The properties of pre-experimental soil, fertilizer, and cassava biochar.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1803",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Quality Assurance and Management",title:"Quality Assurance and Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The purpose of this book is to present new concepts, state-of-the-art techniques and advances in quality related research. Novel ideas and current developments in the field of quality assurance and related topics are presented in different chapters, which are organized according to application areas. Initial chapters present basic ideas and historical perspectives on quality, while subsequent chapters present quality assurance applications in education, healthcare, medicine, software development, service industry, and other technical areas. This book is a valuable contribution to the literature in the field of quality assurance and quality management. 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Greenhouses",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tGreenhouse cultivation has evolved from simple covered rows of open-fields crops to highly sophisticated controlled environment agriculture facilities that projected the image of plant factories for urban agriculture. The advances and improvements in greenhouse technology have promoted scientific solutions for the efficient production of plants in populated cities and multi-story buildings. Successful deployment of high-tech greenhouses for urban agriculture requires many components and subsystems, as well as the understanding of the external influencing factors that should be systematically considered and integrated.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book project aims to highlight some of the most recent advances in modern greenhouse technology for food security and the sustainability of crop production. Each chapter is expected to raise the awareness for technology transfer in advanced controlled environment agriculture, which is necessary for a successful transition to urban agriculture. Contributing chapters will highlight several aspects of a high-tech closed-field plant production system including improvements in the frame and covering materials, environment perception and data sharing, and advanced microclimate control and energy optimization models. In addition, the book will highlight urban agriculture and its derivatives, including vertical farming, rooftop greenhouses, and plant factories which are the extensions of CEA and have emerged as a response to the growing population, environmental degradation, and urbanization that are threatening food security. Finally, several opportunities and challenges will be identified as a summary chapter to show how integrated controlled environment agriculture can be implemented as vertical farming for urban agriculture.
\r\n\t
Colorectal cancer is a disease typical of the regions with the largest urban and industrial development, which has changed consumption patterns and life. Worldwide, the rate of age-adjusted incidence (APR) of 17.2 cases per 100,000, ranking fourth in incidence among all types of cancer in both sexes, is presented, with a higher incidence rate in men than in women, APR of 20.3 and 14.6 cases per 100,000, respectively, for a total of 663,000 cases in men and 571,000 cases in women (1). About 60% of these cases occur in developed regions; the highest incidence rates are found in Australia, New Zealand, and Western Europe and the lowest in Africa (excluding South Africa) and South-Central Asia, with intermediate rates in Latin America (1).
Worldwide, the mortality rate adjusted for age (TAE) of colorectal cancer is 8.2 cases per 100,000, being the fifth leading cause of cancer death in both sexes, following lung, breast, stomach, and liver cancer. In men, it is 9.6 cases per 100,000 and for women, it is 7.0 cases per 100,000 (being the fourth most common type in both men and women). Nearly 608,000 deaths per year from colorectal cancer are presented, accounting for 8% of all cancer deaths. Unlike the cases of incidence, the highest mortality rates in both sexes are presented in Central and Eastern Europe (20.1 per 100,000 for men, 12.2 per 100,000 for women) and lower mortality rates are presented in Central Africa (3.5 per 100,000 for men and 2.7 per 100, 000 for women) (1).
The diagnosis is made predominantly with the location of polyps, 92% of them in situ and 40 % of cases are diagnosed at 60 years of age, 30 % at 50, and 30 % at 70. The rest 95 % of diagnoses shows adenocarcinoma type as the predominant pathology, being 80 % of sporadic nature, over the diagnosis of hereditary familial problem like. Less than 3% of patients are under 40 years (2).
Colon and rectal cancer have been associated with various risks, such as chronic ulcerative colitis; sclerosing cholangitis; certain inherited problems; a number of aspects related to eating habits, such as low-residue diet rich in saturated fats, diabetes, obesity, lack of physical activity, low intake of fruits and vegetables, smoking, and alcohol intake; ethnicity; and other genetic factors. However, only age has been measured in quantitative terms to establish the burden attributable to mortality. It is also necessary to specify, through additional studies, the burden of risk factors such as familial adenomatous polyposis, hereditary polypoid colorectal cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, sclerosing cholangitis, and others (2, 3).
Due to many factors, probably related to health technologies and early detection of the problem, among others, in the last 20 years, overall survival increased from 42 to 62 %. According to data in Globocan 2008, the five-year survival can be 72 % in men and 61 % in women (1, 2).
For about two decades, multiple reports of epidemiological studies have concluded that the introduction of endoscopic procedures is effective for strippage of premalignant lesions. The number of countries that have included colonoscopy and sigmoidoscopy as screening strategies for CRC has increased; however, the cost of implementation and potential adverse events limited its use for those in the middle- and low-income population (1-3).
