Selected univariate and multivariate regression models applied to calibration data in quantitative analytical determinations [9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
\r\n\tThe purpose of the book is to bring together the latest knowledge about genetic diversity by presenting the studies of some of the scientists who are engaged in development of new tools and ideas used to reveal genetic diversity, often from very different perspectives. The book should prove useful to students, researchers and experts in the area of biology, medicine and agriculture.
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In this introductory chapter, the author (Editor) wishes to provide some background information for the reader, toward appreciation and understanding of the relevance and necessity of the process of calibration in quantitative chemical analysis, and the equally relevant and necessary role of the process of validation, or verification, of the calibration process. The subsequent chapters of this book will deal with the (much) finer details of analytical calibration and validation in current applications to various analytical methodologies, and thus allow the reader to see the many “faces” of calibration and validation in the realm of chemical analysis.
Calibration, in its broadest sense, may be defined as the process of bringing a task, method, procedure, or some operation in general, into conformity with a set of objectives and goals that are solidly established and highly reliable; i.e., based on information that is
The term validation denotes, in general, verification of something; i.e., demonstrating by some means that an object, concept, etc. is accurate or valid [1]. In analytical chemistry, validation has the same meaning—in this case, though, the “something” to be verified is the analytical method used for analyte quantitation [3]. The calibration scheme employed in the analytical determination is particularly subject to verification, and must be, as the reliability of the analytical results produced by the determination is dependent on the reliability of the calibration expression that relates analyte signal to its concentration. Typical parameters used to validate a quantitative determination of an analyte include accuracy, precision, limits of detection and quantitation, limits of linearity of the calibration curve, dynamic range of calibration, robustness, sensitivity, and selectivity [3].
The rationale for performing a calibration of an analytical method may be stated as follows:
The rationale for carrying out a validation study of the analytical calibration may be expressed as follows:
One can say that the process of calibration has many ‘faces”. There is a myriad of possible approaches to the design and analysis of calibration schemes; all one has to do is peruse the published, peer-reviewed literature of analytical chemistry to get an idea of the breadth and depth of calibration methods that have been developed and subsequently implemented for a variety of quantitative analytical determinations over many years. Two aspects of the calibration process in chemical analysis, particularly, are critical to the development and implementation of calibration schemes for analytical methods. These aspects are:
The design of the method, which would include such considerations as the number of analytes to be determined, the number of blanks and non-zero standards, the matrix of the blanks and standards, the concentration range of each analyte, and application of the method to univariate (one variable) or multivariate (more than one variable) data.
The mathematical/statistical treatment of the calibration data (i.e., analyte signals and concentrations) that will yield a logical, workable relationship between signal and concentration.
Let us now discuss briefly the aforementioned items as they apply to calibration and validation of analytical methods.
A calibration scheme may consist of as few as two standards (a blank sample containing no known analyte plus a standard sample containing a known, non-zero quantity of analyte) to a series of standards (at least one blank sample and many standards containing known, and varying, amounts of the analyte) in which the analyte concentrations are arranged in order of increasing concentration. The resulting calibration method may be designed so that known quantities of the analyte are added to the sample matrix, or include a non-analyte chemical species that serves as an
The external standard method is perhaps the best known and most widely used calibration method among analytical scientists. The external standard method employs a series of standards consisting of at least one blank that contains no known concentration of the sought-after analyte, and several non-zero standards containing known concentrations of the analyte and prepared in order of increasing analyte concentration. The calibration standards are prepared separate from (external to) the sample matrix, usually in a solvent, e.g., water, and containing the reagents used in sample preparation. The measured signals of the blank and non-zero standards are adjusted for the blank signal to yield a signal that reflects the signal due only to the analyte [3, 4]. The resulting blank-adjusted signals for the calibration standards are then regressed on the corresponding analyte concentrations to yield a calibration equation that is useful for determination of the concentration of the desired analyte in the unknown samples. If the analyte signal (I)-concentration (C) relationship is, e.g., first-order (i.e., “straight line”) linear with a slope m, the resulting calibration function will be of the form given by Eq. (1) [3]:
The blank-corrected signals of the standards may also be plotted versus the corresponding analyte concentrations, as illustrated in Figure 1. The calibration equation for this plot is shown on the plot itself.
An example of a first-order linear calibration curve for determination of aluminum by the spectrophotometric Eriochrome Cyanine R method (courtesy of original research of the author, November 2015).
