Limits of olive oil and olive pomace oil quality parameters.
\r\n\tMany tried to define it, and its definition is always related to those who are in power, that being explained by the fact that this power and the abuse of it precisely, gives the access to being corrupted and practicing the acts that fall under corruption.
\r\n\r\n\tWe can find various types of corruption such as bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. Also giving or accepting bribes or inappropriate gifts, double-dealing, under-the-table transactions, manipulating elections, diverting funds, laundering money, and defrauding investors.
\r\n\tNo government is immune to corruption. According to the World Bank, “the causes of corruption are always contextual, rooted in a country's policies, bureaucratic traditions, political development, and social history”.
\r\n\tThis indeed has consequences for increasing inequality, impacts government expenditure and services, shadow economy, and crime.
\r\n\tThis book will be a collection of chapters on Corruption. It welcomes contributions related to the nature of corruption its types and how corruption is undertaken in a certain context and the ways to deal with corruption will be part of this book. We value including materials on Corruption in organizations and ways to solve it. The origins of corruption and the way to deal with corruption, how to provide solutions, and any new insights on corruption will be part of this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-696-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-695-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-697-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"9cda6d2feaa52a6d523da74f2e2d7ffb",bookSignature:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg",keywords:"Corruption, Origins, Types, Corporate Governance, Organizational Performance, Solutions, Corruption Index, Private Sector, Lebanon, Accountability, Anti-corruption, Public Policy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 7th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 6th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, France, and received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues between two or more countries. She is on the editorial board of the Journal of Family Business Management and a keynote speaker for corporate governance conferences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103784",title:"Dr.",name:"Josiane",middleName:null,surname:"Fahed-Sreih",slug:"josiane-fahed-sreih",fullName:"Josiane Fahed-Sreih",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103784/images/system/103784.jfif",biography:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih is a full-time associate professor of Management in the School of Business, Lebanese American University. She is the founder and director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management at the same university. She was previously the assistant dean. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, Paris, France. Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the Middle East Coordinator for the Family Firm Institute (FFI), the USA, and a family wealth and family business consultant. She received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues that occur between two or more countries. She has participated in and organized international conferences, workshops, and seminars. She has presented at major conferences locally and internationally and consulted on management issues in many countries, including Saudi Arabia, Dubai, Jordan, Qatar, Kuwait, Syria, Bahrain, Oman, France, Cyprus, and Lebanon. She currently sits on five boards of directors as a shareholder, two as a chairman of the board, and one as an independent director in the private sector. She is also an advisor on boards of community service organizations. \n\nShe speaks regularly to trade and professional groups and presents her research at academic conferences worldwide. She is frequently invited as a keynote speaker to the recognized family business and corporate governance conferences. Her research interests are in management, family business, the functioning of boards of directors, and corporate governance. She has published three books, several book chapters, and academic articles in international journals. 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Mediterranean countries such as Spain, Italy, and Greece are the main producers of this oil. The knowledge of this culture and its by-products, although ancient, has only recently become more widespread in Brazil. Oils of different grades and quality are obtained from the fruit of the olive tree. The Brazilian domestic demand for olive oil is met by imported oil, with Brazil being one of the world’s big importers. This study aims to provide an overview of economic, regulatory, and inspection aspects involving the olive oil in Brazil. The topics studied deal with legal limitations and practices in Brazil, control and inspection aspects, and the contribution over many years of the Adolfo Lutz Institute as a public health laboratory, monitoring the quality of commercial olive oil in São Paulo city.
\nOlive cultivation certainly began prior to the sixteenth century BC. This culture spread to the Greek islands through the Phoenicians and was probably brought from Asia Minor and introduced into Greece, Libya, and Carthage.
\nLater, in the eighth and seventh centuries BC, olive cultivation expanded, and methods for the production and distribution of oil were organized. The climatic conditions of the Mediterranean countries were very favorable to the cultivation of the olive tree, and this culture spread quickly to all the countries of the Mediterranean Sea Basin in what is now a feature of the region [1].
\nThe Phoenicians and Carthaginians were counted as deployers of olives in Spain, and this culture expanded to Portugal, the West Indies, and South America [2, 3]. The cultivation of the olive tree was extended to regions of the American continent where climate conditions are similar to those of the Mediterranean region [1, 3].
\nIn North America, olive growing was brought by Spanish missionaries and deployed initially in California. In South America, this culture was introduced by Mediterranean immigrants, spreading to Argentina, Chile, Peru, Brazil, and other countries [1–3].
\nOlive tree cultivation was introduced in Brazil many centuries ago. Olive trees were found in several Brazilian states, such as Rio Grande do Sul, Parana, Santa Catarina, Minas Gerais, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo [2, 3]. The olive groves of the colonial period (sixteenth to nineteenth centuries) were eliminated by order of the King of Portugal who feared competition from Brazilian production [3]. Until recently, the olive tree cultivation and olive oil production were practically nonexistent in Brazil. Some initiatives were taken in the last decade to encourage the production of olive oil in Brazil, but currently, domestic demand is almost met by imported oil, especially from Spain and Portugal (about 90 % of total importation) and Argentina [4–6].
\nThe production of olive oil is focused on Mediterranean climate countries, which produce around 3.0 million tons of oil per year [7]. The three main olive-producing countries are Spain, Italy, and Greece. In the South American continent, the main production is from Argentina and Chile, both of which produce around 0.7 % of global production [7]. These countries are emerging as promising competitors in this market.
\nThe Brazilian domestic demand is met by imported oils, with Brazil being one of the world’s leading importers [7, 8]. Brazilian imports of olive oil are about 73,000 tons [7], and the state of São Paulo is responsible for more than 50 % of the imported volume [6]. The culinary habits of the Brazilian people, especially from the state of São Paulo, had a great influence on the colonizers (from Portugal) and the Italian and Spanish immigrants, and thus the use of olive oil in cooking is greatly appreciated. In the last decade, there was a significant increase in olive oil importation in Brazil (500 %) [8]. The following factors contributed for importation increase: the entry of more affordable products in the domestic market, the increase of the purchasing power of Brazilian social classes, and more information about the health benefits of olive oil in the diet [4]. Brazil is the world’s third largest importer of oil, after the United States and the European Union, but the consumption per capita in Brazil is about 0.3 kg/habitant/year. This is very low when compared with countries such as Spain and Italy, where consumption is about 20 kg/habitant/year [7].
\nOils of different grades and quality are obtained from the fruit of the olive tree [8]. The olive oil of the best quality is known as “extra-virgin” and is obtained from the first cold pressing, from healthy and fresh fruit. Other olive oil flavors and good taste quality, but with more acidity values, are classified as virgin olive oil. Lower quality categories include refined olive oil and olive oil, i.e., a mixture of virgin and refined olive oil. Lampante virgin olive oil is unfit for human consumption as it presents an undesirable flavor and aroma originating from poor-quality olives. Olive pomace oil (
The categories of olive and olive pomace oils are differentiated according to the raw material, the process of obtaining the oil, and other technological procedures applied. Defining each type of oil is a difficult task and often requires the implementation of a wide variety of analytical tests. Differentiating between types was studied and standards established with limits for different identities and quality parameters [9, 10].
\nThe
In addition, olive oil is the only product in the oil and fat sector that has its own international trade agreement. The International Olive Council (IOC) is the intergovernmental organization responsible for the administration of this agreement. Purity criteria stipulated in the IOC trade standard for olive oil and olive pomace oil are constantly being discussed and are heeded, in most cases, in the review of Codex standards for products intended for human consumption [12].