It is clear that in populations at high risk of colorectal cancer (hereditary familial polyposis, ulcerative colitis or Crohn’s disease), the screening test of choice is colonoscopy (4-5). Likewise in early detection in the general population, testing fecal occult blood is implemented and after a positive result, confirmatory colonoscopy and treatment is performed, which seeks to remove the precancerous lesion or cancer in situ. Colonoscopy does not fully meet the criteria on being a screening test for CRC because it is expensive; however it has some advantages because it can include treatment of polyp lesions and early cancer; unfortunately, only few studies of controlled trials have been conducted to analyze the performance of colonoscopy as a screening test for CRC. With regard to sigmoidoscopy, the advantages presented are the evaluation of the proximal colon, and only sigmoidoscopy can assess the distal colon, where most cancers occur [6]. Compared to testing fecal occult blood, colonoscopy has a major role in terms of reducing the incidence and mortality of CRC (7); Winawer and colleagues demonstrated a decrease in CRC incidence – 70 to 90 % – in a cohort of 1400 patients after polypectomy compared with controls based on symptoms and physical examination (8,9). In a study in Olmsted County, a decline in annual mortality of 25.2/100,000 to 21.4/100,000 followed the increase at subsequent rate of polypectomies (10).
The objective of this chapter is to review the literature and make some conclusion about total colonoscopy for screening CRC and the complication rate of screening colonoscopy in this setting, particularly bleeding, perforation, and death.
The purpose of this review is to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of colonoscopy as a screening test for adenoma, advanced adenoma, and colorectal cancer. For safety outcome, we evaluated bleeding, perforation, and death.
An asymptomatic person is defined as a person over 40 years and less than 75 years old without abdominal pain, rectal bleeding, weight loss, or changes in bowel habits.
Early and late adenomas were defined as adenomas smaller than 10 mm and greater than 10 mm, respectively, both of villous adenoma histology or high-grade dysplasia.
We made a literature search in MEDLINE, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, CINAHL, and LILACS from 1966 to February 2015. On the other hand, we made a search of guidelines in the websites of the developer groups NICE, New Zealand Group, SIGN, North America Centers, IETS in Colombia, and CENETEC in Mexico, using the following keywords: ‘‘screening colonoscopy,’’ “colonoscopy,” “colorectal cancer,” “polyps,” and ‘‘screening colorectal cancer.’’ The types of secondary studies were systematic reviews of the literature and clinical practice guidelines. The primary study types were controlled clinical trial, observational cohort, and case-control studies. Studies published in Spanish and English were the only ones selected. Likewise, additional searches were made from bibliographies of studies identified in the initial search.
The clinical practice guidelines that were rated with 2 older AGREE (11) 60% quality in the domain of methodology were included. Systematic reviews of the literature described colonoscopy as a screening strategy. For primary studies such as controlled trials and observational analytical studies of moderate to high quality, we included the checklists of SIGN (12).
Exclusion criteria was studies evaluating colonoscopy in high-risk population of CRC, other studies evaluating screening tests without comparison with colonoscopy, likewise studies that do not contemplate the outcomes of interest for this chapter and not to report measures were considered effect with confidence intervals
Screening is the examination of asymptomatic individuals or healthy individuals in order to classify them as likely or unlikely to have a disease (6).
The standard screening test is colonoscopy, but there are alternatives such as flexible sigmoidoscopy, computed tomography colonography (CTC or virtual colonoscopy) (7), fecal occult blood test (FOBT) or stool analysis, and also, evidenced by the literature, combined sigmoidoscopy and FOBT; the alternatives also include barium enema and endoscopy capsule; however, there are insufficient epidemiological studies that support these types of screening (8-15).
The optimal strategy of screening for colorectal cancer is selected considering the following criteria: age of onset and age range in individuals at average risk for this condition.
For this issue, three clinical practice guidelines were included that scored highly in methodology dimension with the AGREE2 checklist: quality assurance in colorectal cancer screening and diagnosis of the IARC (5) Screening for Colorectal Cancer, US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommendation statement (17), and a clinical practice guideline for the early detection, diagnosis, treatment, following, and rehabilitation of patients with colorectal cancer of the Colombian Ministry of Health (18).
The review process identified 22 systematic reviews of which six were contained in guidelines previously described (19-24). Of the 16 remaining systematic reviews, two publications were discarded because they did not have clarity in the average-risk population (25; 26) and five for lack of data for the average-risk population (27-31).
The remaining nine studies were scored with the GRADE system. According to screening strategies, four publications analyzed fecal occult blood test (32-35) and two conducted a systematic review of colonoscopy (36), two studies evaluated colonoscopy and compared it with CTC (virtual colonoscopy) (37; 38) and another study evaluated only the CTC (39), and the last review examined capsule endoscopy (40). The American GPC (17) includes a strategy of screening using FOBT, sigmoidoscopy, or colonoscopy beginning at age 50 and ending at age 75.
