\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10999",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbene",title:"Carbene",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Carbenes are important molecules in chemistry because of their photochemistry and high reactivity. They have many potential applications in medicinal and materials chemistry. This book provides a comprehensive introduction to carbenes and discusses their characteristics, structure, and synthesis procedures. It gives special emphasis to N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) and their metal complexes.",isbn:"978-1-83969-930-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-929-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-931-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95696",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbene",numberOfPages:182,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"605a68d742896b92a81b245cdacc150a",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha and Arunava Manna",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10999.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1214,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 17th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2022",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",middleName:null,surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226917/images/system/226917.png",biography:"Dr. Satyen Saha received a BSc and MSc in Chemistry from Jadavpur University, India, in 1994 and 1996, respectively. He obtained a Ph.D. in Photochemistry from Hyderabad Central University, India, in 2002. He completed postdoctoral research at the University of Tokyo, Japan, and Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA. He received a postdoctoral fellowship and bridge fellowship for foreign researchers from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). Currently, he is a professor in the Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, India. His research interests include synthesis, structure (solid and liquid phases), Ionic liquids, NIR emitting materials, and photophysical studies (steady-state and time-resolved) of fluorescent molecules in condensed phases.",institutionString:"Banaras Hindu University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Banaras Hindu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"346806",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunava",middleName:null,surname:"Manna",slug:"arunava-manna",fullName:"Arunava Manna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346806/images/system/346806.png",biography:"Dr. Arunava Manna is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Chemistry, Banaras Hindu University, India. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Carnegie Mellon University (CMU), Pennsylvania, USA. After graduating from CMU in 2015, he worked for a couple of years as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Geneva, Switzerland, working on synthesizing peptide libraries for the screening of small molecules. Following this, Dr. Manna spent two years at Emory University, Georgia, USA, as a postdoc working on bio-catalysis. His research interests lie at the interface of organic chemistry and biology.",institutionString:"Banaras Hindu University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Banaras Hindu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"85",title:"Organic Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"79890",title:"Recent Development of Carbenes: Synthesis, Structure, Photophysical Properties and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101413",slug:"recent-development-of-carbenes-synthesis-structure-photophysical-properties-and-applications",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbenes are highly reactive intermediates in organic synthesis. These divalent carbon species are generally transient in nature and cannot be isolated. However, they can form stabile metal complexes. Later on, the development of N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) and other stable carbene led to the application of these carbon (II) donor ligands in the synthesis of complex natural products, transition metal catalysis, organo-catalysis and several other synthetic methodologies. Here in this short review, we will discuss the brief history of the development of carbenes, synthesis of stable carbenes (NHC in particular), and their applications in natural products synthesis transition metal chemistry/organometallics. In addition to synthesis and application, the chapter will consist of a detailed structural analysis of carbenes and exciting photophysics of this class of compounds. Special emphasis will be given to electronic structure. The role of carbene in the development of luminescent NHC transition metal complexes, the tuning of emission properties as well as their active role as photocatalysts in the reduction of CO2 will also be discussed.",signatures:"Arunava Manna, Abhineet Verma, Sumit K. Panja and Satyen Saha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79890",authors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha"},{id:"421338",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunava",surname:"Manna",slug:"arunava-manna",fullName:"Arunava Manna"},{id:"421339",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumit K.",surname:"Panja",slug:"sumit-k.-panja",fullName:"Sumit K. Panja"},{id:"421341",title:"MSc.",name:"Abhineet",surname:"Verma",slug:"abhineet-verma",fullName:"Abhineet Verma"}],corrections:null},{id:"79373",title:"Recent Advances in Cooperative N-Heterocyclic Carbene Catalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101328",slug:"recent-advances-in-cooperative-n-heterocyclic-carbene-catalysis",totalDownloads:184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) open the new field of organocatalysis, leading to the dramatic progress on the cooperative NHC catalysis with transition-metal catalysts or photocatalysts.",signatures:"Hideto Miyabe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79373",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79373",authors:[{id:"148413",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideto",surname:"Miyabe",slug:"hideto-miyabe",fullName:"Hideto Miyabe"}],corrections:null},{id:"80662",title:"N-Heterocyclic Carbenes (NHCs): An Introduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102760",slug:"n-heterocyclic-carbenes-nhcs-an-introduction",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In 1991, the isolation and characterization of nitrogen heterocyclic carbene (NHCs) prompted the discovery of a new class of chemical compounds. NHCs have developed academic curiosity as one of the most potent tools in organic chemistry, exhibiting its utility in commercially relevant protocols. NHCs are cyclic compounds with a divalent carbon atom bonded to at least one nitrogen atom. The size of the carbene ring, the substituent moieties on the nitrogen atoms, and the extra atoms within the heterocycle can be changed to produce a variety of distinct NHCs with various electrical properties. They make excellent ligands in coordination chemistry because of their ability to act as donors and the consequent stable bonds with most transition metals. Free NHCs have also been used as organocatalysts in chemical reactions that require no metals. This chapter provides an outline of the N-Heterocyclic Carbenes in Contemporary Chemistry, including their general properties and highlighting the essential structural and electronic features of different NHCs along with their synthetic procedure.",signatures:"Ruchi Bharti, Monika Verma, Ajay Thakur and