This approach is employed mostly with samples that possess a component which yields a signal that interferes with the signal due to the analyte [3, 5, 6]. The method of standard addition involves direct addition (i.e., spiking) of known amounts of the analyte, usually as aliquots of a stock or working standard solution of the analyte, into equal-volume portions or aliquots of the sample itself. One of the sample aliquots is unspiked (i.e., no analyte added above what may already be in the sample), while the other aliquots are spiked with increasing amounts of the analyte, analogous to the scheme used for an external standard calibration. The effect of this addition of known amounts of the analyte to the aliquots of sample is to increase the signal due to the analyte in order to surmount the signal from the interfering species. The measured analyte signals of the unspiked and spiked sample aliquots are then regressed against the corresponding concentrations of spiked analyte to yield a calibration function that is utilized for determination of analyte concentration in the original sample by calculation of analyte concentration at zero signal. The standard addition method is used primarily to determine analytes in samples that contain chemical components which interfere with the signal produced by the analyte. An example of a standard addition plot is depicted in Figure 2.
An example of a standard addition calibration curve for determination of iron in mine drainage by the colorimetric Ferene-S method (courtesy of original research of the author and former students, November 2010).
The internal standard method makes use of addition of a chemical species, different from the analyte, in a constant amount to calibration standards, blanks, and samples involved in the quantitative determination of the analyte [2, 3]. A ratio of the analyte signal (IA,S) to the internal standard signal (IIS,S) is calculated for the blank and each standard. Likewise, a ratio of the analyte concentration (CA,S) to the internal standard concentration (CIS,S) is calculated for each standard (including the blank) in the calibration set. The signal ratios (IA,S/IIS,S) are then plotted against the concentration ratios (CA,S/CIS,S) to produce a calibration curve and its calibration equation of the form given by Eq. (2):
In Eq. (2), m is the slope of the calibration function. The internal standard method is used for irreproducible amounts of sample, varying signals from determination to determination, or losses of sample occurring during sample preparation.
For sets of data/results, the term
Regression method | Univariate/multivariate mode |
---|---|
Ordinary least-squares (OLS)
| Univariate (simple OLS, multiple OLS) Multivariate (multivariate OLS) |
Stepwise | Univariate/multivariate |
Weighted | Univariate/multivariate |
Principal component (PCR) | Univariate/multivariate (usually, one dependent variable regressed on multiple independent variables) |
Partial least-squares (PLS)
| Univariate (PLS-1) Multivariate (PLS-2) |
Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) | Multivariate |
Ridge | Univariate |
Lasso | Univariate |
Regression trees | Univariate/multivariate |
Artificial neural networks (ANN) | Univariate/multivariate |
Without the means to assess the reliability (i.e., accuracy and precision) of the calibration scheme used for quantitative determination of an interesting analyte, the calibration curve employed for quantitation of the analyte
Various statistical parameters and methods have been developed over the years to accomplish the task of performing assessments of the reliability of calibration schemes used in quantitative analyses. These parameters examine such aspects of calibration schemes as the linearity of the resulting calibration curve, the goodness of fit of the regression model to the experimental calibration data, the precision of the calibration slope, and the standard errors of calibration (SEC) and prediction (SEP) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13], among other quantities. Such statistical parameters as the regression equation (i.e., slope (m) and y-intercept (b)), square of the Pearson correlation coefficient (R2), and standard error of the regression (sr) are among the assessors of calibration performance for a univariate case (i.e., an analyte signal dependent on a corresponding analyte concentration, or vice versa) [2, 3, 4, 8], and are parameters that are usually an undergraduate chemist’s first exposure to calibration and validation in a quantitative analysis course. As those involved in data analysis know (all too well), there is much more to consider regarding calibration and validation methodologies. For both univariate and multivariate calibrations, parameters such as
Calibrations models are usually designed using two sets of response (dependent) variable and predictor (independent) variable data: a
In cases for which there might be a paucity of data available to perform a thorough evaluation of the calibration model, a method known as
This method uses training sets with a set number of objects randomly selected from the available data set. A calibration model is developed from the training set and subsequently applied to the objects in the available data set that are not part of the training set. This process yields corresponding prediction values and their associated errors. The process is then repeated many (sometimes up to 1000) times. Two advantages of the bootstrap method are an uncomplicated approach and having the same number of objects in the training set; some disadvantages are labor-intensive calculations, the possibility of unequal consideration of all objects in the available data, and results that are sometimes overly optimistic [11].