\nThe physical and chemical properties of oils and fats, which define the identity of the oil, are mainly related to the predominant molecular structures. A wide range of fatty acids (FA) constitute triglycerides (TAG). The desmethylsterols, which is in the minority fraction of the oil (unsaponifiable), also exhibit profiles themselves for each oil and are an excellent parameter for identifying vegetable oil [9, 10, 13]. The classical indices such as iodine, refraction, and saponification are related to the fatty acid composition ranges and exhibit characteristics for each different oil [9, 10].
\nThe analytical determinations that differentiate olive oil quality categories and olive pomace oil are based on the identification or dosage of chemicals, which may characterize the process of maturation of the olives; extraction, storage, and deterioration of the oil; or other technological processes to which the oil was subjected. Parameters such as acidity index, peroxide value, specific extinction (232 and 270 nm), and impurities (insoluble matter, unsaponifiable matter, moisture) are evaluated to monitor the quality of olive oil. The contents of trans-fatty acids, stigmastadienes, wax, and alkyl esters (fatty acid methyl ester and ethyl ester) are also indicatives of olive oil quality [9, 10].
\nCurrently, control and inspection of the oil obtained from olives, sold in Brazil, include actions both from the Brazilian Health Ministry (MS) and the Brazilian Agriculture and Livestock Ministry (MAPA). The actions are supported by compatible and complementary laws.
\nBy the late 1990s, before the creation of the Brazilian National Health Surveillance System and the National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA), the purity and quality standards of oils and fats were established under the MS. From the creation of the vegetable classification law of MAPA [14], it has the legal obligation to inspect and supervise the entire production chain, besides performing supervision techniques to ensure compliance with the requirements of official classification standards. In light of this legal requirement, the official standard classification of olive oil and olive pomace oil was elaborated. The preparation of the official standard for olive oil and olive pomace oil had the participation of researchers and technicians from the Brazilian MS and MAPA, universities, representatives of the productive sector, and consumer protection organizations. This joint work culminated in the publication of Normative Instruction no. 1, on 30/01/2012 [15]. This is the Brazilian Technical Regulation of Olive Oil and Pomace Olive Oil with the tolerance limits for various parameters of purity and quality. This document is based on trade standards of IOC and
Currently, the MAPA challenge is the establishment of a collaborative network for analyzing oil coming into the country. On the other hand, under the Brazilian Health Ministry, the actions of sanitary supervision together with the public health network laboratory are already a well-established practice. Resolution 270/05 of the National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) [16] is a technical sanitary regulation for vegetable oils, which must be met in health inspections. It came into effect before the Normative Instruction No. 1 of MAPA and emphasizes the health risk aspect. Currently, the Normative Instruction No. 1 of the MAPA as the resolution 270/05 must be met in enforcement actions in Brazil.
\nConsidering the limits of some parameters, such as alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n3) and campesterol, adopted in the standards for olive oil and pomace oil, some observations must be made. Several studies have demonstrated that limitations established in IOC standards on the alpha-linolenic acid (18:3 n3) and campesterol contents are restrictive and do not reflect the variability among cultivars grown in other areas outside the Mediterranean region [13]. Mailer [17] published a study showing that Australian olive oil can present the range for alpha-linolenic acid from 0.42 to 1.91 %. For this component, oils exceeded the maximum linolenic acid level of 1.0 % recommended by the IOC. In current revision of
Campesterol content is a valuable tool to detect adulteration with commodity oil. The concentration of this desmethylsterol in many commodity oils, such as sunflower or soybean oils, is higher than in olive oil [18]. The IOC trade standard includes a decision tree for evaluating the authenticity of samples which show campesterol concentrations between 4.0 and 4.5% of total sterols. This includes the following conditions to consider the authenticity of an olive oil: stigmasterol contents ≤ 1.4 % and delta-7 stigmastenol < 0.3 % [12].
\nBrazilian law adopted the limits of the IOC trade standard of 1 % for alpha-linolenic acid content (18:3 n3) and ≤4.0 % for campesterol to prevent practices of adulteration with, for example, soybean oil, which is a commodity with low commercial value in Brazil [15].
\nSome discrepancies may be noted for some parameters in Brazilian olive oil and olive pomace standard
The Adolfo Lutz Institute was founded in 1940 and has operated since its foundation as a research government institute and also as a public health laboratory in the state of São Paulo. It is part of the Brazilian Public Health Laboratory Network, working in epidemiological surveillance in the study and diagnosis of diseases such as dengue, Zika, AIDS, hepatitis, and meningitis, among others. The laboratory also gives support to health surveillance, monitoring the quality of food samples including commercial olive oils.
\nOlive oil, among the food products analyzed at the Adolfo Lutz Institute, is one most frequently subjected to allegations of fraud and adulteration. According to the rules of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, the olive oil to be marketed in the country, either in bulk or bottled in the country of origin, must obtain a classification document [15]. The inspection for correct classification is done by MAPA inspectors. The inspection in retail is performed by inspectors either from the Brazilian Health Ministry or the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock to verify the adequacy of identity and quality. According to Brazilian Federal Law 986/69 [19] and Resolution No. 22 of 03/15/00, ANVISA [20], the producer or importer of olive oil is obliged to inform the municipal health surveillance at the beginning of importation or marketing and arrange the collection of the sample for analysis. The analyses are carried out in official laboratories. The Adolfo Lutz Institute is the health laboratory of the state of São Paulo. Companies that manufacture, sell, offer for sale, or otherwise deliver to the consumer corrupted, adulterated, counterfeit, altered, or damaged food will incur in a sanitary infraction subject to the penalties of the law [19].
\nThe exceptional sensory and nutritional attributes of olive oil and its limited production are among the aspects that give it high market value. Olive oil trade in Brazil has always been, and continues to be, marked by evidence of fraud and adulteration. So it has long been of interest to researchers of the Adolfo Lutz Institute to increase the scientific knowledge of this product to improve quality control.
\nSome studies were published in the 1970s and 1980s either by researchers of the Adolfo Lutz Institute, universities, or other scientific institutions [21–23]. These studies indicated frauds in olive oil, by adding commodity oils such as soybean, coconut, and babassu. The classic index and the fatty acid profile detected the adulteration. At this time the gas chromatographic technique to analyze fatty acid methyl esters began to be implemented in institutions. However, only in the early 1990s, at the Adolfo Lutz Institute, a more comprehensive study was developed focusing in detail on the different categories, the characteristics of identity and quality of olive oil, and the wide range of analytical tests designed to differentiate them. The physical-chemical, analytical, and regulatory aspects were addressed to differentiate the various types of oils from olives. A special emphasis was given to spectrophotometric techniques and derivation of the ultraviolet spectra obtained from vegetable oils [9].
\nAt the beginning of the 1980s, the Brazilian trade market was opened with the Mercosur countries (Southern Cone Market), which intensified the import of Argentinian olive oil to the local market. A study carried out at the end of the 1990s, in the Adolfo Lutz Institute laboratories, evaluated the quality and identity of 23 oil brands in the trade of São Paulo, 13 from Europe and bottled in the country of origin, and 10 Argentine oils, with 5 bottled in Brazil. Five samples were adulterated with other vegetable oils, and two of them (bottled in Brazil) were probably adulterated with partially hydrogenated oil. This finding illustrated the importance of the details of the composition of fatty acids of vegetable oil, taking the geometric isomers into consideration, to help detect an uncommon type of adulteration [24].