Renu Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80662",authors:[{id:"435933",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruchi",surname:"Bharti",slug:"ruchi-bharti",fullName:"Ruchi Bharti"},{id:"451163",title:"Ms.",name:"Monika",surname:"Verma",slug:"monika-verma",fullName:"Monika Verma"},{id:"451164",title:"Mr.",name:"Ajay",surname:"Thakur",slug:"ajay-thakur",fullName:"Ajay Thakur"},{id:"451165",title:"Prof.",name:"Renu",surname:"Sharma",slug:"renu-sharma",fullName:"Renu Sharma"}],corrections:null},{id:"79135",title:"Basic Information about Carbenes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100425",slug:"basic-information-about-carbenes",totalDownloads:241,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In organic chemistry, good knowledge of the chemistry of reactive intermediates is very important in understanding organic chemistry, which has a systematic like mathematics. Having this information, it is possible to predict the reactions and the products to be formed on the reactive intermediates. Otherwise, it becomes impossible to learn organic chemistry, which has a very wide scope. This chapter of the book will be a guide that summarizes the essential information about carbene, one of the important reactive intermediates. It is planned to include the following sub-headings in this chapter: Carbene definition and properties, Nomenclature of carbenes, Structure and reactivity of carbenes, Carbene synthesis, Carbene reactions.",signatures:"Nuriye Tuna Subasi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79135",authors:[{id:"279801",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuriye Tuna",surname:"Subaşı",slug:"nuriye-tuna-subasi",fullName:"Nuriye Tuna Subaşı"}],corrections:null},{id:"79294",title:"Late Transition Metal (LTM)-NHC Catalyzed Transformations of Renewable Chemicals to Fine Chemicals, Fuels, and Intermediates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101164",slug:"late-transition-metal-ltm-nhc-catalyzed-transformations-of-renewable-chemicals-to-fine-chemicals-fue",totalDownloads:147,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This title of the book chapter deals with the late transition metal-NHC (N-heterocyclic carbene) catalyzed transformations of renewable chemicals, i.e., bio-mass resources (carbohydrates/vegetable oils/natural products) into useful chemicals via oxidation, hydrogenation, dehydration, polymerization, hydrolysis, etc. along with brief introductory notes on late transition metals, carbenes, and renewable chemicals for better understanding to the reader.",signatures:"Kurra Mohan, Bollikolla Hari Babu, Khandapu Bala Murali Krishna, Kotra Vijay and Varala Ravi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79294",authors:[{id:"212519",title:"Dr.",name:"Varala",surname:"Ravi",slug:"varala-ravi",fullName:"Varala Ravi"},{id:"221476",title:"Dr.",name:"Bollikolla",surname:"Hari Babu",slug:"bollikolla-hari-babu",fullName:"Bollikolla Hari Babu"},{id:"440595",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotra",surname:"Vijay",slug:"kotra-vijay",fullName:"Kotra Vijay"},{id:"440596",title:"Dr.",name:"Khandapu Bala",surname:"Murali Krishna",slug:"khandapu-bala-murali-krishna",fullName:"Khandapu Bala Murali Krishna"},{id:"440597",title:"Dr.",name:"Kurra",surname:"Mohan",slug:"kurra-mohan",fullName:"Kurra Mohan"}],corrections:null},{id:"80490",title:"Novel N-Heterocyclic Carbene Silver (I) Complexes: Synthesis, Structural Characterization, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Cytotoxicity Potential Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101950",slug:"novel-n-heterocyclic-carbene-silver-i-complexes-synthesis-structural-characterization-antimicrobial-",totalDownloads:89,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, N-heterocyclic carbene-based silver-complexes Ag(I) have been widely used as an organometallic drug candidate in medicinal and pharmaceutical chemistry researches due to their low toxicity. Due to the success of Ag(I) complexes in biological applications, interest in the synthesis and applications of such compounds is increasing rapidly. Therefore, in this study, a series of unsymmetrical N,N-disubstituted benzimidazolium salts were synthesized as N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) (2a-2j). The interaction of these benzimidazolium salts having their two nitrogen atoms substituted by bulky groups with Ag2O in DMF has been carried out to afford Ag(I) complexes and characterized by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FT-IR and elemental analyses. The antimicrobial activity of Ag(I) complexes was tested against some standard culture collections of Gram-negative, Gram-positive bacterial strains and Fungal strains, which are the most frequently isolated among the society and hospital-acquired infectious microorganisms as potential metallopharmaceutical agents. The Ag-NHC complexes showed effective antimicrobial activity against microorganisms with MIC values between 0.0024 and 1.25 mg/ml. Moreover, these Ag-NHC complexes exhibited significant antioxidant activities. In addition, of benzimidazoles salts 2,4 and Ag(I) complexes 3,5 were screened for their antitumor activity. The highest antitumor activity was observed for 3e and 3d Complexes.",signatures:"Ichraf Slimani, Khaireddine Dridi, Ismail Özdemir, Nevin Gürbüz and Naceur Hamdi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80490",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80490",authors:[{id:"198225",title:"Prof.",name:"Naceur",surname:"Hamdi",slug:"naceur-hamdi",fullName:"Naceur Hamdi"},{id:"446879",title:"Dr.",name:"Nevin",surname:"Gürbüz",slug:"nevin-gurbuz",fullName:"Nevin Gürbüz"},{id:"446880",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",surname:"Özdemir",slug:"ismail-ozdemir",fullName:"Ismail Özdemir"},{id:"446881",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaireddine",surname:"Dridi",slug:"khaireddine-dridi",fullName:"Khaireddine Dridi"},{id:"446882",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichraf",surname:"Slimani",slug:"ichraf-slimani",fullName:"Ichraf Slimani"}],corrections:null},{id:"80680",title:"Imidazolium-Based N-Heterocyclic Carbenes (NHCs) and Metal-Mediated Catalysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102561",slug:"imidazolium-based-n-heterocyclic-carbenes-nhcs-and-metal-mediated-catalysis",totalDownloads:92,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The journey of “carbenes” is more than a century old. It began with a curiosity to understand a then less familiar carbon moiety in its divalent state. It reached an important milestone in the form of 1,3-imidazolium-based N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs), where the quest for bottleable carbenes was achieved through simple and elegant synthetic routes. The properties of these carbenes were finely tunable through the steric and electronic factors via chemical modifications. Thus, it became one of the unique and extensively studied ligands for its properties and applications. This chapter first briefs about structural details of NHCs and different synthetic routes for the preparation of imidazolium-based NHC precursors. The later section focuses on various methods for characterizing the steric and electronic properties of these ligands and their metal intermediates, which are crucial for developing efficient catalytic processes. Finally, the chapter concludes with NHC-metal-mediated catalytic applications and its immediate challenges.",signatures:"Vittal B. Gudimetla, Bony P. Joy and Sudeep Paul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80680",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80680",authors:[{id:"420496",title:"Dr.",name:"Vittal B.",surname:"Gudimetla",slug:"vittal-b.