Let us not forget about other parameters that are useful for validation of the analytical method itself. These are the so-called “figures of merit” [2, 3, 4]—the accuracy (i.e., bias) and precision (i.e., standard deviation) of the analytical results, limits of detection (LOD), quantitation (LOQ), and linearity (LOL), the dynamic range (the range of concentration linear with signal from the LOQ to the LOL; i.e., LOL/LOQ), sensitivity, and selectivity [2, 3, 4]. All of these parameters for method validation are ultimately connected, and traceable, to the calibration scheme employed for quantitation of sought-after analytes using an analytical method or technique.
In this book on calibration and validation of analytical methods are a collection of research and review chapters on various applications and other aspects of calibration and validation in chemical analysis. In these highly interesting chapters, one can see the many and varied “faces” of calibration and validation revealing themselves to the reader, waiting to be studied and utilized by interested researchers. A quick glimpse of these “faces” should provide the reader with a preview of what is in store as one explores the content of this book:
The impact of factorial design and machine learning strategies on pharmaceutical analysis
Multivariate calibration methods applied to development of vibrational spectroscopic methods
Approaches to method validation for pharmaceutical assessments, using high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC)
A review of criteria for assessment of analytical method reliability
Using internal standards for quantitation of proteins in biological matrices by LC-MS/MS
Calibration methods for laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)
Analytical method validation, presented in the context of laboratory competence and generation of reliable analytical results
I anticipate that the reader will find this assemblage of chapters dealing with analytical method calibration and validation useful as well as interesting, and possibly inspiring some ideas for future studies.
This introductory chapter to this book on calibration and validation of analytical methods was written to provide the reader with a general overview of a sort on the topics of calibration and validation as applied to problems in chemical analysis. This included a general explanation of calibration and validation, the importance of these topics in quantitative analysis, and a rationale for their use in analytical chemistry. Also presented were overviews on calibration and regression methods, and validation parameters and methods for calibration schemes and analytical results. Finally, a glimpse of the subsequent chapters in this text was given. This introductory chapter is meant to be general in scope; the reader will get much more detail in the following research and review chapters. Thus, I invite the reader to explore the following chapters to see the various “faces” of analytical method calibration and validation.
The author thanks the University of Pittsburgh—Greensburg for its support of my efforts as Editor of this book, and for encouragement in writing the introductory chapter. Special thanks are due my colleague, Associate Professor of Statistics Dr. Dean Nelson for many interesting discussions on data analysis, to my Administrative Assistant Mrs. Valerie Kubenko for her assistance and encouragement, to all my former and current students in my introductory analytical chemistry, instrumental analysis, and introduction to chemometrics courses for all their ideas and interest in analytical data treatment, to the Pittcon Short Courses Committee for the opportunity to present my short courses on analytical data treatment at this conference since 2009, and finally, but by no means least, to my wife Resa for all her encouragement, love, and support.
Global warming is a disastrous phenomenon compounded by the human activities often drilled by the greed and corporate paradigm of thinking. Its totaling effect in the long run might threaten the survival of mankind and any other species for that matter. Many nations recognize it as serious immediate threat and they forms the associations and organizations to combat against it. However, there are few cynical nations, owing to several reason, economic reason being dominant. But, with passage of time, it has become so apparent that even a rational high school student can comprehend the status and need of action, it is very evident to a layman, that the temperature of the earth, be it in any season is gradually increasing and the people working in the field are awe struck by the crops ability to grow in new higher unnatural altitudes. The lexicon “global warming” might be new to them but they have already felt its consequences.
Climate is very essential concept, owing to dependence of existence of life on it. Living beings survive on food, food is produced by plants and growth of plants depends on climate. So, erratic change in the climate will put billions of lives at stake. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that we discuss, monitor and make sure that the climate for different regions remains at its natural range. Many literatures suggest that global warming caused by the global warming gases emitted enormously by the manufacturing factories and automobiles industries are the cause of erratic climate [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Global warming if unchecked will influence the climate of world to the point that earth tipping point is reached, where the surviving earth cannot further sustain any lives in it, changing the course of history preceded by mass extinction of species in the world. Owing to the likelihood of paying a bigger price latter due the simple negligence in time, it is duties of all the global citizens to be mindful about it and do come together to find the effective solutions to mitigate the problem that is ever going to be bigger as it gets delayed. It would be grave mistake to decide not to heed on this global immediate call, for it has the ability to either make or break our collective future.
There is two school of thoughts with regard to urgency of the matter, where one school of thought believes that understanding the climate change is complex and it is extremely difficult to predict the future of climate in this complex universe, and are skeptical about the anthropogenic global warming, suggesting that the information that is known about weather and its causes is not enough to predict the future climate and the climate model are far from precision [7]. However, another school of thought, expresses its concern and urgency to save the earth form untimely destruction, advocating the need to limit the production of the global warming gases that enhance the chances and intensity of occurrence of the erratic weather [7, 8]. In this modern era, people spent more time looking into screen than looking into sky for weather. As a responsible global citizen, it is our moral obligation to explore the underlying truth and make informed decisions locally. Thus, this study explored the available literature on the global warming and climate change in terms of its urgency.