Colonoscopy is undoubtedly useful in the case of positive fecal occult blood test. The European guide (16) describes that there is limited evidence on the effectiveness of colonoscopy screening to reduce colorectal cancer incidence and mortality. Recent studies suggest that colonoscopy may not be as effective in the right colon and in other segments of the colon and rectum. It also indicates that there is limited evidence suggesting that the interval for colonoscopy should be less than 10 years and may even extend to 20 years. The American guide includes colonoscopy as one method of screening for patients with a 10-year interval (17).
Three of the nine appointed guides as a strategy to colonoscopy screening at intervals of 10 years (18, 22, 24). These recommendations on the ability of colonoscopy as a screening strategy in asymptomatic individuals are not supported by controlled clinical trials; only case-control studies suggest that colonoscopy screening is associated with a low incidence of colorectal cancer (OR 0.46 95 % CI: 0.36.9 to 0.57) and that it decreases colorectal cancer mortality (OR 0.44: 95 % CI: 0.31 to 0.62) (13). The Australian guide suggests that for diagnostic confirmation, in the presence of a positive fecal occult blood test, colonoscopy is indicated, in order to perform biopsies of lesions and therapeutic removal of adenomas (20). The meta-analysis of Niv et al. (38) included ten prospective cohort studies with a total of 68,324 participants in which the procedure was completed by 97%. Colorectal cancer was found in 0.78 % of cases (95 % CI: 0.13 to 2.97): 77 % of CRC patients were in stages I and II. Advanced adenomas occurred in 5 % of cases (95 % CI 4–6 %).
The study of Niv et al. (38), found during the update, concludes that colonoscopy is a feasible method of screening for average-risk individuals; however, the GRADE rating was low for all three outcomes reported: colorectal cancer screening, drilling complications, and bleeding complications because the authors did not present the search strategy. The primary results are contradictory, and no evidence of homogeneity is presented. The study of Brenner Hermann et al. (6) includes four randomized clinical trials, eight case-control studies, and four cohort studies; the result for randomized clinical trial studies reports reduction in overall colorectal cancer mortality in 22–31 %; in meta-analysis, the pooled risk reduction for incidence was estimated to be 18 % (CI 95 % 11–25%) and for mortality from colorectal cancer 28 % (CI 95 % 20–35 %). The result of observational studies for distal colorectal cancer was strong in reduced incidence and mortality, reduction of 64 % (CI 95 % 50–74 %) in incidence colorectal rates and 66 % (38–81 %) in reduced mortality rates for cancer (6). In this study, it was shown that colonoscopy is much more effective in reducing the incidence and mortality of distal colorectal cancer.
Complications were analyzed in five studies, with the following results: piercing, 0.01 % (95 % CI 0.006 to 0.02) and bleeding, 0.05 % (95 % CI: 0.02 to 0.09). No studies evaluating the effectiveness of virtual colonoscopy in reducing colorectal cancer mortality (13, 24, 40) were found.
The Colombian guide (18) indicates that screening with flexible sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy can reduce mortality, and both strategies – sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy – would fare as diagnostic tools. The European GPC appoints only sigmoidoscopy as the strategy to reduce the incidence and mortality when this strategy is part of an organized screening program.
Pickhardt and colleagues (37) evaluated the sensitivity of CTC and colonoscopy for the detection of colorectal cancer. The research group indicates that although most studies argue that the test performance can be improved in line with the prevalence of the disease, the sensitivity of CTC remained independent of the prevalence. The evaluation of the quality design of this study was low in all outcomes, through the use of a single database and in relation to the population, including only two studies of the average-risk population and age higher than 50 years; in addition, the evidence is indirect. The evidence presented by the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association (39) was rated low because it only included two studies of individuals at average risk and a description of their results does not show confidence intervals. The study of El-Maraghi (40) lacks clear criteria for inclusion and description of homogeneity tests, key in systematic reviews.
The objective of the study from the Medical Advisory Secretariat (41) was to determine the effectiveness and safety of capsule endoscopy in identifying colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps in the average-risk population greater than 50 years old and as a screening strategy. They conclude that although capsule endoscopy is a noninvasive method and has lower sensitivity and specificity and accuracy than colonoscopy, its ability in detecting colorectal cancer has not been studied. The qualifying result of the outcomes of sensitivity, specificity, detection of polyps greater than or equal to 6 mm, and detection of any polyp independent of size was low due to the lack of reporting of homogeneity tests.
The European guide (16) indicates that in the case of choosing colonoscopy because of the prevalence, there is a case for screening individuals under age 50 or adults over 75 years or more, due to comorbidities that may outweigh the benefits of the examination. The American guide (42) supported this age of completion of screening; it believes that screening can be studied in the age range of 76–84 years and recommends its accomplishment in individuals 85 years or older.