-gudimetla",fullName:"Vittal B. Gudimetla"},{id:"421089",title:"Mr.",name:"Bony P.",surname:"Joy",slug:"bony-p.-joy",fullName:"Bony P. Joy"},{id:"421090",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudeep",surname:"Paul",slug:"sudeep-paul",fullName:"Sudeep Paul"}],corrections:null},{id:"79439",title:"N-Heterocyclic Carbene Mediated Organocatalysis Reactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100642",slug:"n-heterocyclic-carbene-mediated-organocatalysis-reactions",totalDownloads:138,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Arduengo et al., isolated the first ‘bottleable’ carbene, the first N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) 1,3-di(adamantyl)imidazol-2-ylidene resulted to an explosion of experimental and theoretical studies of novel NHCs being synthesized and analyzed have huge practical significance. These compounds emerged as successful ligands for coordinating transition metals, the complexes with NHC show diverse applications in the field of catalysis and organic transformation, NHC as ligand to main group elements and their properties and applications. Here this chapter provides the concise overview of N-heterocycle carbene as an organocatalyst that provides different organic transformation on to a carbonyl group. The majority of the NHC catalyzed reactions are employed in the phenomenon of reversing the electrophilic character of carbonyl carbon to nucleophilic carbon (umpolung activity) on coordination suggests benzoin, Stetter and hydroacylation reactions. Also, non-umpolung activity of bis-electrophile α,β-unsaturated acylazoliums reaction with suitable bis-nucleophiles in the organic synthesis have been studied.",signatures:"Yatheesh Narayana, Sandhya N.C., H.E. Dinesh, Sridhar B. Thimmaiah, Kanchugarakoppal S. Rangappa and Kempegowda Mantelingu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79439",authors:[{id:"422761",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kempegowda",surname:"Mantelingu",slug:"kempegowda-mantelingu",fullName:"Kempegowda Mantelingu"},{id:"426406",title:"Dr.",name:"H.E.",surname:"Dinesh",slug:"h.e.-dinesh",fullName:"H.E. Dinesh"},{id:"435589",title:"Mr.",name:"Yatheesh",surname:"Narayana",slug:"yatheesh-narayana",fullName:"Yatheesh Narayana"},{id:"435590",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sandhya",surname:"N. C.",slug:"sandhya-n.-c.",fullName:"Sandhya N. C."},{id:"435591",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridhar B.",surname:"Thimmaiah",slug:"sridhar-b.-thimmaiah",fullName:"Sridhar B. Thimmaiah"},{id:"440205",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanchugarakoppal S.",surname:"Rangappa",slug:"kanchugarakoppal-s.-rangappa",fullName:"Kanchugarakoppal S. Rangappa"}],corrections:null},{id:"80297",title:"N-Heterocyclic Carbenes: A Powerful Catalyst for Polymerization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102466",slug:"n-heterocyclic-carbenes-a-powerful-catalyst-for-polymerization",totalDownloads:72,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As much of the concern is being placed on metal-free polymerization, carbenes are attracting researcher attention. Besides their impact on organic synthesis, they played an integral role in several types of polymerization. This unique class of organocatalyst revives the preparation of polymeric materials that possess functional groups at each carbon atom on the polymer chain, which was hardly reached by conventional methods. This chapter will concern with the contribution of N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) in the preparation of functional polymers from diversified monomers. Also, will discuss the advantages of N-heterocyclic carbenes in some conventional polymerization such as ring-opening and step-growth polymerizations along with the direct zwitterionic polymerization.",signatures:"Eman A. Ali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80297",authors:[{id:"421273",title:"Dr.",name:"Eman A.",surname:"Ali",slug:"eman-a.-ali",fullName:"Eman A. Ali"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6650",title:"Photochemistry and Photophysics",subtitle:"Fundamentals to Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da9099061fcae2fc23e81302d3002364",slug:"photochemistry-and-photophysics-fundamentals-to-applications",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha and Sankalan Mondal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6650.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226917",title:"Dr.",name:"Satyen",surname:"Saha",slug:"satyen-saha",fullName:"Satyen Saha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8085",title:"Photophysics, Photochemical and Substitution Reactions",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d12a01a39921705f78e98baf99705b4e",slug:"photophysics-photochemical-and-substitution-reactions-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Satyen Saha, Ravi Kumar Kanaparthi and Tanja V. 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Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1819.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",body:'Aging of the population is a global phenomenon [1], it is accelerating and becoming a significant demographic, societal and economic challenge [2]. Aging is the process of becoming older. Many societies, especially in Western countries, have already attained an older population structure than has ever been seen in the past, and a trend toward this structure is being observed also in low, and middle-income countries [3]. A population where the proportion of older people is increasing is referred to as a cohort of the older adults or an aging population. The size and proportion of the global population as relates to age over time is also known as ‘demographic aging’ and ‘population aging’. The old-age dependency ratio (OADR) is the standard indicator of population aging used in order to quantify the aging population. It expresses the amount of people aged 65 and over per 100 persons aged 15 to 64. In this way it provides an easy measure of the part of the population that have reached the traditional age of pension in relation to those of working age. In humans, aging represents the accumulation of changes in a human being over time and can encompass physical, psychological, and social changes. There are seven stages of human development. These stages are: infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age and old age. Aging is a gradual, continuous process of natural change that begins in early adulthood. During early middle age, many bodily functions begin to gradually decline. Although women live longer on average, they do tend to age slightly faster than men. Women also tend to make more use of cosmetic procedures in an attempt to keep the more visible effects of aging at bay. The actual rate of aging varies by person, depending on genetics, lifestyle choices and environmental factors. As the population ages, countries are slowly raising the age of pension. Therefore, it becomes increasingly relevant that the aging population is healthy. Gerontology studies all aspects of aging. Not only the physical changes, but also the mental, social and societal implications of growing older. This multidisciplinary approach offers a lot of opportunities to improve the health of older adults, using a wide range of skills and knowledge. In this chapter we present the insights in the most common gerontological neuropsychiatric aspects that appear with the ongoing aging process: neurodegenerative process—cognitive decline and epigenetics background, specific female aspect of aging, bereavement and depression, declining sleep quality and effect on quality of life via (ab)normal circadian rhythm (Figure 1).