\nIn the period 2001–2014, the proportion of frauds or adulterations verified in samples declared as olive oil and analyzed at the Adolfo Lutz Institute was higher than in the period before (Figure 1). An improvement in controlling analysis in Adolfo Lutz Institute, with the implementation of new analytical methodologies, was observed in this period. A study published in 2008 with 15 samples showed that although the samples presented the fatty acid profile of authentic olive oil, the analysis of the difference of ECN 42 showed adulteration of samples with edible commodity vegetable oils. The oils were added in low quantity (less than 3 %) and were rich in linoleic acid (18:2 9,12
Commercial olive oil samples analyzed at Adolfo Lutz Institute.
The latest study of monitoring carried out at the Adolfo Lutz Institute took place between the years 2012 and 2014. Fifty-four samples of 14 different brands were analyzed. Twenty-five samples were sent by sanitary surveillance of the state of São Paulo, to attend a program of the National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA). Of the total, 38 were declared as extra-virgin olive oil and the others as olive oil. The parameters studied were composition of fatty acids, acid value, peroxide index, and specific extinction at 270 nm. The adequacy of nutrition labeling was also verified. Since 2003, Brazil has adopted mandatory nutrition information on the label of packaged foods as a strategy to prevent chronic disease [27]. Nutrients required on the label of edible vegetable oils are total fat, saturated and trans-fatty acids, but the producers have also declared monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Twenty-eight samples (52 %) of 11 brands showed no characteristic olive oil profile of fatty acids. Twenty-four samples that were adulterated probably with soybean oil were declared as extra-virgin olive oil. Thirty-one samples (57 %) had monounsaturated fatty acid and/or polyunsaturated fatty acid contents varying by more than 20 % from the declaration on the label. All the adulterated samples were bottled in Brazil, highlighting the need for tighter control in the trade and distribution of the product with a view to a more secure product which is increasingly consumed by the population
\nIn 2000, during a technical visit by IOC representatives to Brazil and, in particular, to the Adolfo Lutz Institute, a technical cooperation agreement was made that enabled the inclusion of the laboratory in the annual proficiency-testing scheme organized by the IOC. Since 2002, the institute has received annually samples of the rounds for vegetable oils, which include several determinations that help in ensuring the analytical quality of various tests performed by the laboratory. During this period it was possible to implement some methods in the laboratory such as stigmatadiene content and the difference of ECN 42. In addition, it was possible to monitor the quality of the results generated in these trials and routine testing such as the composition of fatty acids, including trans-fatty acids, acidity index, peroxides, humidity, impurities, absorbency in ultraviolet at 232 and 270 nm and Delta K, tocopherol contents, unsaponifiable matter, and others.
\nEdible olive oil is greatly appreciated by the Brazilian population. Knowledge of Brazilians about the health benefits for olive oil consumption and about the different levels of quality of this product is increasing. The Brazilian position as the world’s third largest importer of olive oil, combined with a history of fraudulent practices in this product, has led the Brazilian government to implement its legislation bringing an increase perspective to improve the product inspection. However, there are many technical challenges to be overcome, including the structuring of a national network with effective provisions for inspection and supervision, supported by qualified laboratories in the control of this product.
\nNormative Instruction No. 1, 30/01/2012
\nBrazilian Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock—MAPA
\nClassification, quality requirements, sensory characteristics, and other complementary parameters of olive oil and olive pomace oil (Tables 1–5)
\nGroup | \nVirgin olive oil | \n\n | \n | Olive oil | \nRefined olive oil | \nPomace olive oil | \nRefined pomace olive oil | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | \nExtra-virgin | \nVirgin | \nLampante | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \n
Acid value (%) | \n≤0.80 | \n≤2.00 | \n<2.00 | \n≤1.00 | \n≤0.30 | \n≤1.00 | \n≤0.30 | \n
Peroxide value (mEqv/kg) | \n≤20 | \n(*) | \n≤15 | \n≤5 | \n≤15 | \n≤5 | \n|
E | \n|||||||
270 | \n≤0.22 | \n≤0.25 | \n(*) | \n≤0.90 | \n≤1.10 | \n≤1.70 | \n≤2.00 | \n
DK | \n≤0.01 | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n≤0.16 | \n≤0.18 | \n≤0.20 | \n|
232 | \n≤2.5 | \n≤2.6 | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n
Limits of olive oil and olive pomace oil quality parameters.
(*) Not applied
E: specific extinction in the ultraviolet
Group | \nVirgin olive oil | \n\n | \n | Olive oil | \nRefined olive oil | \nPomace olive oil | \nRefined pomace olive \toil | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | \nExtra-virgin | \nVirgin | \nLampante(**) | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \n
Median of the defect (Md) | \n0 | \n>0 and ≤3.5 | \n>3.5 | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n
Median of the fruity (Mf) | \n>0 | \n>0 | \n0 | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n
Limits of the sensory characteristics of virgin olive oi.l
(*) Not applied
(**) Lampante virgin olive oil when obtained median defect (Md) of less than 3.5 and median fruity (Mf) zero
Group | \nVirgin olive oil | \n\n | \n | Olive oil | \nRefined olive oil | \nPomace olive oil | \nRefined pomace oil | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | \nExtra-virgin | \nVirgin | \nLampante | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \n
Stigmastadiene (mg/kg) | \n≤0.15 | \n≤0.5 | \n(*) | \n||||
Wax (mg/kg) | \n≤250 | \n≤300 | \n≤350 | \n>350 | \n|||
ECN 42 difference | \n≤0.2 | \n≤0.3 | \n≤ 0.3 | \n≤0.5 | \n|||
C18:1t | \n≤0.05 | \n≤0.10 | \n≤0.20 | \n≤0.40 | \n|||
C18:2t + C18:3t | \n≤0.05 | \n≤0.10 | \n≤0.30 | \n≤0.35 | \n|||
C14:0 | \n≤0.05 | \n||||||
C16:0 | \n7.50–20.0 | \n||||||
C16:1 | \n0.3–3.5 | \n||||||
C17:0 | \n≤0.3 | \n||||||
C17:1 | \n≤0.3 | \n||||||
C18:0 | \n0.5–5.0 | \n||||||
C18:1 | \n55.0–83.0 | \n||||||
C18:2 | \n3.5–21.0 | \n||||||
C18:3 | \n≤1.0 | \n||||||
C20:0 | \n≤0.6 | \n||||||
C20:1 | \n≤0.4 | \n||||||
C22:0 | \n≤0.2 | \n≤0.3 | \n|||||
C24:0 | \n≤0.2 | \n
Limits of olive oil and olive pomace oil complementary parameters.
(*) Not applied; (**) percentage of total fatty acids
Group | \nVirgin olive oil | \n\n | \n | Olive oil | \nRefined olive oil | \nPomace olive oil | \nRefined pomace oil | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | \nExtra-virgin | \nVirgin | \nLampante | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \n
Cholesterol | \n≤0.5 | \n||||||
Campesterol | \n≤4.0 | \n||||||
Stigmasterol | \nLess than campesterol | \n||||||
Brassicasterol | \n≤0.1 | \n≤0.2 | \n|||||
Beta-sitosterol + delta-5,23-estigmastadienol + clerosterol + beta-Sitostanol + delta-5- Avenasterol + delta-5,24-Estigmastadienol. | \n≥93.0 | \n||||||
∆-7-Stigmastenol | \n≤0.5 | \n||||||
Erythrodiol and uvaol (**) | \n≤4.5 | \n>4.5 | \n|||||
Total sterols (mg/kg) | \n≥1.000 | \n≥1,600 | \n≥1,800 | \n
Limits of olive oil and olive pomace oil complementary parameters.
(*) Percentage of total desmethylsterols
(**) Olive oil with a wax content between 300 and 350 mg/kg is considered lampante virgin olive oil if the total aliphatic alcohol content is less than or equal to 350 mg/kg or the percentage of erythrodiol and uvaol is less than or equal to 3.5.