For colonoscopy screening test, the meta-analysis of Niv et al. (38), performed with cohort studies, suggests that colonoscopy is a possible and desirable CRC screening method in asymptomatic individuals; however, it is not clearly described how the critical evaluation of the articles was performed nor how the reference to the possible publication bias is made. Colonoscopy no randomized controlled trials that indicate the incidence and mortality from colorectal cancer. Evidence from observational studies suggests that this test could reduce the incidence and mortality from colorectal cancer, according to the National Polyp Study (43, 44) and the Italian multicenter study (45), and although it is a highly sensitive technique (26), the evidence is insufficient to exclude or include colonoscopy as the first-line screening strategy (17,25,41). As an additional point, colonoscopy requires specific training by the clinician, is more expensive than other screening tests, presents greater risk of complications during the test, and increases the likelihood of injury in cases in which polypectomy is performed.
Virtual colonoscopy is a highly specific test, particularly for polyps <9mm; however, the sensitivity varies widely, even for large polyps. The low efficiency of studies to explain the variability of the sensitivity requires rethinking and further study of this test, before recommending it for everyday use in the assessment of polyps (46).
Sigmoidoscopy, colonoscopy, barium enema, and even virtual colonoscopy are up-to-date diagnostic tools for which a greater number of studies evaluating the effectiveness of these methods as the primary screening tests in asymptomatic persons are required (13, 24, 42).
There is a possible overrepresentation of the state of health of the people attending for colonoscopy in analytical observational studies, which may incur information bias. Furthermore, it is possible confounding by these context variables that influence the development of a colonoscopy as well as the incidence of CRC, such as family history, diet, and physical activity.
We conclude that colonoscopy may be offered as a CRC screening tool for the high-risk population as well as the asymptomatic population since the diagnostic yield for polyps and cancer is high. These results have to be evaluated with further research and weighed against the cost, accessibility, quality of life of patients, and possible serious complications.
The agricultural sector contributes to climate change problems through greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from various agricultural activities. However, the agricultural sector is also a carbon sink, both in terms of its potential to store carbon in various forms and its cultivated area, where agricultural areas are scattered all over the globe. Thus, agricultural areas could potentially be utilized as effective carbon sequestration areas. Moreover, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) has also suggested the use of agricultural areas for carbon sequestration to reduce GHG emissions [1, 2].
\nAccording to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the measurement of GHG emission reduction and the measurement of carbon capture and storage in agricultural sectors should not have any effect on food production and farmers. The framework has been specially emphasized in agricultural and developing countries, where most of the population are farmers and are from a low socioeconomic background. Therefore, GHG reduction can be performed in the form of a carbon sink in agricultural areas, where the carbon that is sequestered by biomass during photosynthesis or bio-sequestration [2, 3] can reduce the amount of GHG emission throughout the plant’s life time [4, 5, 6, 7]. Bio-sequestration appears to be a suitable and viable means of mitigation for long-term climate objectives. Many research reports have suggested that plants are capable of bio-sequestration in the form of accumulated biomass in their stems and in the soil [1, 6, 8]. The notion of carbon sequestration in biomass as a means to climate change mitigation is based upon the aim of storing carbon in different types of forest areas [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Although carbon sequestration in plant biomass in agriculture is an effective tool for climate change mitigation, carbon sequestration in agricultural sectors has not yet been intensively evaluated in agricultural countries. The level of carbon sequestration in the aboveground and belowground biomass of plants depends on the plant’s biomass and thus varies with the plant species/cultivar, age, and quantity of the plants [14, 15]. Some or many field crop areas are suitable for carbon sequestration without negative impacts on farmers and food production.
\nBiochar is a highly stable substance that is high in fixed carbon. Incorporating it into agricultural soils has the potential to become an important means for GHG reduction. Biochar contributes to GHG reduction by retaining the carbon within the soils and within the plants or bio-sequestration [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Moreover, biochar has been widely used as a soil amendment to improve crop yields, in terms of the quantity and quality [21, 22, 23, 24]. It also improves the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil [23, 25, 26, 27, 28]. Therefore, using biochar as a soil amendment can help reduce requirements for agrochemical fertilizers, which is one of the causes of GHG emissions. It fits within the framework from the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol report [29, 30].
\nIn this context, this chapter discussed and presented data obtained from research on biochar using to increase plant biomass for carbon sequestration purposes. The biochar was produced from feedstocks by pyrolysis using a patented retort that was especially designed for agriculturalists to produce a low-cost biochar for their own use. The biochar research is also a way to transfer research knowledge from laboratory to practical use.
