serious implications for national security and the economy. Climate change impacts from the results of meteorological information of the regions shows a gradual degradation in the past 30 years. Temperature, rainfall and humidity increase annually depict climate change, resulting from uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources is rapidly pushing the region towards ecological disasters. The ecosystem is very unique being the only transgressive mud coastal area of the Gulf of Guinea. The chapter describes the geomorphology, tidal hydrology, relief/drainage, topography, climate/meteorology, vegetation, economic characteristics, anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the ecosystem.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Patrick O. Ayeku"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:90},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:125,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. She created the research group in applied biochemistry in 2017 (https://web.ua.es/en/appbiochem/), and from 1999 to the present has made more than 200 contributions to Spanish and international conferences. Furthermore, she has around seventy-five scientific publications in indexed journals, eighty book chapters, and one patent to her credit. Her research work focuses on microbial metabolism (particularly on extremophile microorganisms), purification and characterization of enzymes with potential industrial and biotechnological applications, protocol optimization for genetically manipulating microorganisms, gene regulation characterization, carotenoid (pigment) production, and design and development of contaminated water and soil bioremediation processes by means of microorganisms. This research has received competitive public grants from the European Commission, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the Valencia Region Government, and the University of Alicante.",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology"},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions"},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. In recent years, emerging technologies such as multi-omics, high-throughput technologies, and genome editing tools could assist plant physiologists in unraveling molecular mechanisms in specific critical pathways. The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:125,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"