Group | \nVirgin olive oil | \n\n | \n | Olive oil | \nRefined olive oil | \nPomace olive oil | \nRefined pomace olive oil | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Type | \nExtra-virgin | \nVirgin | \nLampante | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \nUnique | \n
FAME + FAEE < 75 mg/kg or 75 mg/kg < FAME + FAEE < 150 mg/kg and FAEE/FAME < 1,5 | \n\n | (*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n(*) | \n
Refractive index (20 °C) | \n1.4677–1.4705 | \n1.4680–1.4707 | \n|||||
Saponification index (mg KOH/g) | \n184–196 | \n182–193 | \n|||||
Moisture and volatile matter (%) | \n≤0.2 | \n≤0.1 | \n|||||
Unsaponifiable matter (g/kg) | \n≤15 | \n≤30 | \n|||||
Iodine index (Wijs) | \n75–94 | \n75–92 | \n|||||
Arsenium (mg/kg) | \n<0.1 | \n||||||
Lead (mg/kg) | \n<0.1 | \n||||||
Iron (mg/kg) | \n≤3 | \n||||||
Copper (mg/kg) | \n≤0.1 | \n
Limits of olive oil and olive pomace oil other parameters.
(*) Not applied; FAME, fatty acid methyl ester; FAEE, fatty acid ethyl ester
Air, water and soil which are the essential elements of life are contaminated rapidly due to increasing population, urbanization, mining activities and industrialization [1]. Heavy metals toxicity is causing problem to humans, animals, aquatic animals, plants and even microbes too.
Various methods are introduced to remove the heavy metal pollution like chemical techniques such as chemical precipitation, oxidation or reduction method, electrochemical treatment. Physical techniques such as ion exchange, evaporation, filtration, membrane technology, reverse osmosis. Biological techniques like microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, algae, cynobacteria, lichens, etc.
Heavy metals damage cell membranes, alter functioning of enzymes, inhibit protein synthesis, denature protein and damage the structure of DNA. Toxicity is mainly created by the dislocation of essential metals from their real binding sites or ligand interactions [2]. Bioremediation is cost-effective, safe and eco-friendly; can be virtually restored a result to the heavy metal pollution issue as it is natural process. Biological methods are best to control short term or long term environmental pollution. Various heavy metals are accumulated with the help of bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria, lichens, etc. and helps in bioremediation and used as bio-indicators. They are not harmful human heath as well as ecosystem. Such organisms are used for indication and controlling heavy metal pollution. Mostly genes encoded by heavy metal resistant bacteria are located on plasmids. Biosorption is environmentally safe and low cost methodology of removing metals from the ecosystem. Various analysis were observed throughout previous 5 decades provided quantity of data regarding differing kinds of biosorbents and their mechanism of absorption of heavy metal. Additional research is to explore new biosorbents from surroundings [3].
Since last few years, various physical and chemical methods are used to remove heavy metals but it is expensive, needs laboratory and inefficient. According to various studies bioremediation and biosorption techniques are much more beneficial, cheap, non-toxic, natural process.
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is the lowest concentration at which the isolate or antimicrobial agent is completely suppressed is recorded. Microorganisms correspond to heavy metals using various defense systems, such as exclusion, compartmentalization [4], complex formation and synthesis of binding proteins, such as metallothioneins [5].
Bioremediation strategies have been proposed as an attractive alternative owing to their low cost and high efficiency [6].
Different methods are used to study characterization of heavy metals on microbes by 16S RNA sequence, biodegradability test, siderophore assay, biochemical test, morphological test, antibiotic resistance, nucleotide sequencing, etc. Microbial pigmentation and enzymatic activities like catalase, gelatin hydrolysis, oxidase, nitrate reductase, were characteristics selected to examine their outcomes.
Bioremediation is of two types: in-situ bioremediation and ex-situ bioremediation. In-situ bioremediation process is mainly used due to its ability in decreasing disturbance of ecosystem at the heavy metal polluted sites whereas ex-situ bioremediation, it takes place inside bioreactors, bio-piles and land farming. In-situ bioremediation is much more efficient and eco-friendly (Figure 1).
Bioremediation (enzyme-catalyzed destruction) of contaminants. The use of power ultrasound in biofuel production, bioremediation and other applications [
Metal microbe interactions developed by microbial cells are bio-transformation, bio-leaching, bio-degradation, bio-mineralization, bio-adsorption and bio-accumulation in bioremediation method.
Biofilm used as efficient bioremediation tool and stabilization too. Even at harmful conditions, they show high resistance towards heavy metals. With the help of genetic engineering one can insert desired characters like ability to resist heavy metals, tolerate metal stress, etc. For example: engineered
The aim of the review is to study the source of the heavy metals on earth, consequences of the heavy metals on plants as well as on animals, various isolated microbial strains from bacteria, fungi and algae tolerance towards heavy metals and to study mechanism adapted by strain to accumulate heavy metals.
Future approaches in bioremediation are genetic modification of microbes or genetic engineered microbes, genetic technologies and forms specificity using biofilm by optimization process and immobilization process can be attained, biofilm mediated remediation, formation of microbial fuel cell (MFC), use of nano-particles with algae and bacteria, gene transfer within biofilm, transgenic cynobacteria, modify gene or enzyme in microbes. In Rhizo-remediation technique,
High amount of heavy metals in the soil, water and air arise from various sources, which consist of natural sources include natural emission, atmospheric decomposition, sea salt spray, forest fires, rock weathering, biogenic means and wind borne soil particles and artificial sources such as mining activities, agricultural waste, domestic effluents, smelters, sewage sludge irrigation, improper stacking of the industrial solid waste, the excess utilization of pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers, etc. [8, 9].
Lead (Pb) is unnecessary metal on the crust. It is a important contaminant that is present in the soil, water and air as a dangerous waste. It is extremely injurious to the human, animals, plants and even microbes too. The crucial sources of lead metal are children toys, drinking water, dust, petroleum, electronic industries, water pipes, battery, pottery, paint, stained glass, cosmetics and biocide preparation [10, 11].
Arsenic (As) is non-essential metal. Arsenic is also present in pyrotechnics, in bronzing and hardening other metals. Arsenic is originated from the weathering of rocks and mineral, volcanic eruptions, fossil fuels, agricultural products, preservatives, medicinal products and industrial activities. Herbicides, pesticides, insecticides, fungicides and fertilizers also contribute to arsenic contamination and extremely deadly and carcinogenic [12] (Figure 2).
Heavy metal sources in the environment [
Natural activities like volcanoes and forest fire release mercury in environment. The burning of coal, oil, wood and mining of gold releases mercury in the environment. It affects immune system as well as nervous system. Methyl-mercury damages the developing embryos too [14, 15].
Chromium is released to environment by combustion processes and from metal industries and chemical manufacturing industries as waste. Chromium 4 is most dangerous form and may lead health issues like allergy, nose irritations, skin rashes, liver damage, kidney damage and even death [16, 17].
Cadmium is also a non-essential member and highly dangerous to mankind. Cadmium is used in semiconductors, nickel-cadmium batteries, electroplating, municipal wastes such as plastics, PVC manufacturing, alloys, overuse of fertilizers rich in phosphate and control rod for nuclear reactors. Soils and water pollution by cadmium produced by the mining sites and smelting industries, sewage sludge application and burning of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, etc. Chronic exposure of cadmium in human has many harmful effects such as high blood pressure and destroys to different organs such as lung, liver kidney and testes in males [18, 19].