The aging population and most common accompanying neuropsychiatric aspects.
There is no specific age at which people are considered old or elderly. Traditionally however, age 65 has been designated as the beginning of old age. There are more than 900 million people worldwide aged 60 and over and this number is projected to grow. The United Nations expect this group to number to be 1.4 billion in 2030 and 2.5 billion by 2050 [4]. Within this group, the subcategory of “very old age people”, aged 80 and over, makes up a sizable portion [5]. Societal aging can affect economic growth, patterns of work and retirement, the way that families function, the ability of governments and communities to provide adequate resources for older adults, and the prevalence of chronic disease and disability. Far-reaching economic and social adjustments will be required in most countries, as well as understanding the impact of this transformation on health and everyday living [6, 7]. Thus, it is noticeable that the aging process represent a social problem. Some of the additional aspects attached to this are: living alone, family violence, loss of a spouse, aging-related cognitive impairments and disabilities, and transport issues. Consequences of social isolation can be dangerous, particularly for individuals already predisposed to health problems. Aging is a universal trait that is observed across the evolutionary spectrum. Determining the causal underlying cellular and molecular processes that deteriorate with age and lead to increased disease susceptibility and frailty is critical if we are to meet the growing healthcare needs of an aging human populations.
A number of theories about aging exist: According to Rate-of-living theory the faster an organism’s metabolism is, the shorter its lifespan will be. Wear and tear theory states, that our bodies (tissue and cells) simply get damaged and wear out by usage. Cross-linking theory postulates, that over time proteins form cross-links that accumulate and slow down the processes in the body and damage cells. Aging is a step-wise process and can be presented in 5 stages of aging: Stage 1—Independence, Stage 2—Interdependence, Stage 3—dependency, Stage 4—Crisis Management, and Stage 5—End of Life. Further, there are 2 different types of aging. Intrinsic aging occurs naturally as we grow older and is largely a product of heredity. Extrinsic aging is based almost entirely on external factors. We can also emphasize that he main characteristics of aging or the most visible one is presented on skin. Skin changes are among the most visible signs of aging. Evidence of increasing age includes wrinkles and sagging skin. However more important changes are connected to cognitive and overall psychological functioning.
There are a number of physiological changes associated with aging into the elderly years (i.e. 65 and over). These changes are progressive. Because of, and alongside with, these changes come important psychological and social adjustments. Due to the brain morphological changes that come with aging, many elderly people are affected by neuropsychiatric diseases [8, 9]. The shrinking of the overall volume of the brain, a process which starts in humans when they’re in their 30’s, increases around the age of 60. Some areas of the brain, however, shrink more, and faster, than others. The prefrontal cortex, at the front of the frontal lobe, and the hippocampus, in the limbic system, in particular shrink with age; areas of the brain associated with complex mental activities like learning, planning and Cole et al. [8] memorizing. Moreover, incidence of stroke, white matter lesions, and dementia rise with age, as does level of memory impairment and there are changes in levels of neurotransmitters and hormones. Some amount of brain shrinkage occurs naturally as people age. Other potential causes of brain shrinkage include injury, certain diseases and disorders, infections, and alcohol use. One might wonder what the difference is between normal brain changes with aging and pathological changes with brain diseases. A moderate decline in some cognitive abilities is expected and part of healthy aging. In the case of severe and progressive decline of the cognitive functions is considered dementia. Dementia affects almost all aspects of a patient’s life negatively. In Figure 2 we present the warning signs preceding the diagnosis as well as classification of Dementia.
Dementia: warning signs and classification.
Even though dementia is the first association many people have in regard to aging, it is in fact depression that is the most common psychiatric disorder, affecting up to 50% of elderly people. The significance of depression is very important to understand. Depression, a type of mood disorder that is, as mentioned, the most prevalent mental health problem among older adults, is associated with distress and suffering. It also can lead to impairments in physical, mental, and social functioning. Further, Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) are the most common neurodegenerative disease [4, 10]. Worldwide, the global prevalence of dementia is estimated to be 3.9 % in people aged 60+ years, most suffering from AD [11]. Dementia is commonly accompanied by several neuropsychiatric symptoms, like agitation, apathy, delusions, depression, hallucinations and sleep impairment. These symptoms can in some cases cluster into syndromes. Operational criteria are proposed for specific psychotic and mood disturbances associated with dementia which make dementia an even bigger problem for both patients and caregivers. Alzheimer’s disease and related forms of dementia have neuropsychiatric symptoms as a core feature. Previously, these symptoms were considered part of the late stages of the disease. Currently, these symptoms, like mild cognitive impairment, are known to be present in very early phases of the disease. It is sometimes not easy to tell the difference between dementia and normal aging. However, dementia is a progressive disease that causes cognitive function to break down abnormally, causing cognitive and physical symptoms that worsen over time. On the other hand, normal aging is much more minor, with changes resulting from a natural slowing or decrease in efficiency in the body. Due to aging population, the expectation is, that the number of people suffering from dementia will double every 20 years [11]. Neuropsychiatric diseases already make up 17.4% of Years Lived with Disability (YLPs) and 6.6% of all Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), placing a high economic burden on national economies. These numbers are projected to increase in the future [12]. Moreover, elderly people, especially older women, are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of alcohol and, alcohol use disorders in this subgroup, are often overlooked or misdiagnosed [13]. It is expected, that in the coming years, the absolute number of elderlies with problems related to alcohol will rise, further increasing the number of cognitive and physiologically impaired elderly [14, 15, 16]. Each of these substantial neuropsychiatric morbidities are often accompanied with behavioral manifestations.