\nThe indirect storage of carbon is the natural CO2 storage system from the growth of plants, which is an inexpensive method and can be implemented anywhere in the world. Most of the time, it is implemented in forested areas; however, according to a number of research studies, agricultural areas as well as forested areas are considered a promising place to store carbon [2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 23]. It could reduce greenhouse gases as well as perform as a sink of agricultural CO2. Undoubtedly, the method is given considerable attention, especially by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) who gives very much importance on measures to reduce greenhouse gases [31]. The movement of carbon and the variation scale of CO2 from air to soil increase carbon in soil. Subsequently, there is a decreasing amount of CO2 released from soil to air. Therefore, carbon storage is an influential mechanism that tremendously affects the reduction of greenhouse gases, which has approximately 89% of technical efficiency, whereas there was a 9% and 2% reduction of methane gas and nitrous oxide released from soil, respectively. Moreover, the movement of carbon from carbon emissions to carbon absorptions would efficiently reduce the variation of the atmosphere [32].
\nIPCC [1] characterized carbon storage in forested areas into five places including biomass above ground, underground biomass, dead trees, and organic carbon in the soil, all of which consist of storage in trees, and most of it is stored underground. Each type of trees possesses different carbon storage efficiency and accumulated carbon according to the wood and types of wood changing according to the present related conditions [33, 34, 35], such as the age of the forest, the type of the forest, and the tree sizes [36], the forest density [37], the forest structure [38], and more. Nevertheless, plants except big trees can be adopted in storing carbon with more studies concerning the amount of carbon absorption or the amount of carbon storage in the life cycle of each plant. Carbon would be captured since the initial growth of plants until their full maturity. After plants are fully grown, the captured carbon would remain stable. Carbon indirect storage adopts photosynthesis of the plants, which depends on CO2 to propel the chemical reaction to water turning into glucose and oxygen, as inEq. (1).
\nCarbon storage in the soil of agricultural and forested areas is an approach several countries have adopted to reduce GHG emissions. The implementation could be immediate and inexpensive, relying on the photosynthesis of plants that store carbon in the plant tissues (cores, leaves, fruits, and roots). After the death of these parts, these organic parts decompose, while it is also hard for some parts to decompose such as humus, which remain in the soil as organic matters. The number of the fallen plant components varies according to habitats of living organisms. The factors that affect the fallen plants include plant types, environment, the care of the plants, and duration. By and large, products obtained from the plants are more than fallen plants, possibly attributable to the plant age compared to the plant density [14]. According to that, biochar is adopted in the carbon storage in the soil in order to cut the cycle of being released to the atmosphere. Furthermore, methane and nitrous oxide emissions could be cut down from agricultural areas; hence, this process is effective in greenhouse gas reduction.
\nBiochar can improve the degraded soil, which has been proved by research to effectively enhance agricultural products, increasing the biomass of plants [23, 39, 40, 41], which is an indirect way to reduce greenhouse gases (Carbon Negative Technology) [17, 18, 42]. What is more, biochar has a high volume of fixed carbon. After the process of pyrolysis, there would be only 50% of carbon left in biochar [18, 44, 45]. Carbon in biochar is steady and hard to decompose by microorganisms in the soil, making biochar remain underground for a long time. Thus, this could be considered a way of carbon storage in the soil [20, 46], different from other organic matters such as plants, green manure, compost manure, and manure. These could decompose quickly, especially in tropical areas, giving rise to a high volume of CO2 emissions in a rapid manner [47]. For this reason, agricultural areas with the integration of biochar can store carbon more effectively than those with the integration of biomass with the same amount of carbon [48]. According to the research study by Maraseni [49], once there is a change in the agricultural areas from enlargement by deforestation and slash and burn systems to deforestation and slash and char systems, there is 12% reduction of losing carbon. Biochar made of grass could reduce 3 tons of CO2 emissions per 1 ton of biochar [50].
\nThe study of increasing biomass in feeding maize (Zea mays L.) was performed on experimental plots in Pa Deng-Biochar Research Center (Pd-BRC), Pa Deng sub-district, Kaeng Krachan district, Petchaburi province, Thailand. This is part of the Huay Sai Royal Development Study Centre. The topology is undulating and rolling. The soil is sandy loam with a medium to high soil permeability, a medium to very low organic matter (OM = 0.04–1.16), and a pH that ranges from slightly alkaline to extremely acidic. The land has very low soil fertility and experiences soil erosion and water scarcity [51]. The majority of the area in Pa Deng is a slope complex with a gradient of more than 35%. Therefore, the Pa Deng area is enclosed by hills that limit the land utilization to only 12% of the total area [52]. The low soil fertility and limited area available for agriculture lead to the heavy use of agrochemicals among farmers to improve the quality and yield of their agricultural products. This creates long-term negative effects on the soil and environment.