Global warming is the term that was introduced or used for the first time by climatologist Wallace Broecker in his article
The solar radiation from the sun is balanced by the thermal radiations reflecting from the earth; this interaction balance and determines the surface temperature of the earth. The incoming solar radiation from the sun is independent but the outgoing thermal radiations depends on the earth’s surface temperature and the presence of greenhouse gases, which absorbs some of the thermal radiations. Greenhouse gasses (GHG), such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, water vapor, ozone and chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) are responsible for trapping of heat. For instance, water vapor (40%) is responsible for absorbing majority of thermal radiation from earth, followed by carbon dioxide (30%), methane (20%) and other gases (5%) [7]. So, it indicates that outgoing thermal radiation is mostly absorbed by water vapor and carbon dioxide. Likewise, the change in composition of water vapor due to human activities are negligible, so it implies that the greenhouse gases produced by human activities are likely responsible for the most of the trapping of heat [10, 11].
However, some authors [12] argues that the heat trapping by the CO2 is not significant and rather it is likely that sun radiations are responsible for the global temperature rise. Again, the debate on whether the sun radiations or GHG is responsible for the global temperature continues, recently, Herring [13] refuted the claim that likeliness of sun radiation as the cause of global warming might not be true. He argues that, it is possible that sun can warm the earth provided that the pattern of the solar intensity increases over the years. Likewise, the sunspot data do indicate that there was a small increase in the amount of sunlight from late 1800s to the mid-1900s which experts estimates that it could have contributed at the most up to 0.1°C of the 1.0°C (1.8°F) of warming observed since the pre-industrial era. However, there has been no significant net change in the sun’s energy output from the late 1970s to the present (see Figure 1), which is when the most rapid global warming was observed. Further, scientists rule out the significant role of sun in global warming due to the fact that if the sun energy output had intensified then it is logical to expect all the layers of earth’s atmosphere to be warmed, which is not the case that is been observed. Rather, satellite and weather balloons observation showed that more warming in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) and cooling in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) [13]. This pattern of differential warming is what is been expected due to result of increasing GHG trapping heat.
The peaks and valleys in solar geomagnetic activity since 1900, based on the number of sunspots observed on the face of the sun each day (orange dots). Graph by NOAA
The main source of global warming gases is the burning of the fossil fuels and it is observed that a nation with the abundance of the availability of the fossils fuels tends to depend more on fossil fuels than the nations with low abundance of fossils resources [5]. Global energy consumption with regard to fossil fuels are staggeringly high, and its prediction for the coming years are also projected very high, as reflected in the world energy outlook report of 2012 and 2013. Thereby the production of greenhouse gases will be soared and ultimately it might bring about the increase in the global temperature of the earth. Likewise, the rising population’s demand for fuel, as well as the need for economic growth and a higher standard of living, are both factors to consider. Lack of political will and institutional failure in to make and enforce effective environmental policies, as well as a lack of related knowledge and Rampant disinformation, have all hampered action against global warming and reduction of the global warming gases [7]. Furthermore, the global temperature rises correlates with the rising pattern in the consumption of the fossil fuel, indicating the likeliness of the GHG warming the earth [3].
With the increase in the concentration of the greenhouse gases it will act like a thick blanket in the atmosphere where it will absorb the solar radiation. The carbon molecules and the oxygen molecule in the carbon dioxide undergoes vibration like stretching, bending, and this action absorbs the solar radiations [1, 2]. Thereby hindering the reflection of solar radiation by the earth making the earth surface temperature warmer.
Many studies affirms that the GWCC is a worrying thing. For example, a study done by Suonan et al. [14] suggests that due to global warming there will be more than worse phenological alteration in some places like in Tibetan Plateau, more than what is predicated or known. This idea makes us think of worst situation if the temperature of the earth keeps warming up. Moreover, the global sea level has risen by about 8 inches since 1880, and it’s projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet by 2100 (as a result of melting of ice), thus the danger of storm surges and high tides would increase the flooding in many regions [8].