Aging is an inevitable outcome of life, characterized by progressive decline in tissue and organ function and increased risk of mortality. Accumulating evidence links aging to genetic and epigenetic alterations. The end result of epigenetic changes during aging is altered local accessibility to the genetic material, leading to aberrant gene expression, reactivation of transposable elements, and genomic instability. Several lifestyle factors have been identified that might modify epigenetic patterns, such as diet, obesity, physical activity, tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption, environmental pollutants, psychological stress, and working on night shifts. Epigenetics is an emerging factor in development of neurodegenerative diseases. The last decade broadened our knowledge about the etiology of AD and PD [17, 18, 19, 20]. It is now widely accepted, that a strong genetic component contributes to the development of AD and PD, with chromosome aberrations and gene mutations playing an important role in these neurodegenerative disorders [20, 21]. One of the factors that facilitated understanding of genetic modifications is epigenetics, and its development [22]. Epigenetics studies the influence of factors external to DNA on the genes, the prefix “epi- “in this case meaning “on top of” or “above”. These factors, like behavior and environment, do not change the sequence of the DNA, but alter the structure of the DNA. This influences how DNA is ‘read’, effectively turning genes “on” or “off”. These changes can be inherited, as gene expression altered via histione proteins and DNA methylation are known to be passed on to offspring [23]. The influence of epigenetical mechanisms on the etiology of AD and PD have already been suggested by several studies [24, 25, 26]. DNA methylation and histione acetylation are also thought to play a role in depression [27], which is an important correlate of neurodegenerative diseases [28]. Despite this evidence, to date, there is not yet a comprehensive assessment on the role of epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation or histone modifications, in the development of neurological diseases. However, it is known that epigenetic reprogramming reverses most if not all of the age-related epigenetic modifications. Harnessing partial reprogramming seems the most promising therapy to treat aging
The aging process has a dissimilar effect on the different genders. Whereas the male body changes gradually over the years, the female body changes much more abruptly during menopause. In the end, everyone has to deal individually with the effects of aging on their sexual functioning, like erectile dysfunction and vaginal dryness. When it comes to aging, women’s levels of the estrogen hormone begin to decline much earlier and much more quickly than men’s levels of the testosterone hormone do. This quicker decline in hormone levels is the reason that men seem to age much more slowly than women do. However, women enjoy a longer lifespan, which puts them more at risk of psychoneurological diseases [29]. Hypercoagulable states due to pregnancy and birth control pills pose another neuropsychiatric health risk unique to women [30]. The majority of diagnoses for common neurological diseases are for women, including AD, PD and depression. Among diagnosed women, these diagnoses are more prevalent in women past their menopause [31]. Besides this, a number of neurological diseases, stroke among them, are more damaging to women than to men [32]. Upon reaching menopause, because of the shift in hormonal balance, women suffer the loss of the protective anti-inflammatory benefits of estrogen. Hormone replacement therapy can’t adequately counter the state of hypoestrogenia [29]. The many physiological functions of estrogen are mediated by Estrogen Receptors Alpha and Beta (ERβ). ERβ is a recent discovery, but extensively present in the brain and functional in both males and females. It is as of yet unclear, if ERβ can be a basis for new therapeutic approaches that can help treat or prevent neuropsychiatric diseases in females in the menopausal and postmenopausal stages. Data further suggest that estrogen signaling varies depending on age and stage of menopause. Growing older and going through menopause, women become more dependent on alcohol and related problems increase [33]. Because women metabolize alcohol differently from men, they are less resistant to its detrimental effects (Figure 3), and have the tendency to suffer earlier on from diseases and other repercussions of alcohol usage than men [33]. Also, women have more difficulty gaining access to treatment and recovering from alcohol dependence [33].
Neuropsychiatric outcomes: harmful effects of alcohol abuse.
*Others:
Almost all persons experience the loss of a close person during the life span [34, 35, 36]. With aging, this might occur once or several different times. Older adults experience grief at a higher rate than younger adults or children. Spousal loss is common in older adults as well as the death of friends, siblings and cousins. Because of ageism, growing older comes with a measure of anxiety. Combined with the various other obstacles of aging, this can make grief a complex affair in older persons. Change and loss are integral to life, but can be very painful. As we use the terms berievement and grief interchageblz through this chapter, we would like to define that bereavement is the state of being in grief with there being different stages of bereavement. Bereavement in older age can lead to loneliness and an increased likelihood of depression, and it is appalling that older bereaved people aren’t being offered the support and access to services that could make a huge difference to their well-being. The sentiments most often occurring within the period of bereavement comprise changed modality of feelings, reoccurring thoughts about the loss, somatic symptoms that sometimes lead to physical illness due to profound sadness that dominates bereavement and markable change in behavioral patterns in an attempt to escape previously created behavioral routines in connection with the loved one or another loss-related entity or circumstances. Bereavement is accompanied by several well recognized feelings. The most noticed feelings in the bereavement period are: shock, desensitization, sorrow, refutation, misery, yearning annoyance, guilt, isolation, melancholy and incapability. Notwithstanding the fact that loss is an upsetting experience, the majority of people who go through it manage to recuperate within the time window of six months to a year [37]. By estimation 10 to 20% of persons suffering bereavement remain captive to remembrance, sorrow, and guilt, slipping into a long period of grief [38, 39]. This is a complicated condition named Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) or ‘complicated grief’ [38, 39]. Grief is separate from depression or anxiety. It can seriously hinder day-to-day social interactions and interpersonal relations, negatively influencing everyday life [40]. Evidence shows, that both acute and complicated grief can cause changes in the daily cycle [41], altereds mental state [42] and deviations in patterns of nourishment [42] and sleep [43]. Considering the amount of change that can be affected on everyday activities, bereavement can potentially greatly diminish quality of life. Losing a loved one is a very unsettling occurrence, that can set off powerful emotional stress. Under this newly created condition, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis is stimulated and activates the secretion of cortisol into the bloodstream stressor adaptation. Also, cortisol dysregulation triggers the problematic alcohol use leading to dependency [44]. These further effects memory loss, mental and physical disability, lower quality of life and increased chance of death [45, 46]. Little research has been done, however, on the influence of PGD on the neuroendocrine system, especially on the pattern of cortisol secretion [47]. The relationship between bereavement and disturbed sleeping patterns has already mentioned [41, 42, 48] . Schwartz et al. have studied the effect of changes in general health on the quality of life (QoL) of people suffering bereavement [49]. Others found, that the degree in which a person managed to maintain a degree of vigor and mental, physical and social reactions while grieving, influenced his sense of self-esteem and fulfillment [49, 50, 51]. However, our knowledge regarding the associations of grief and health-related outcomes is limited on a studies with small sample size and a cross-sectional design [41, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56]. Likewise, association between grief and complicated grief with QoL and its domains remains unclear and the available evidence examining this hypothesis has yet to be rigorously reviewed in order to help us to understand most influential aspects of the bereavement on the everyday life style.