\nA completely randomized design was used for this study. There were 7 treatments each with 4 replications giving a total of 16 experimental plots. Each experimental plot was 3 × 5 m in size. The maize was planted in two crop cycles. After harvesting the first cycle, the treatments were left in their original condition with no further addition of biochar or organic fertilizer. The maize was planted in May and was harvested in August. Pa Deng has been suffering from droughts for a long period of time. The crops were planted during the absence of rain period and in the strong sunlight. The crops were watered from water sprinklers.
\nThere are seven treatments in total. Four treatments consisted of soil plus 5.6 ton/ha of organic fertilizer with different amounts of added biochar at 0 (TBC0), 5 (TMBC0.5), 25 (TMBC2.5), and 30 (TMBC3.0) ton/ha, respectively. The other three treatments consisted of soil plus added biochar at 0, 5 (TBC0.5), 25 (TBC2.5), and 30 (TBC3.0) ton/ha, respectively. TBC0 was the controlled treatment.
\nThe organic fertilizer used in this study was produced from the composting of soybean stems, and its characteristics were as follows: pH 8.3, electrical conductivity (EC) of 3.50 dS/m, 40.30 wt.% OM, 23.43 wt.% total organic carbon (TOC), 1.70 wt.% total nitrogen (total N), 0.87 wt.% total phosphorus (total P2O5), 3.54 wt.% total potassium (total K2O), and a 13.75 C/N ratio. In general, all the properties of fertilizer were shown in Table 1. The organic fertilizer used in this study was in accordance with all the parameters of the Organic Fertilizer Standard of the Thai Department of Agriculture in 2005 [53].
\nThe properties of pre-experimental soil, fertilizer, and cassava biochar.
The maize used in this study was a single-cross hybrid CP 888 variety (flint corn) with strong stems. This maize can be waited for a long harvest. The maize is drought tolerant and can grow well in upland areas with medium precipitation making it suitable in the Pa Deng area. It is also popular among farmers. Biochemical pesticides and herbicides were used to prevent pests and weeds, especially during the period of 13–25 days after seeding emergence. This is the most critical period to prevent flora and pests from severely affecting the crops [53, 54].
\nBiochar was produced from cassava stems (cassava crop waste) by pyrolysis process using the Controlled Temperature Biochar Retort for Slow Pyrolysis Process (patented) that the research team invented to suit local uses. The biochar process is simple and low-cost [20, 23]. The retort was a controlled temperature biochar retort for slow pyrolysis which was complied with the standard set by FAO [56], with a controlled temperature between 450 and 600°C. After the process was finished, the biochar was ground and sieved to less than 3 mm diameter. This particle size was selected since it improves soil aeration and other processes in the soil [55, 57].
\nThe biochar sampling method was adapted from the Standardized Product Definition and Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar that is used in soil [58] by collecting samples from every pyrolysis process. The samples were randomly selected from the ground biochar and analyzed for their specific surface area, total pore volume, average pore diameter, pH, EC, cation exchange capacity (CEC), OM, total carbon (C), total organic carbon (TOC), %hydrogen (H), %Oxygen (O), and the molar hydrogen to total organic carbon ratio (H/Corg Ratio).
\nThe cassava biochar composites were comprised of 58.46 wt.% total C and 58.46 wt.% TOC. The biochar from the cassava stems had a specific surface area of 200.46 m2/g, total pore volume of 0.12 cm3/g and average pore diameter of 24.4 Å, with an alkaline pH of 9.6, EC of 1.35 dS/m, and CEC of 11.00 cmol/kg. The cassava biochar had a very high OM content of 25.89%, total N of 0.98%, total P2O5 of 0.82%, and total K2O of 1.68% (Table 1).
\nThe cassava stem biochar was high in carbon, mostly in the form of amorphous carbon in which the carbon atoms were attached in aromatic rings [18, 21, 22, 42, 44]. This chemical property makes the carbon in cassava stem biochar very stable [59, 60, 61] and creates a highly porous carbon structure in the biochar [60, 62]. The pyrolysis biochar at 450–600°C also contributed to the high stability of carbon [60, 63, 64]. The high porosity of biochar allows biochar to absorb and retain water and nutrients within the soil [23, 42, 55, 61, 65]. This helps with aeration and reduces soil density [18, 60, 66, 67, 68]. Moreover, the appropriate temperature during the pyrolysis process of the cassava stems also increased porosity on the biochar’s surface which led to increased ions on the its surface [17, 18, 62, 69, 89]. This resulted in a high ion exchange capacity and high CEC [26, 42, 60, 69, 70]. As a result, the cassava stem biochar had a high capacity to retain and adsorb organic carbon and non-organic matters within the soil. Moreover, it also increased activities in the soil and ion exchange between nutrients in the form of soil solution.