Copper a transition metal and also an essential element for living organisms including humans and other animals at low concentrations. Copper is released in ecosystem through decaying of vegetation, forest fire, sea-sprays, wind-blown dust. Copper is utilized as the alloy in the manufacture of wire, pipe, and various metal products. Copper are majorly used in agriculture to treat plant diseases, like mildew, or for water treatment and as preservatives, leather and fabrics. Intake of excessive amount of copper, it can cause nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, diarrhea and can destroy liver and kidney and even lead to death [20, 21].
Zinc (Zn) is also a transition metal and zinc is utilized in galvanizing and alloying and also in the manufacture of electric goods, dying, insecticides, pesticides and cosmetics. Mining activities, smelting of metals and production of steel and other waste can release zinc into the environment. It may cause health issues in living organisms such as dehydration, nausea, electrolyte imbalance, vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, acute renal failure, muscular incardination and damage of hepatic parenchyma [22].
Manganese is released from sewage sludge, combustion of fossil fuels, mining processes, etc. it can cause toxicity in plants and causes swelling of cell walls, brown spots on leaves, etc. [23].
The major sources of iron are metal refining, sewage, dust from iron mining, iron and steel industry. Iron sulphate is utilized in fertilizer and herbicide [24].
Thallium is present in insecticides, metal alloys and fire cracker. Phosphorus is found in insecticides such as organophosphate for example: malathion [25].
The environmental factors plays very crucial role in biosorption of heavy metals and these factors are pH, temperature, biomass concentration, metal ion concentration. Algae, fungi and bacteria acts as biosorbents and helps in mechanism of biosorption [26].
Heavy metal pollution is causing severe health effects in human body as well as animals and plants too. Heavy metals are also effected the growth of microbes which are used in treatment or accumulation of heavy metals by damaging their DNA. Heavy metals can cause skin allergies, cancer, effect major organs like kidney, liver, brain, lung, etc., and enter in blood stream and even death too in animals and humans. Retarded growth and development, bad shoot induction and root formation, less nutrient and mineral content and can even cause death in plants [27].
Heavy metals like lead, chromium, nickel, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, etc. may destroy and alter functioning of various prime organs such as the liver, lungs, kidney, brain, heart and even blood also. Heavy metal infectivity may be either quick (within few hours/days) or long term (within months). Prolonged exposure of few toxic heavy metals at even less concentration can cause cancer or even death too. Heavy metals may cause various severe health risk and diseases [28].
Heavy metals can affect human body by lead is carring to liver and kidney by red blood cells. Cadmium binds to blood cells, liver and kidney tissues. Arsenic is accumulated in blood, kidney, heart, muscle, lung liver and also in nails, hair, etc.
The effect of toxicity depends on the exposure route and chemical nature of particular heavy metal like lipid solubility, volatility, etc.
Some heavy metals like arsenic, lead, mercury, nickel, cadmium, etc. have carcinogenic effect. Some heavy metals like lead, manganese, etc. may induce neurotoxicity [29].
Heavy metals function as a pseudo element of the body while they can interrupt with metabolic processes. Few metals, like aluminum may be separated through excretory activities, and few metals get absorbed in the body and even in food chain, showing long term exposure. Heavy metal toxicity depends upon the absorbed amount, the path of exposure and time of exposure. This may lead to several health risks and can also result in huge loss due to oxidative stress induced by free radical formation [30].
Arsenic is most harmful heavy metal which is highly toxic and carcinogenic. It mainly affects endocrine system, lungs, kidney, pulmonary, nervous system and skin. It causes skin cancer, respiratory cancer, perforation of nasal septum, dermatomes, etc. ingestion in gastrointestinal tract results in vomiting, disturbance in circulation, damage nervous system and led to death. Other consequences are high blood pressure, heart attacks, decrease in production of blood cells, enlargement of liver, change in skin color, loss of sensation in limbs. Exposure of arsenic through air can cause lung cancer and bladder cancer [31].
Cadmium is another dangerous heavy metal and it targets renal region, bones, testes, cardiovascular, skeletal system and pulmonary organ. It causes proteinuria, glucosuria, osteomalacia, emphysemia, aminoaciduria, etc. It may damage kidney and lung [19].
Chromium damages the organ such as lungs, kidney, pancreas, testes, liver, pulmonary region of body. It causes problems like ulcer, perforation of nasal septum, respiratory track cancer [17].
Lead is also very toxic even in less amount and targets multiple organs such as spleen, bones, the nervous system, hemotopoietic system, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, renal region and reproduction system too. It causes issues like anemia, central nervous system disorders, peripheral neuropathy, encephalopathy [32].
Manganese is required in small concentration in body but in excessive damages nervous system and led to central and peripheral neuropathies and brain damage [23].
Nickel damages pulmonary system and skin too. It results high chances of lung cancer, nose cancer, larynx cancer and prostate cancer and skin allergy or skin rashes. It also shows symptom like sickness, dizziness, birth defects, asthma, chronic bronchitis, lung embolism, heart disorders [19].
Zinc may cause nausea, vomiting, illness, anemia, stomach cramps, damage to nervous system and skin irritation. It causes skin allergy, dermatitis, brain disorder. Increased amount of zinc effects pancreas, disturbs the metabolism of protein and amino acids in body and arteriosclerosis too [33].
Cobalt can cause vomiting, nausea, loss of appetite and may affect on lungs causing asthma, pneumonia and wheezing when exposed with cobalt metal and may develop various allergies or skin rashes. Mainly it is dangerous for heart muscle and causes heart muscle disease known as cardiomyopathy and shows rapid increase in count of red blood cells after long time exposure [34].
Copper damages liver, brain, cornea, lungs, immune system including blood cells. It causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as vomiting, nausea, abdominal pain and even lead to liver and kidney damage, genetic disorders, reproductive or developmental effects, delayed growth, prolonged bone formation and less body weights [35].
Tin effect both nervous system and pulmonary system. Exposure may lead to skin and eye irritation or respiratory tract problems. It causes pneumoconiosis, central nervous system disorders, visual defects, changes in EEG too [36]. Phosphorus symptom caused by exposure of phosphorus on human health includes sweating, headache, vomiting, abdominal cramps, weakness, ptosis, miosis, and severe issues are sensorimotor, polyneuropathy, atrophy and even led to respiratory paralysis [37].
The consequences of thallium exposure include blood vomiting, nausea, abdomen pain, eye disorder, mental retardation, hair loss and severe issues are cardiac failure, brain disorder and even coma too [25].
Mercury attacks the nervous system and renal region and may cause proteinuria. Inhalation of mercury may cause headache, memory loss, insomnia, tremors, neuromuscular and thyroid damage. It damages the chromosome structure and DNA. Effects on reproductive system by low sperm count, birth defects and even miscarriages too. During pregnancy, it may pass through placental barrier to embryo or baby for exposure [38].
The major organs targeted by these heavy metal mercury and lead causes neurotoxicity (brain), arsenic lead to hepatotoxicity (liver), cadmium causes nephrotoxicity (kidney)/pulmonotoxicity (lungs) and zinc mainly induce hematoxicity (blood).
The heavy metals interrupt in metabolic processes in two ways [39]:
They are absorbed and thereby disturb role in major organs and glands such as the heart, liver, brain, kidneys, bone, etc.
They displace the important nutritional minerals from their real place hindering their biological function. Consumption of foods, beverages, skin exposure, and the inhaled air are ways through which these contaminants can be present in body. It is unfeasible to reside in heavy metal free surrounding.
Various heavy metals produce ROS and damages DNA of the cell and disrupt reproduction cycle. Arsenic damages kidney and liver and may cause abdominal cramping, etc.
Heavy metals present in water by industrial effluent or agricultural waste like fertilizers, pesticides, etc. and deposited in water bodies and settle down and can present on surface with help of aquatic plants and aquatic macrophytes. Heavy metals stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can damage aquatic organisms.