For some bereaved individuals, the adaptation might be complicated, slowed, or halted, leading to incessant grief [57, 58]. This lasting grief impairs daily functioning, sleep, and increased risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease [59, 60]. The severity of grief relates to severity of impairment. Grief can change personality of a person who suffers, both on a temporary or more permanent basis based on various factors including how profound the loss was, internal coping skills, support system, general temperament, stress tolerance, and outlook on life. Therefore, detecting the determinants and predictors of traumatic grief is of crucial importance for identifying bereaved individuals in greatest risk for long-term dysfunction, and guide the development of novel interventions for the disorder [61]. Several factors have been suggested to influence the duration and severity of grief; gender plays an important role in bereavement. After losing a partner, the negative effect on health and general quality of life is gretaer with men than with women [62]. Members of both sexes show higher mortality rates when bereaved compared to non-bereaved individuals; this relative increase, however, is higher in men suffering bereavement [62]. Prior study suggests this is because men have a weaker support network and worse abilities for coping and self-empowerment than women [63]. Additionally, age is an important factor determining the length of the bereavement period. According to Strobe and Schut, bereaved persons that are younger, encounter more complications after a loss. Namely, including more serious health consequences, grief symptoms, and psychological and physical symptoms [62]. It is probable, that the reason for this difference is that younger grievers experiencing more unexpected and sudden losses, which causes more severe grief. It might be that older grievers develop better coping strategies due to life experience. Moreover, in elderly, emotions tend to be damped down, and it’s less common for people to respond excitable to worries [64]. Even though younger grievers may experience more complications in acute phase of grieving, previous studies suggest that they recover more quickly. This might be supported by more access to various types of social support [62]. In conjunction with mentioned findings, series of past studies aimed to understand the grief and determinants and predictors; findings showed that grief was associated with functional impairment, gender [62], coping strategies [65], ethnicity [66], employment [60], spousal bereavement, sleep disturbances [41, 42, 48] , high-risk behaviors and increased risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease [59, 60]. Previously published evidence indicated that there is a high chance of development of commodities and psychiatric models such as: intensive stress, clinically relevant depressive symptoms, episodes of major depression and anxiety related disorders [38]. There are also chances of onset of decreased function of the immune system [67] significantly modified quality of life that decreases in accordance to severity of bereavement [68], as well as suicide tendencies and events and risk of elevated overall mortality incidence [69]. To the best of our knowledge, only few longitudinal studies on this topic had been performed so far, with a short follow-up (up to 24 months). None of the previous studies explored explore the determinants of grief bereavement bereavement related to long-term bereavement and different kind of loss in a normal population cohort with sufficient power [9, 39, 67, 70]. Further studies are necessary in order to make a stronger conclusion.
The study of elderly and the aging helps us understand the society in which we live, and it also alerts us to certain processes and problems that we may experience as we grow into old age. The fact that we are all facing the longer life span make us aware that is necessary to plan better for the course of events expected on this prolonged journey. Longer lives must be planned for. Societal aging may affect economic growth and many other issues, including the sustainability of families, the ability of states and communities to provide resources for older citizens, and international relations. Older people are important members of any society and therefore have the right to live in dignity in later life. It includes psychological and health aspects, continuing to participate in society, and ensuring a safe source of income. This also needs to be very well planned for on behalf of states and communities.
Many researchers have tried to identify different potential clarification for cross-cultural differences in overview of aging. Previously published evidence focused on socioeconomic predictors has reveale that higher levels of economic development and industrialization are associated with ominous attitudes towards aging and a lower societal status of elderly [71, 72]. Modernization theory, that is commonly in use when elucidating the activity of modernization within different societies. The theory identifies the inner aspects of a country that has been modernized while in the same time hypothesizing that with adequate help and methodology the rest of the countries can be changed in the same way and become more developed. Previous studies suggested [73, 74] that a shift towards industrialized models of mass-production erode the societal status of older adults, depreciate their insights that derived from reach experience, deconstruct the ties between the nuclear and procreational families through urbanization, and refocus the power over the means of production from elderly members of the families to industrial entities [73]. Although intuitively appealing, modernization theory has been criticized as an oversimplification [75]. Eastern/Asian compared to Western cultures is the model that has been most explored and discussed when it comes to detecting of the influence of cultural values and beliefs on aging behavioral pathways (see [76] for a review). The main point of this model comes from the idea that Asian societies are based on Confucian values of filial piety and the practice of ancestor worship which are thought to promote positive views of aging and high esteem for older adults ([77] for a review). On the other hand, the Western societies, were believed to be oriented towards youngsters and to hold not so positive views about the aging process and the older adults [72]. However, verifiable evidence for the proposed East-West differences is hard to come by. In summary, there is some evidence that both socioeconomic development and cultural values and beliefs may matter for cross-cultural differences in aging attitudes. So far, we know very limited arguments about whether the course of life and the growth —and particularly development in elderly years of life are globally a cultural similar phenomenon or culture-limited. Although the findings are limited in several important aspects one of them is sufficiently explored and that is how the country perceives neuropsychiatric aspects of aging. There are differences in neuropsychiatric aging between different cultures, both in the speed of decline of different functions and the perception of the decline itself [78]. Most research in this area focuses on the USA and parts of Asia, leaving large parts of the globe still underrepresented. Instruments developed in Western countries also lead to misrepresentation or over- or under-diagnosis of mental aging in other settings. A certain cultural awareness thus needs to be present to accurately treat people from different cultures. On the other hand, recognizing the existence of cultural differences also lead to a search for more objective methods that can be used equally for all cultures to determine neuropsychiatric decline. New instruments are being developed to address cross-cultural neuropsychiatry of aging [79], which is especially important for globalized, multi-ethnic societies [80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90].