Shrinking of glaciers, early breaking up of ice on rivers and lakes, shifting of plant and animal and premature flowering are some of the observable effects global climate change had on environment. Moreover, effects that scientists had predicted in the past are now occurring: loss of sea ice, accelerated sea level rise, more intense heat waves. Scientists have high confidence that global temperatures will continue to rise for decades to come, largely due to greenhouse gases produced by human activities. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which includes more than 1,300 scientists from the United States and other countries, forecasts a temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century [15]. Moreover, the IPCC predicts that increases in global mean temperature of less than 1.8 to 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius) above sea levels will produce beneficial impacts in some regions and harmful ones in others. Net annual costs will increase over time as global temperatures increases [8].
However, not everyone believes that the earth’s surface temperature is rising, and even if global warming is true, not everyone accepts that human activities are the primary cause. Also, not everyone agrees that climate change is a problem. As a result, critics and deniers of global warming and climate change do not see the need to take steps to delay or reverse these trends [5, 7]. USA disengaging from Kyoto protocol and Paris agreement on climate showed the polarity of attitude of nations and people towards the GWCC issue. Moreover, at number of climate summit, member countries failed to agree to number of “Environmental targets” in recent years (Kyoto, Copenhagen, so on) [5].
Extend to which the idea of global warming and climate change have reached to the mankind largely depends on their exposure to the main stream medias and social media. It is found out that the social media network does plays vital role in spreading the knowledge and awareness of the GWCC and it is also indicated that they understand the concept better when they are expose to those terms in positive or negative light [16]. However, as watchdog it is responsibility of media and social media to uncover the truth, but some studies suggest that newspapers aren’t doing much to convince the health impact of GWCC to the public [17]. Moreover, in the study done by Shapiro and Park [18], they found out that people responses to the GWCC in social media particularly their reactions to YouTube video of GWCC are general and shows little or no concern about GWCC, which indicates many people aren’t so convince about the reality of GWCC.
On the contrary, the very existence of 175 plus active organization on climate change [19], and 100 plus top websites on climate change [20], indicates the concern and the urgency expressed by the people around the world. Study done by Liu et al. [21] also affirms that many congressmen do believe GWCC as real thing. Further, IPCC asserts that scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal, global temperature rise, warming of oceans, shrinking of ice sheets, rising of sea level, acidification of ocean, and declining of Arctic sea ice are some of the events that conveys the story of the happening event so called Global warming and climate change [8]. In addition, study done by Allen and McAleer [22] suggests that the of negative emotions or indifference to global warming might be due to lack of clear logical framework and confusion of short-term variations in localized weather with the long-term global average climate change.
The happenings of global warming can be traced through using the technique of observation and examining the rise in the land surface temperature, borehole temperature profile, sea surface temperature, and sea level [7, 8, 23]. If there are increase in all those four independent parameters, it is the indication that the global warming is occurring [7]. This increase is attributed to the increase in the global warming gases, CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere have risen from 0.028 percent in pre-industrial 1750 to 0.043 percent today. Until recently, it was thought that stabilizing CO2 levels in the atmosphere at about 0.055 percent by 2035 will be enough to keep global warming below 2°C. However, 3°C is becoming more possible, which will induce wreaking havoc on human colonies, coral reefs, rain forests, and polar ice caps. To keep temperature rises below 2°C, urgent international action is required, which means keeping CO2 levels below 0.045 percent. Only if governments can negotiate on cooperative national and international action can this become a possibility [23].
Despite the two school of thought on the urgency and status of GWCC, the evidences from the surface temperature, sea level rise, sea surface temperature, and borehole temperature profile indicate that the global warming is happening and it is going to be a major threat in the future, which will be discussed in the result and discussion section in detail.
The study utilized the qualitative design and uses document analysis approach of the data collected from the existing documented secondary sources. Resources were collected via use of Research for Life search engine, mostly peer-review journals and accredited resources were used in finding the useable data. Data were collected from more than fifteen different sources. Primarily the main sources of the collected data included Journal article titled “Global warming and climate change: Realities, Uncertainties and Measures” by A. P. Alzebeokhai, published in 2009, data from the NASA-Global climate change, data from NOAA (National centers for environmental information: National oceanic and atmospheric administration), and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (latest and updated information as of 2019).
The data collection and analysis are done in line with the research question on “Is Global warming and climate change (GWCC) really occurring, and how urgent it is?” Data from several climate expert organizations such as NASA-Global climate change, IPCC, NOAA and other accredited scientific journals are used for the same. The data from those separate sources were compared and analyzed. Owing to the lack of primary data, no statistical software was employed for the analysis.
The result from the analysis of four separate sets of observations, including surface temperature measurements, sea surface temperature, sea level changes, and temperature profiles in boreholes, all indicate that the earth’s surface temperature is increasing, suggesting that it is warming. Each of these separate sets of observations yields findings that overlap and complement each other, suggesting that the GWCC is a real phenomenon.