Several heavy metals accumulate in various major organs of the fish causing mortality. Firstly it affects the circulatory system by entering in blood and alters the components of blood. It makes the fish anemic and weak.
Huge amount of heavy metal shows inhibitory effects on the growth and development of aquatic organisms like fishes, phytoplankton and zooplankton. Heavy metals may cause disruption in respiration, damage respiratory track which leads to suffocation, reduces the sperm count, egg production and short life span. Heavy metals can disturb oxygen level, reduction of developmental growth or give rise to developmental anomalies, byssus formation and reproduction too. In juvenile phase shows high mortality and in adults decreased breeding ability. Heavy metal shows changes in structure and organs and may exhibit functional changes and transform metabolic pathways. Results of a research [40] showed that ten different fish species had the highest concentration of heavy metals is in liver and kidney.
The fishes like
Mercury in fish muscles occur as Methyl mercury which is formed in aquatic sediments. Movement of heavy metals in fish takes place through the blood where the ions are generally attached to proteins. There are five potential routes for the contaminants to enter an aquatic organism. The pathways are through the food, non-food particles, gills, the skin and oral consumption of water. Once the contaminants are accumulated, they are carried by the blood to the liver for modification and storage. If contaminants are altered by the liver, they can be stored or excreted in the bile produced in liver or reversed back into the blood stream for elimination by the gills or kidneys or stored in fat which is a hepatic tissue.
Plants require various heavy metals for their growth and excessive amount of heavy metals can damage cell structure, inhibition of major enzymes, inhibit the photosynthesis process and growth of plants, altered water balance, nutrient assimilation and can even cause plant death [41].
Heavy metal give rise to chlorosis, slow and poor plant growth, yield depression and even less nutrient absorption, disorders in plant metabolic processes and decreased potential to fixate molecular nitrogen in legumes of plants.
Seed germination was gradually retarded in the presence of large amount of lead. It can be due to long term incubation of the seeds and have resulted to compensate the toxic outcomes of lead by various mechanisms such as leaching, chelation, metal binding or absorption by microorganisms [42].
Replacing of major essential nutrients at cation exchange sites reveals indirect toxic effects on plant development. Enzyme metabolism is extremely crucial for growth and development of plants and heavy metals effect enzymes to inhibit many other major metabolisms in plants.
Heavy metals may lead to loss of fertility of soil by reduction in decomposition of organic matter by depletion of various microbes present inside the soil [43].
Copper is required as micronutrients in plants and helps in synthesis of ATP and assimilation of carbon dioxide. Excessive copper may exhibit oxidative stress and decreases growth of root.
Zinc required as micronutrient for synthesis of chlorophyll in plants. It retards growth of plants and nutrient level. It causes manganese and copper deficiency in shoot region.
Cadmium results in inhibition of growth and development, browning of roots tips and even death too.
Mercury can effects whole food chain and induces ROS and oxidative stress too. It causes depletion of germination in seeds, height of plant reduced flowering and fruit production, retarded growth and development.
Chromium induces the oxidative stress and degrades photosynthesis pigments in plants [30].
Lead degrades the development of roots and arsenic effects yield of crop and chlorosis, plant height and decreases ability of seed for germination [44].
Nickel is important and considered as macronutrient in plants but present in excessive amount can inhibit root growth, short shoot yield, etc. [45].
Enzymes and co-enzymes both are made up various elements such as cobalt. High concentration of cobalt may cause depletion in nutrients like proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, etc. Also exhibit retarded plant growth and development.
Photosynthesis is prime phenomena in plants and it requires iron element. The excessive concentration of iron can inhibit photosynthesis itself [24].
Plants experience oxidative stress upon exposure to heavy metals that leads to cellular damage and disrupt of cellular ionic homeostasis. To decrease the detrimental outcomes of heavy metal exposure and their absorption, plants have participated in detoxification processes highly based on chelation and sub-cellular compartmentalization. A primary class of heavy metal chelator known in plants is phytochelatins (PCs), are produced by non-translation from reduced glutathione (GSH) in a transpeptidation reaction catalyzed by the enzyme phytochelatin synthase (PCS) [39].
The various biosorption techniques adopted by the plants such as phytoextraction, phytoextraction, rhizofiltration, phytovolatilisation and many others.
Various microbial strains can accumulate the toxicity of heavy metals from bacteria, fungi, algae and helps in bioremediation and biosorption [46]. Bacterial strains show five different mechanisms in resistance to heavy metals. These mechanisms are by inhibiting the entrance of metals into the cell. The cell wall, membrane and capsule prohibit entry of metal ions inside the cellular body. Carbonyl group in polysaccharides of bacterial capsule accumulates the ions of heavy metals. Ions of metal like zinc, lead, and copper resulted resistance by
In bacteria, active transport illustrate largest group of heavy metal resistance. Active transport remove metal ions from cell membrane and it can be placed on either on plasmid or on chromosomes [48, 49].
In intracellular sequestration, combination of metal ions to form large ion is done by several compounds inside cytoplasm of cell. Example;
In extracellular sequestration, metal ions are collected by periplasm or outer membrane of cells as insoluble compounds [51].
Condensation of metal ions was done by the bacterial strains. Strains decreasing chromate, vanadate and moyhybadate were observed from surroundings. Metal ions were utilized as electron donors for generating energy by bacterial isolates. Example:
There are various processes of heavy metal resistance like extracellular barrier, extracellular sequestration, and active transport of metal ions (efflux), intracellular sequestration, and reduction of metal ions by microbial cells.
Bacteria resistant to mercury are
59 isolated actinobacteria have shown resistance to the five heavy metals. Using molecular identification 16S rRNA, 27 strains were found to classified in the
Three strains were identified up to genus level based on their morphological, cultural, physiological and biochemical characteristics as
Bacterial cell wall experiencing the metal ion is the primary constituent of biosorption. The metal ions get connected to the various functional groups such as (amine, carboxyl, hydroxyl, phosphate, sulfate, amines) exist on the cell wall of the microbe. The metal uptake mechanism involves binding of metal ions to reactive groups lies on cell wall followed by internalization of metal ions inside cell protoplast. Some metal in more amount are accumulated by Gram positive strains due to presence of glycoproteins in their cell wall. Fewer metal absorption by Gram negative strains is reported due to phospholipids and LPS in their cell wall.
Gram positive and gram negative bacterial strains have been investigated in the absorption of heavy metals.
Arsenic resistant bacteria species are
The
10 isolates of rhizobacteria out of which some were Gram-positive bacteria
Cadmium resistant bacterium,
The efflux processes involves cadA and cadB gene method, and encodes several efflux pump proteins and various functional groups like amine, carboxyl, phosphate and hydroxyl ease cadmium binding sites to bacterial surface such as chemisorption. The membrane impermeablility is regulated by enzymes used in detoxifying the cadmium metal [63]. Various processes on the basis of morphological, biochemical characteristics, 16S rDNA gene sequencing and phylogeny analysis exhibited that the strain RZCd1 was recognized as
With the help of 16S rRNA gene sequence,
Highly mercury resistant bacteria strains were
Mercury-resistance in the bacteria isolates were classified into the various genera such as
Attachment to the cell membrane, influx and efflux adsorption, detoxification of toxic metals to less harmful form, the use of
Lead accumulation processes operated by the lead resistant bacteria isolates includes efflux mechanism, extracellular sequestration, biosorption, precipitation, alteration in cell morphology, enhanced siderophore production and intracellular lead bioaccumulation [73].