In drawing to a close, this general overview of prevalence and trends of neuropsychiatric disease in aging population indicates that this global phenomenon of aging and increasing neuropsychiatric diseases in aged population is accelerating. The aging of the population is dominantly guided by declines in reproductive potentials of humans resulting in less pregnancies and improvements in healthcare and consequent longevity. This increase in overall life expectancy and the consequent number of elderly people in overall global population presents a significant demographic, societal and economic challenge. Therefore, the present moment is the right time to act towards more research in this area as well as the area of aging in general. The main focus of further aging research should be on the physiological changes associated with aging in the elderly years, since these changes are progressive and they trigger the important psychological and social adjustments. The leading research focus has been for some time given to the brain morphological changes that come with aging, as many elderly people are affected by neuropsychiatric diseases such as stroke, white matter lesions, and dementia, as well as overall changes in levels of neurotransmitters and hormones that are influencing the decrease in overall health and quality of life. As already emphasized, depression is the most common psychiatric disorder, affecting up to 50% of elderly people, and therefore also a highly important research topic in the aging research field. Depression is in old age often accompanied by bereavement that follows the loss of the loved one. As the loss of the loved one (dominantly a partner or sibling) is very common in elderly population. Even though, the relationship between depression and bereavement is complicated and often understudied and misleading to even the most experienced clinicians, the relationships between symptoms and treatment of bereavement and depression were disentangled in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the 3rd edition, a comprehensive classification of officially recognized psychiatric disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, where the mental health professionals have had introduced the exclusion of bereavement as the prerogative for diagnosis of major depressive disorder. This was introduced in order to protect against bereavement being mistaken for depression, mislabeled as an illness, pathologized, and/or inappropriately treated. However, both depression and bereavement are two psychiatric states that we need to keep a close focus on due to increasing incidence. Furthermore, Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s disease are the most common neurodegenerative disease in the elderly. Distinctively, women’s levels of the estrogen hormone begin to decline much earlier and much more quickly than men’s levels of the testosterone hormone, and therefore men seem to age much more slowly than women do. However, women enjoy a longer lifespan, which puts them more at risk of psychoneurological diseases. Therefore, when it comes to women the focus of the future aging research should comprise: hypercoagulable states due to pregnancy, Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s disease and depression, as there are present in both genders. As previously mentioned, among diagnosed women, these diagnoses are more prevalent in women past their menopause [31]. Next, a number of neurological diseases, stroke being one of them, are more damaging to women than to men [32] and therefore future research should focus on exploring the risk factors and potential treatments. Also, due to the fact that women metabolize alcohol differently from men, they are less resistant and have the tendency to suffer earlier on from diseases and other repercussions of alcohol usage than men [33], the studies that are tailor-targeted for diagnostics and treatments of addiction diseases for female gender should be conducted more.
To conclude, the multidisciplinary approach should be considered when studying the aging process. This should include all aspects of aging, by exploring not only the physical changes, but also the mental, social and societal implications of growing older offers a lot of opportunities to improve the health of older adults, using a wide range of skills and knowledge, and future studies and overall research focus should be following the gerontological updates and broaden it to optimal extent.
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Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",middleName:null,surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}]},{id:"33046",title:"Affinity Chromatography: Principles and Applications",slug:"affinity-chromatography-principles-and-applications",totalDownloads:48609,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"1490",slug:"affinity-chromatography",title:"Affinity Chromatography",fullTitle:"Affinity Chromatography"},signatures:"Sameh Magdeldin and Annette Moser",authors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"},{id:"136483",title:"Dr.",name:"Annette",middleName:"C.",surname:"Moser",slug:"annette-moser",fullName:"Annette Moser"}]},{id:"50574",title:"Bioinformatics for RNA‐Seq Data Analysis",slug:"bioinformatics-for-rna-seq-data-analysis",totalDownloads:5930,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"While RNA sequencing (RNA‐seq) has become increasingly popular for transcriptome profiling, the analysis of the massive amount of data generated by large‐scale RNA‐seq still remains a challenge. RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49873",title:"An Introduction to Actinobacteria",slug:"an-introduction-to-actinobacteria",totalDownloads:8089,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:101,abstract:"Actinobacteria, which share the characteristics of both bacteria and fungi, are widely distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they play an essential role in recycling refractory biomaterials by decomposing complex mixtures of polymers in dead plants and animals and fungal materials. They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3691,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"6",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105450",abstract:"Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is the largest and one of the most complex cellular structures, indicating its widespread importance and variety of functions, including synthesis of membrane and secreted proteins, protein folding, calcium storage, and membrane lipid biogenesis. Moreover, the ER is implicated in cholesterol, plasmalogen, phospholipid, and sphingomyelin biosynthesis. Furthermore, the ER is in contact with most cellular organelles, such as mitochondria, peroxisomes, Golgi apparatus, lipid droplets, plasma membrane, etc. Peroxisomes are synthesized from a specific ER section, and they are related to very-long-chain fatty acid metabolism. Similarly, lipid droplets are vital structures in lipid homeostasis that are formed from the ER membrane. Additionally, there is a specific region between the ER-mitochondria interface called Mitochondria-Associated Membranes (MAMs). This small cytosolic gap plays a key role in several