The surface of the earth has warmed by an average of 1.0°C (1.8°F) in the last 100 years, according to regular measurements of the earth’s surface temperature recorded daily from thousands of weather stations around the world, both ashore and stumped. Mean weekly, monthly, and annual temperatures are calculated using daily temperature measurements. As a result, the average annual temperature change can be easily monitored from year to year. The global mean temperature has risen by 0.1°C per decade over the last two decades, with 2005 being the warmest year on record [7]. The effects of large population centers on global mean temperature, referred to as the “urban heat island effect,” are calculated and corrected for; however, this accounts for less than 15% of observed global warming. Global warming is not constant across the globe, both in terms of time and space; high latitude regions warm more than low latitude regions [7]. Human activities are estimated to have caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming above pre-industrial levels, with a likely range of 0.8°C to 1.2°C. Global temperature rise is likely to reach 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052, if it continues to increase at the current rate [15]. Moreover, according to the Global climate change report 2018 [23], complied by NOAA, shows that the surface temperature is increasing, the data compared the temperature recorded from 1880 till 2018 which showed that, 2016 is the warmest recorded temperature with 0.95 temperature anomaly degree Celsius, followed by 2015 with 0.91 anomaly degree Celsius, and 2017 with 0.85 anomaly degree Celsius [23].
Additionally, the data from three major compilations based on measured surface temperatures: from GISS (Goddard institute for space studies), HadCRU (global temperature dataset) and NCDC (national oceanic and atmospheric administration) showed upward trend (see Figure 2). They have expressed the trend as the temperature difference (“anomaly”) with respect to the 1901–2000 average as the baseline [24].
Comparison of three data set on surface temperature (source: Verheggen [
The comparison of the three different dataset form three climate recoding source showed that the temperatures juggle up and down, but the overall trend is upward meaning the globe is warming.
Upon analysing trend through the average of the three datasets over the period 1975–2009 (during which greenhouse gas forcing was the dominant driver of climate change), the following are (see Figure 3).
Showing average temperature from three dataset (source: Verheggen [
For all three-temperature series, the trend from 1975 to 2009 is about the same (0.17 +/− 0.03 degrees per decade). The error reflects the trend’s 95 percent confidence interval, i.e., if the trend analysis were repeated a hundred times on the actual underlying results, the trend will be within the range of 0.14 to 0.20 degrees per decade 95 times out of 100 (see Figure 3) [24].
The thin black lines (see Figure 3) represent the 95% confidence “predictions bands” for the data. Based on the observed variability, 95% of the data are expected to fall within these lines. The observed yearly variability in global temperatures (occasionally exceeding 0.2 degrees) is such that 10 years is too short to discern the underlying long-term trend (0.17 degrees per decade) [24]. Thus, data from all different sources shows and depicts that the surface temperature of the earth has increased over the decade, with different data source agreeing to the value range of 0.1°C increase per decade [24]. This indicates the occurrence of global warming.
Another predictor of global warming and climate change comes from a completely different series of findings (the measurements of water level changes). The amount of water in the oceans is rising as a result of thermal expansion of water within the oceans and, as well as due to, melting of glaciers and polar ice as the earth warms. Regular water level observations are taken at various sites, equivalent to temperature measurements; daily water level variations, mostly due to tides and storms, are averaged to obtain mean sea level for a given period of time. Figure 4 depicts the average annual change in sea level between 1880 and 2008. Over the last century, the average water level has risen by around 18 cm [7]. Between 1880 and 1990, it increased by an estimated 2 mm per year on average (left chart in Figure 4) and is now growing at a rate of about 3.4 mm per year (right chart in Figure 4). Similar to global temperature changes, sea level changes, aren’t constant, so the detailed changes aren’t always in line with surface temperature measurements. The thermal expansion of the water column occurs later than the associated change in surface temperature, with ocean currents influencing the timing. Global temperature changes, as well as changes in sea level, are not constant, and the details of these changes are not always in line with surface temperature measurements. The water column’s thermal expansion occurs later than the related change in surface temperature; the differences are affected by ocean currents (Figure 5) [7].
Mean annual sea level rise associated with the thermal expansion of sea water due to warming and widespread melting of ice sheets (source: Aizebeokhai [
Trend of increase in sea level (satellite data) (source: NASA-global climate change [
Furthermore, the latest data from the NASA-Global Climate Change, shows that the trend of sea level is upward and increasing. The increase rate of 3.3 mm per year is recorded [25]. Thus, the data from the existing sources both form past and the recent, indicates the rise in the sea level, agreeing to rise value range of 2 to 3.4 mm per year. Which hints to the occurrence of the global warming and retreat of the ice sheets and glaciers.