Four distinct bacteria were isolated with high levels of resistance to lead, each exhibited resistance to 2 mM lead on the minimal medium. Two were identified as Gram-positive genus
S. no. | Microorganism | Metal concentration in ppm | References |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 625.8 | [61] | |
2. | 625.8 | [61] | |
3. | 1350 | [55] | |
4. | 1100 | [55] |
Removal of Lead by bacterial strains.
Lead-resistant bacteria play an important role in the development of lead-exposed plants. The endophyte
The nickel-resistant bacteria were identified
Few strains
S. no. | Microorganism | Metal concentration | References |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 83 mg/mL | [77] | |
2. | Enterobacter sp. | 200 ppm | [78] |
Removal of nickel by bacterial strains.
Nickel resistance isolates from bacteria isolated from New caledonia by DNA-DNA hybridization. The biotinylated probes of DNA were obtained from
Copper-resistant bacteria have been isolated from the different sources, but copper-resistant
The
S. no. | Microorganisms | Meta concentration in mg/L | References |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 121.82 | [82] | |
2. | 80 | [82] | |
3. | 300 | [82] |
Removal of copper by bacterial strains.
Bacterial strains showed high level of removal of heavy metals, determinants like YJ3 and YJ7 maybe resistance to Cu and isolates like SWJ11, MT16, GZC24 and YAH27 may be resistance to heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Cd, Ni and Zn. It has been observed that plant growth-promoting bacteria can enhance the development and heavy metal uptake of plants [83, 84].
Numerous bacterial species show resistance to heavy metal such as thallium, tungsten, uranium, plutonium, have been observed from sediment and water sample.
Fungi are ubiquitous in nature and found in water and soil. Recent strains isolated from contaminated sites have shown exceptional potential to tolerate heavy metals [86].
Fungi show potential as biocatalysts to accumulate heavy metals and convert them into very less toxic metals. Fungi mostly use chelation method to upgrade the tolerance to harmful heavy metals.
Recent studies have concluded many fungal strains like Rhizopus
Fungus as biosorbents used in removal of heavy metal ions. Bioleaching involves use of heterotrophic fungi and their metabolic products for accumulation of heavy metals from solid waste. Bioleaching is alternative method to traditional methods and fungal strains such as
Fungi show two mechanisms for heavy metal tolerance:
Extracellular sequestration.
Intracellular sequestration.
Extracellular mechanism inhibits metal ions to entrance and intracellular mechanism decrease metal ions inside the cytosol. In extracellular system, fungal cells excrete the organic compound that does not belong to cell wall compounds to chelate metal ions.
In intercellular system, metal transport proteins show resistant by ejection of metal ions from inside the cytosol [88].
Fungi strains to tolerate heavy metals are
S. no. | Microorganism | Accumulation of heavy metals in ppm | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 500 | [91] | |
2. | 500 | [91] | |
3. | 400 | [91] | |
4. | 500 | [91] | |
5. | 400 | [92] | |
6. | 1000 | [55] | |
7. | 100 | [55] | |
8. | 150–200 | [93] |
Metal concentration of cadmium used in studying metal resistance in fungi.
S. no. | Microorganism | Accumulation of heavy metals in ppm | References |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 2000 | [92] | |
2. | 400 | [55] | |
3. | 400 | [55] | |
4. | 800 | [55] | |
5. | 800 | [91] | |
6. | 700 | [91] | |
7. | 700 | [91] | |
8. | 800 | [91] | |
9. | Trichodermabervicompactum QYCD-6 | 1600 | [93] |
Metal concentration of Lead used in studying metal resistance in fungi.
Fungal sensitivity against heavy metals alters the origination of fungal spores. Sporulation is a natural response created by fungi as metal avoidance strategy in heavy metal contaminated sites.
Formation of Metallothionein polypeptides reduce cytotoxicity and metabolize heavy metals in fungi.
S. no. | Microorganism | Accumulation of heavy metals in ppm | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 2000 | [92] |
Metal concentration of mercury used in metal resistance in fungi.
Various fungi species such as
Bioaccumulation and biovolatilization through arsenic resistant species like
Microbes involved in biochemical mechanisms to exploit arsenic oxy-anions either as an electron acceptor (arsenate) for anaerobic respiration or as an electron donor (arsenite) to support chemoautotrophic fixation of carbon dioxide into cell carbon [102].
Two arsenic resistant fungi are
acrA biosensor strain is first fungal biosensor for arsenic detection. Using fungi as whole cell biosensors have various advantages [104].
A non-pathogenic strain
Iron is essential in low concentration but very harmful in high amount of concentration. The fungal strains useful in iron resistance are
Cobalt metal is found in state of cobaltite, linnaeite, smaltite, etc. Some fungal strains help in accumulation of cobalt are
Metal detoxification or chelation is one more strategy defense for heavy metal resistance. Algae secrete chelating molecules in response to metal ions that successively bind to them resulting in the sequestration of complexed metals in cellular organelles. Most of the algae strains are rumored to accumulate elevated metal ion concentration in cellular organelles. Additionally, the appliance of this metal resistance in biogenesis of metal nano-particles and metal compound nano-particles has been investigated by [107].
Algae are aquatic plants which absence of true roots and stems. Even when less nutrition is provided still they can grow in large biomass. Large size, high sorption ability and no production of harmful components are responsible for good biosorbent material. Features required for binding algae surface to heavy metal ions are algae species, ionic charge of metal and chemical composition of metal ion solution. Amine, carboxyl, sulfate, phosphate, sulfhydryl, hydroxyl, imidazole groups are metal ion binding sites on algal surfaces [108].
Algae show various mechanism such as formation of proteins which binds with metals, changes in structure of cell membrane, complexation or elimination of ions. Heavy metals can be eliminated for contaminated sites by either living cells or dead cells by usage of inactive biomass. Mechanism of absorption of living cells is very much complex than intracellular uptake [109].
Two processes in algal biosorption are involved. 1. Ion exchange method where ions present on algal membrane Ca, Mg, K, Na. They are displaced by metal ions. 2. Complexation between metal ions and functional groups. The metal removal process of algae is similar to bacteria by bonding of metal ions with the membrane [110].
Three fresh water microalgal determinants
S. no. | Metal | Microrganism | Biosorption of metals | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Lead | 370 mg/g | [112] | |
2. | Lead | 93.5 mg/g | [113] | |
3. | Lead | 0.25 mg/g | [114] | |
4. | Lead | 370 mg/g | [112] | |
5. | Lead | Oedogonium sp. | 145 mg/g | [113] |
6. | Cadmium | 40 mg/g | [115] | |
7. | Cadmium | 0.79 mmol/g | [116] | |
8. | Cadmium | 135 mg/g | [117] | |
9. | Cadmium | 43 mg/g | [118] | |
10. | Nickel | 40 mg/g | [112] | |
11. | Nickel | 30 mg/g | [112] | |
12. | Nickel | 24.44 mg/g | [112] | |
13. | Zinc | 0.125 mg/g | [114] | |
14. | Zinc | 390 μg/g | [119] | |
15. | Zinc | 77.29 μg/g | [119] | |
16. | Zinc | 0.80 mmol/g | [112] | |
17. | Copper | 0.212 mg/g | [114] | |
18. | Copper | 46.4 mg/g | [118] | |
19. | Copper | 1.59 mmol/g | [120] |
Heavy metal shows biosorption potential in algal species.