\nCassava biochar has high alkalinity (pH 9.6). Alkalinity affects the type of biomass made into biochar [25, 71, 72]. Moreover, biochar from cassava stems also had a high OM (25.9 wt.%), which would contribute to an increased OM level in the soil and improve the soil fertility. These physical and chemical characteristics and chemical formations in biochar made it suitable as a soil amendment to increase plant growth [23, 25, 43, 44, 55, 60, 74, 75] and soil amelioration in acidic soils.
\nThe soil in the experimental plots was analyzed before planting the crops. Soil was selected at random from areas scattered throughout each plot and taken from 0 to 30 cm depth. The samples were considered as composite samples in the soil analysis. Physical and chemical characteristics of the soil samplings were analyzed using the methods developed by the Soil Survey Staff [76], including the pH, OM (Walkley and Black method), soil texture (hydrometer method), CEC (leaching method), EC, total N (Kjeldahl method), available phosphorus (avail. P) (Bray II determine by spectrophotometer), and exchangeable potassium (exch. K) (ammonium acetate extraction determine by atomic absorption spectrophotometer).
\nThe pre-experimental soil analysis results (Table 1) revealed that the soil in the experimental plots was a slightly alkaline sandy clay loam (%Sand = 57.0, %Silt = 22.5, %Clay = 20.5) with a pH of 6.95 and EC of 0.08 dS/m. It is suitable for growing flint corn for feeding animals [53]. The soil had a high level of primary macronutrients except total N (total N = 0.09%, avail. P = 21.80 mg/kg, and exch. K = 215.75 mg/kg) (Table 1).
\nThe soil in this region had a very low fertility with an OM of 1.32%. The OM in soils is decomposed by soil microbes, and it depended on the carbon distribution at different soil densities, which helped prevent the decomposition [77].
\nDuring the harvesting period, the maize was uprooted from the soil and washed with water. The plants were then left to dry in the shade before being measured for their whole plant fresh (wet) weight (FW). The plants were then cut so as to separate the roots, upper roots (stems + leaves + staminate), pods, and seeds. The FW of each part of the plant was measured then cut into small pieces and put in an oven at 70°C for 48 h or until the weight was stable (dry weight: DW). Using the FW/DW ratio, the crop biomass was estimated. After that, the DW of the plants was used to derive the moisture content (wt.%), from which the biomass in different parts of the crop in each experimental plot was calculated, derived from Eqs. (2) and (3):
\nThe amount of carbon sequestered in each part of maize in the different experimental treatment plots consisted of the carbon concentration of the plant biomass, as shown in Eq. (4). The plant carbon stock was estimated by multiplying the total plant biomass with the carbon concentration (%). This study applied the FAO method [78] for carbon stock in biomass, derived from Eqs. (4) and (5):
\nBiomass Cstock total is the total stock of C in the biomass from every part of maize. The constituents of the biomass carbon stock aboveground were the carbon content in the upper roots, corn cobs, and seeds, while belowground they were the carbon content in the roots.
\nAll the data collected from the different experiments and field samples during the study were compiled and processed for statistical analysis by analysis of variances (ANOVA). Comparisons between means were tested for significance with Tukey’s multiple comparison test using the Statistical Package of the Social Science (SPSS) software. Significance was accepted at the p < 0.05 level.
\nBiomass assessment during the first crop cycle (CC1) (Figure 1) indicated that the total biomass in the maize grown in TMBC3.0 was the highest (17.63 ton/ha), while the biomass was lowest (14.71 ton/ha) in the soil added fertilizer (TBC0). However, these numerical differences in the total biomass were not significant among all seven soil types. Comparing the results between biochar-incorporated treatments, it was apparent that the amount of biomass increased in relation to the amount of added biochar (highest in TBC3.0 and lowest in TBC0.5) and increased further if the fertilizer was also added. However, soil incorporated with fertilizer and the least amount of biochar (TMBC0.5) yielded less biomass than soil incorporated with solely biochar at the highest amount (TBC3.0), but again these differences were not statistically significant (Figure 1).
\nTotal biomass in the maize grown in soil supplemented with different biochar levels for two successive crop cycles. CC1 and CC2 are the first and second crop cycles, respectively. Data are shown as the mean ± 1SD, derived from ** independent samples. Means within a row (small letter), or within a column (capital letter) between CC1 and CC2 of a given maize part, with a different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05).
Maize biomass in the second crop (CC2) yielded (Figure 1) similar results to those of CC1, where numerically the highest total biomass was found in TMBC3.0, both in the whole plant (17.31 ton/ha) and in each part of the maize. Compared to the control, the total biomass and biomass of roots in TMC3.0 treatment showed significant results whereas the other ones did not. Even though there was no significant difference in biomass (total and each plant part) among soil types, which may reflect the low sample size relative to the level of intra-sample variation, numerically it was apparent that incorporating the appropriate amount of biochar within the soil could increase the amount of biomass in every part of the maize.