The thermal history of the earth’s subsurface offers a third evidence of global warming and global climate change. The subsurface stores temperature records over time that are related to the prevailing environment at the time. Responsive thermometers are used to calculate temperature profiles with depth in boreholes, caves, and deep mines. Temperature anomalies due to geological features, upward flow of warmth from the earth’s interior, heat produced by crustal rocks, and variations in groundwater movement are generally adjusted for. Surface temperature oscillations propagate downward with depth, with shorter duration fluctuations attenuating more than longer period fluctuations. As a result, only long-term fluctuations in temperature penetrate great depths, with seasonal changes penetrating around 15 m until the signals fade. Century-long variations, in contrast to seasonal variations, can be observed to depths of about 150 m, and millennial cycles can be observed to depths of 500 m or more. These depths are easily attained by low-cost drilling. The subsurface serves as a selective filter, eliminating short-term temperature fluctuations and maintaining excellent records of global warming and, as a result, climate change (Figure 6) [7, 26].
Borehole temperature profile from sites in North America showing warmer temperatures within near-surface depths of 100–150 meters (source: Aizebeokhai [
The temperature profiles suggest substantial warming in the last century from 0.6°C in southeast Utah to more than 2.0°C in Alaska. Curves are arbitrarily offset for display purpose (see Figure 6). The temperature profiles of boreholes spread across a length of about 500 km of northern Alaska shows anomalous warming of 2 to 5°C in the upper 100 to 150 m of the permafrost and rocks [7]. Similarly, borehole temperature profiles in eastern Canada shows a less rapid warming of about 1.0°C. A warming of about 0.5 and 1.0°C were observed in Nebraska sites and Utah sites, respectively (see Figure 6). These results indicate that geothermal data mimicked the geographic variations of warming observed in weather station data. Baseline temperatures from previous centuries are often inferred from geothermal evidence, enabling researchers to date the start of the industrial revolution to this century and thus determine the effect of industrialization on global warming and climate change [7]. As a result of the data from the borehole temperature profile from various places, the temperature rises in the range of 0.5 to 5°C at 100 to 150 m. This hints to the likelihood of global warming.
The thermometer measurements made on water samples taken by merchant and navy ships as they sailed the world’s oceans date back to about 1850, and constitute the instrumental record of natural processes within the oceans. The data is best for parts of the oceans along major trading routes, and it’s understandable that they are scarcer further back in time. These readings, like those from land-based meteorological observation posts, must be gridded to provide a global average sea surface temperature. Since the oceans cover about 75% of the earth’s surface, the sea surface temperature record is close to global temperature records, as one would expect (Figure 7).
The two records are identical, but the SST (sea surface temperature) varies across a narrower spectrum than the land surface temperature, and the land temperature are subjected to dramatic swings. This disparity is primarily due to the oceans’ higher heat potential than the air (it takes a long time to heat and cool the oceans).
The measurement and data collected from hundreds of buoys stationed across the ocean at the depth range of about 2000 m collected over the years as early as 1955, showed that not just the surface of the oceans but the whole upper half of the ocean is gradually warming. Over the past 50 years average of 0.1 to 0.2°C was recorded. So, while the whole ocean has absorbed a huge amount of heat, its overall temperature has changed little. Nevertheless, the very surface of the ocean has warmed almost as much as the rest of earth’s surface [26]. Thus, form the past data and the present data it shows that the oceans are warming up slowly which almost resonates with the increase in land surface temperature, indicating the occurrence of global warming.
Analysis of four dimension (indictors) indicates the happening of global warming. The connection between the global warming and climate change is well documented. For instance, according to IPCC [27] “Changes in many extreme weather and climate events have been observed since about 1950. Some of these changes have been linked to human influences, including a decrease in cold temperature extremes, an increase in warm temperature extremes, an increase in extreme high sea levels and an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events in a number of regions” (p.7). Moreover, IPCC [15] predicts differences in mean temperature in most land and ocean regions, hot extremes in most inhabited regions, heavy precipitation in several regions, and the probability of drought and precipitation deficits in some regions, caused by the phenomenon of global warming.