crucial mechanisms from autophagosome synthesis to phospholipid transfer. Due to the importance of the ER in a variety of biological processes, alterations in its functionality have relevant implications for multiple diseases. Nowadays, a plethora of pathologies like non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cancer, and neurological alterations have been associated with ER malfunctions.",book:{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg"},signatures:"Raúl Ventura and María Isabel Hernández-Alvarez"},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",abstract:"SARS-CoV-2 virus infection causes the Covid-19 disease pandemic. Purinergic signaling is a form of extracellular signaling. Purinergic signaling plays significant role in the pathology of Covid-19. Purinergic system includes extracellular nucleotides, nucleosides, ectonucleotidases, and purinergic receptors. ATP, ADP, and adenosine are the main nucleotides, nucleosides. CD39 and CD73 are the main ectonucleotidases. There are two classes of purinergic receptors, P1 and P2. Each of them can be further divided, P1 into A1, A2A, A2B, and A3, P2 into P2X, and P2Y. In Covid-19, the purinergic system is disordered. SARS-CoV-2 viruses invading leads to extracellular ATP and ADP accumulation, purinergic receptor abnormally activation, tissue homeostasis balance is broken, which lead to inflammation even hyperinflammation with cytokine storm and thrombosis et al. symptoms. Currently, Covid-19 therapeutic medicine is still in shortage. Target purinergic system components is a promising way to treat Covid-19, which will help inhibit inflammation and prevent thrombosis. Currently, many relevant preclinical and clinical trials are ongoing. Some are very promising.",book:{id:"10801",title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg"},signatures:"Hailian Shen"},{id:"81708",title:"High Throughput Methods to Transfer DNA in Cells and Perspectives",slug:"high-throughput-methods-to-transfer-dna-in-cells-and-perspectives",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104542",abstract:"Genome sequencing led to thousands of genes to study and their molecular cloning to provide ORF collection plasmids. The main approach to study their function involves analysis of the biological consequences of their expression or knockdown, in a cellular context. Given that, the starting point of such experiments is the delivery of the exogenous material, including plasmid DNA in cells. During the last decades, efforts were made to develop efficient methods and protocols to achieve this goal. The present chapter will first give a rapid overview of the main DNA transfer methods described so far: physical, chemical, and biological. Secondly, it will focus on the different methods having reached high-throughput nowadays. Finally, it will discuss the perspectives of this field in terms of future enhancements.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Colin Béatrice and Couturier Cyril"},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",abstract:"Cutaneous melanoma is an aggressive and difficult-to-treat disease that has rapidly grown worldwide. The pharmacotherapy available in so many cases results in low response and undesirable side effects, which impair the life quality of those affected. Several studies have been shown that the purinergic system is involved in cancer context, such as in cutaneous melanoma. With technological advances, several bioactive compounds from nature are studied and presented as promising adjuvant therapies against cancer, as phenolic compounds and related action by purinergic system modulations. Thus, phenolic compounds such as rosmarinic acid, resveratrol, tannic acid, as well as vitamin D may be promising substances in a therapeutic perspective to treat cutaneous melanoma via purinergic system pathway. More research needs to be done to open up new horizons in the treatment of melanoma by the purinergic signaling.",book:{id:"10801",title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg"},signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini"},{id:"82338",title:"Advantages of Noncoding RNAs in Molecular Diagnosis",slug:"advantages-of-noncoding-rnas-in-molecular-diagnosis",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105525",abstract:"Noncoding RNAs contribute to physiological processes by regulating many intracellular molecules participating in the life-supporting mechanisms of development, differentiation, and regeneration as well as by disrupting various signaling mechanisms such as disease development and progression and tumor growth. Because microRNAs (miRNAs) target and regulate the functions of key proteins, it is very useful to identify specific miRNAs that contribute to cellular functions and to clarify the roles of their target molecules as diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for cancer prognosis and treatment. In this section, the roles of miRNAs in various cancers and the processes leading to the identification of their target molecules are described, and the latest diagnostic strategies using miRNAs are discussed with specific examples.",book:{id:"11353",title:"Recent Advances in Non-Coding RNAs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11353.jpg"},signatures:"Tomomi Fujii, Tomoko Uchiyama and Maiko Takeda"},{id:"82298",title:"Predicting SNPs in Mature MicroRNAs Dysregulated in Breast Cancer",slug:"predicting-snps-in-mature-micrornas-dysregulated-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105514",abstract:"Breast cancer (BC) is the leading type of cancer among women. Findings have revolutionized current knowledge of microRNA (miRNA) in breast tumorigenesis. The seed region of miRNA regulates the process of gene expression negatively. The presence of SNPs in the seed regions of miRNA dramatically alters the mature miRNA function. Additionally, SNPs in the out-seed region of miRNAs have a significant impact on miRNA targeting. This study focuses on the in silico analysis procedure of mature miRNA SNPs and their impact on BC risk. The database annotated SNPs on mature miRNAs was used. Also, target gene alterations, miRNAs function in BC, and the interaction of miRNAs with targets were predicted. A list of 101 SNPs in 100 miRNAs with functional targets in BC was indicated. Under the SNPs allele variation, 10 miRNAs changed function, 6 miRNAs lost targets, 15 miRNAs gained targets, 48 onco-miRNAs remained unchanged, and 21 tumor suppressor miRNAs remained unchanged. At last, a list of 89 SNPs, which alter miRNA function and miRNA-mRNA interaction, were shown to be potentially associated with BC risk. This research theoretically generated a list of possible causative SNPs in the mature miRNA gene that might be used in future BC management studies.",book:{id:"11353",title:"Recent Advances in Non-Coding RNAs",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11353.jpg"},signatures:"Thanh Thi Ngoc Nguyen, Thu Huynh Ngoc Nguyen, Luan Huu Huynh, Hoang Ngo Phan and Hue Thi Nguyen"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:59},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218",scope:"\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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