Red algae
Microalgae are also capable in utilizing the removal of heavy metals for water contaminated sites. Microalgae are unicellular organisms and also known as phytoplankton which are visible under microscope only and found in both fresh and marine water. Microalgae show positive responses in the resistance towards the heavy metals and convey better chances of bioremediation. Microalgae are also used as a bio-indicator to check or identify the effects of contaminants on ecosystem. Microalgae exhibit biosorption methods to accumulate heavy metals by showing extracellular mechanism and intracellular mechanism to deal with high toxic concentration. Microalgae mostly used to treat wastewater as it releases oxygen as a byproduct during process [123].
Bioremediation by Cynobacteria (Blue Green algae):
Cynobacteria is efficient tool for enhancing the productivity of crop, and plants, formation of bio fuel, rise in fertility of soil and bioremediation also. To explore multiple functional bioagents, genetically engineered cynobacteria should be introduced heavy metals like cadmium, lead, copper, cobalt, manganese were treated with different cynobacterial species such as
Heavy metals develop oxidative stress by generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which is extremely toxic and damages the nucleic acid-DNA and RNA, protein and lipids also.
Cynobacteria acts as bioremediator because of their photoautotrophic nature and capability in nitrogen fixation. It is able to tertiary level of agro industrial effluents like oil refineries, paper and pharmaceutical industry
Cynobacteria develop bio-flocculants that shield there body mechanism from toxicity of heavy metas. Bio-flocculants are outlined by the presence of various negatively charged binding sides that permit cynobacteria in resistance of heavy metal from contaminated sites [126]. Cynobacteria have flourished numerous mechanisms for reducing the metal stress by intracellular metal sequestration, extracellular mechanism or binding of metals ions.
Metalithionein are metal binding proteins released by cynobacteria that support organism in metal sequestration of dangerous heavy metal ions.
Use of cynobacteria is much better than other microbes like bacteria fungi because of various other benefits like growth promoters, bio stabilizer, bio energy resource (bio-diesel), bio fertilizer, wasteland reclamation, carbon dioxide sequestration, methane oxidation.
Cynobacteria are very much efficient because of short generation time and helps in atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
Lichens in bioremediation:
Lichens are made by symbiotic association of fungi and algae in which both benefit each other. In wastewater remediation, lichens used as a biosorbents.
In heavy metal contamination, lichens can be used as bio-monitors too and the capability to accumulate heavy metal allows the monitoring ability. Lichen
Lichens adopt numerous processes for metal uptake such as extracellular uptake by ion exchange method intracellular removal and capturing of metal particles. The studies done by UK researchers on lichen results that lichen reproduces on land contaminated with uranium particles from mining activities and lichen converts uranium into dark particles. Endolithic lichen can be studied as a future approach in field of bioremediation [127].
Heavy metal pollution are very harmful for humans, animals, aquatic species and plants too and they were accumulated on earth crust by natural process as well as human activities such as industrialization, urbanization, mining and extraction, agricultural practices, etc. Bioremediation is the process which use either naturally occurring or deliberately introduced microorganisms to consume and break down environmental pollutants, in order to clean a polluted site. Various studies had been done and various strains were investigated are above mentioned. Bacteria, Fungi, Algae all are helpful in maintaining tolerance against heavy metals in different contaminated sites. There are several microbes present that provide heavy metal resistance through develop different method of resistance against different heavy metal. It can reduce heavy metals from environment to some extent. Further research area needs to be extended on the focus of gene transfer within bio-films for Bioremediation and use of genetic modified organisms. These strategies would facilitate the development of improved techniques for the bioremediation of heavy metals in the environment.
I would like to thank Lovely Professional University providing me the opportunity. I thank the anonymous referees for their useful suggestions.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in the publication.
This study was conducted in collaboration between all the authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Therefore, being considered as a superior material for a sustainable future of industrial development, chitin perfectly meets up the demands with diversified functionalities in applications, excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. Non-toxicity to human and environment (air, water and soil) is a great opportunity for this revolutionary, innovative and sustainable material. Moreover, antibacterial potency and low immunogenicity of chitin have broadened the aspects of research and development on structure-function relationship toward biological tissues and activities. Despite abundance, low cost and availability, many experimental data from potential studies, reproducibility problems of chitin solubility measurement still limit the development of products and access to the market in large volume. Batch-to-batch variability, non-precise characterization and randomly distributed acetyl groups of chitin structure eventually results in a bad reproducibility of chitin solubility. Therefore, the chapter aims to organize the information of chitin structure at molecular level and correlate solubility with chitin structure. Moreover, the dissolution mechanism and solution behaviors in different solvents will be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"5935",slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Solubility of Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Jagadish C. 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RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49705",title:"Nucleic Acid Isolation and Downstream Applications",slug:"nucleic-acid-isolation-and-downstream-applications",totalDownloads:3470,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Nucleic acids are not only a source of life but also a means of observing, understanding, and regulating it. Nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, and their characteristics are discussed in other chapters of the book. This chapter describes the fundamental principles of different methods for nucleic acid sample preparation / nucleic acid extraction, such as column-based methods using silica membranes and traditional ones without a column purification procedure (commercially available or homemade). Other topics discussed here include comparative analysis of the use of these methods in DNA and RNA extraction from a variety of biological and clinical samples, as well as the relationship between the type of sample, the method used and the quality and amount of extracted DNA or RNA. Finally, the chapter outlines the application of nucleic acids in the diagnosis of various diseases, in scientific research, and bird sex determination by downstream applications such as restriction enzyme analysis, polymerase chain reactions (PCR, reverse transcription-PCR, real-time PCR), and different sequencing methods (Sanger, cycling sequencing, and next-generation sequencing).",book:{id:"5092",slug:"nucleic-acids-from-basic-aspects-to-laboratory-tools",title:"Nucleic Acids",fullTitle:"Nucleic Acids - From Basic Aspects to Laboratory Tools"},signatures:"Ivo Nikolaev Sirakov",authors:[{id:"176634",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ivo Nikolaev",middleName:null,surname:"Sirakov",slug:"ivo-nikolaev-sirakov",fullName:"Ivo Nikolaev Sirakov"}]},{id:"57644",title:"Polysaccharides: Structure and Solubility",slug:"polysaccharides-structure-and-solubility",totalDownloads:4372,totalCrossrefCites:39,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Understanding the solubility of polysaccharides is extremely important for their food applications as most functions of polysaccharides including stability, emulsifying property, drug delivery, membrane forming properties, etc., are all achieved in aqueous solution. 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It is documented that isolation of some of these bacteria from cultures is very difficult. Because there is a large number of STD pathogens which can generate coinfections, their simultaneous detection in a unique sample is very important. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an advanced method of molecular biology which allows for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens in the same sample. The advantages of the multiplex PCR method were assessed by various researchers by comparing the diagnosis results obtained with different other conventional methods. The sensitivity and specificity of these methods were analyzed on different specimens in comparison to traditional methods, such as culture media or direct microscopic examination. These studies demonstrated beyond any doubt that the multiplex PCR system is highly effective in the detection of each of multiple STD pathogens depicted from a single specimen and argued for multiplex PCR superiority in terms of sensitivity and rapidity.",book:{id:"5450",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-for-biomedical-applications",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction for Biomedical Applications",fullTitle:"Polymerase Chain Reaction for Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Mihaela L. Vică, Horea V. Matei and Costel V. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:51,paginationItems:[{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104485",signatures:"Yerly Magnolia Useche Salvador",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Iron Metabolism - Iron a Double‐Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11579",title:"Animal Welfare - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11579.jpg",hash:"12e4f41264cbe99028655e5463fa941a",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"51520",title:"Dr.",name:"Shao-Wen",surname:"Hung",slug:"shao-wen-hung",fullName:"Shao-Wen Hung"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11578",title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",hash:"3731c009f474c6ed4293f348ca7b27ac",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[],publicationYearFilters:[],authors:{}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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