Earth is facing the global warming. Scientifically, there is no longer any doubt that the surface temperature of land, sea surface temperature, and sea levels are increasing. The logical reason of this increasing trend is far beyond the occurrence of natural cause. Despite the different propaganda between the global warming and climate change denier and the advocates, it is of paramount importance to heed for the interest of the humanity and survival of humankind. There is still considerable confusion regarding the exact timing and scale of global warming, as well as the impacts that would result from it, although this is also due as much to human responses to the issue as it is to scientific uncertainties. Growing temperatures, changes in rainfall levels and seasonality; increased frequency of severe weather events such as droughts, floods, and hurricanes; sea level rise; melting of polar ice and glaciers are only a few of the consequences that can be expected. Desertification, loss of tropical forests and coral reefs, decreases in agricultural production, extinction of species, water scarcity, increasing natural disaster losses, and the spread of tropical diseases are likely to be among the ecological and human effects of these changes. Whether the severity of these impacts results in only a slight deterioration in environmental quality and social well-being, or a truly catastrophic collapse that leads to famine, mass displacement, and resource wars, will be determined by how we behave in the coming decades, as well as the probability of an unanticipated response within the climate system to rising temperatures and greenhouse gas emissions.
The polarity of the views with regard to the urgency is demystified by a study in China [28]. The authors reported that on the global scale the average public concern about the GWCC among Chinese citizens are relatively low, further analysis revealed that youth and women with greater post-materialist values had more concern about GWCC than that of their counterparts. Likewise, citizens from provinces with higher economic dependency on carbon-intensive industries were found to have less concern about GWCC than people from provinces with lower carbon dependency. Their study revealed the underlining motive of the GWCC deniers and skeptics. Perhaps, the polarity in views between two school of thought has much to do with national or regional benefit than the actual truth.
Skeptics of global warming are not very convinced of the fact that the change in the climate and the extreme climate, periodically experienced, are the result of the effect of global warming, enraged by the production of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide. However, they are also equally not able to disregard the voluminous literature which suggests that the climate change is primarily linked with the global warming. Understanding the climate change in totality is sophisticated, owing to the number of players involved in it, which aren’t yet fully understood by the experts themselves.
However, the existing literature suggests based on the evidences of increase in the
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When that language can overcome any approach to solving engineering problems. Ninety‐two percent of the engineering design process is based on the graphic display. The remaining 8% is divided between the mathematical calculations and written and oral communication. Fifty percent of the projecting time a designer spends on are purely visual and graphic activities. We like precision in communication. Engineers use graphical tools, some of which are centuries old and are used day‐to‐day, while others are very new and conditioned by the rapid development of computer technology, such as Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems. From this chapter, users will be able to familiarize themselves with the above tools and principles of their use.",book:{id:"5419",slug:"virtual-learning",title:"Virtual Learning",fullTitle:"Virtual Learning"},signatures:"Zorana Jeli, Branislav Popokonstantinovic and Misa Stojicevic",authors:[{id:"189704",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zorana",middleName:null,surname:"Jeli",slug:"zorana-jeli",fullName:"Zorana Jeli"},{id:"194655",title:"Prof.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Popkonstantinovic",slug:"branislav-popkonstantinovic",fullName:"Branislav Popkonstantinovic"}]},{id:"39188",title:"Open and Distance Learning: Achievements and Challenges in a Developing Sub-Educational Sector in Africa",slug:"open-and-distance-learning-achievements-and-challenges-in-a-developing-sub-educational-sector-in-afr",totalDownloads:4885,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"2728",slug:"distance-education",title:"Distance Education",fullTitle:"Distance Education"},signatures:"Idowu Biao",authors:[{id:"138698",title:"Prof.",name:"Idowu",middleName:"Nil",surname:"Biao",slug:"idowu-biao",fullName:"Idowu Biao"}]},{id:"39196",title:"Virtual Reality Applied in Distance Education",slug:"virtual-reality-applied-in-distance-education",totalDownloads:2580,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2728",slug:"distance-education",title:"Distance Education",fullTitle:"Distance Education"},signatures:"Adriana Soares Pereira and Sandra Dutra Piovesan",authors:[{id:"138811",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana Soares",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"adriana-soares-pereira",fullName:"Adriana Soares Pereira"},{id:"138820",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra Dutra",middleName:null,surname:"Piovesan",slug:"sandra-dutra-piovesan",fullName:"Sandra Dutra Piovesan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1315",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"83117",title:"Endothelial Secretome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106550",signatures:"Luiza Rusu",slug:"endothelial-secretome",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Luiza",surname:"Rusu"}],book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"83073",title:"Dental and Orofacial Trauma Impacts on Oral-Health-Related—Quality of Life in Children: Low- and Middle-Income Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105845",signatures:"Yolanda Malele-Kolisa, Nazia Khan, Mpho P. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. 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He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. 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