\nComparing between the two successive crop cycles (Figure 2), the amount of biomass found in each treatment in CC2 was less than in CC1, except for the roots in TBC2.5, TBC3.0, TMBC2.5, and TMBC3.0 that had a slightly higher biomass (0.061, 0.049, 0.120, and 0.125 ton/ha, respectively) in CC2 than in CC1. However, TMBC3.0, which received the highest amount of biochar plus fertilizer, had the least difference between the two crop cycles (−0.317 ton/ha) that the total biomass in the maize grown in TMBC3.0 was the highest in both crop cycles, while TBC0 (control) had the highest difference between the two crop cycles (−2.13 ton/ha). Thus, increasing the level of biochar in the soil (within this range of 5 to 3 ton/ha) numerically decreased the loss of biomass yield between the first and second successive cultivation. However, none of these numerical differences were statistically significant.
\nBiomass in each part of the maize grown in soil supplemented with different biochar levels for two successive crop cycles. CC1 and CC2 are the first and second crop cycles, respectively. Data are shown as the mean ± 1SD, derived from ** independent samples. Means within a row (small letter), or within a column (capital letter) between CC1 and CC2 of a given maize part, with a different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05).
From the results, considering only the maize seed biomass that can be sold for animal feed, adding the fertilizer with highest amount of biochar into the soil gave the highest (yield) weight of maize seeds in both the first and second maize plantations, and adding only biochar into the soil gave a higher maize seed biomass in both crop cycles than that obtained when only adding fertilizer to the soil. The weight of maize seed biomass from TMB3.0 was the highest (6.280 ton/ha in CC1 and 6.149 ton/ha in CC2), while the results reported by Wijitkosum [55] revealed that TMB2.5 (13 cobs) had the highest average number of cobs per plant from 8 sample plants per treatment followed by TMB3.0 (12 cobs). In the second crop, the soil amendment with biochar and fertilizer still gave a high yield of maize seeds with only a small decrease in the biomass compared to that in the first crop cycle.
\nThe increase of maize biomass obtained from the soil with added biochar reflects the high porosity, surface area, and ion exchange capacity of biochar [20, 21, 23, 44, 61, 62]. In addition, the highly aromatic chemical structure of biochar leads to a high chance of oxidation reactions to form functional groups, and so biochar has many anions on its surface and hence a high ion exchange capacity [20, 42, 44, 65, 72, 73]. Moreover, biochar has many micropores that can absorb nutrients and anions from the soil solution [46, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 79, 80] and to reduce nutrient leaching and provide a sustainable release to the plants.
\nThe organic matter, important as a source of nutrients for maize growth, mostly came from the added fertilizer and some from the biochar and soil. Together, they support the growth of the roots and aid in absorbing more nutrients and transfer to the stem. The root biomass was increased in every soil amendment with biochar alone or with biochar and fertilizer, at all levels of biochar, and was higher than that obtained in the soil with only fertilizer added. This result gave the consistent with many studies (e.g. [20, 60, 72, 81, 82]) indicating that biochar could also contribute to the suitable environment for the growth of plant root. In the second maize plantation, the root biomass was significantly higher in all the biochar treatments, and especially for the addition of fertilizer with the highest level of biochar, than that obtained from the soil with only fertilizer added.
\nWhen the plant’s roots grow well, they can absorb nutrients and water to build up the biomass in other parts of the plant. For example, potassium affects the growth, photosynthesis, carbohydrate synthesis, and leaf and seed formation [83, 84, 85, 86]. Calcium affects the strength of the maize plant and activates development of the roots and leaves, as well as controlling the soil’s pH [20, 87]. Biochar produced from cassava has a high nutrient content, reflected in the observation that maize grows well with a higher biomass when grown in soil with added fertilizer and biochar or added biochar compared to that in soil with only added fertilizer.
\nThe carbon stock in biomass in CC1 showed that the highest amount of carbon stored in biomass in TMBC3.0 at 7.22 ton/ha, while the lowest in TBC0 at 5.83 ton/ha (Figure 3). The study showed that the carbon storage in maize biomass was increased depending on the amount biochar added into the soil, especially when the biochar was added with the fertilizer. However, the carbon storage obtained with the lowest ratio of biochar with fertilizer (TMB0.5) was lower than that in the biochar only treatment when sufficient biochar was added (TBC2.5 and TBC3.0). Carbon storage in each part of the maize and the total amount of carbon storage were not significantly different among the seven treatments. The highest percentage of carbon storage in the maize biomass was found in the upper roots (46.72–49.21%), followed by that in the seeds (33.71–35.69%), corncobs (8.32–9.27%), and roots (8.04–9.10%) (Figures 4 and 5).
\nThe amount of carbon stored in maize. CC1 and CC2 are the first and second crop cycles, respectively. Data are shown as the mean ± 1SD, derived from ** independent samples. Means within a row (small letter), or within a column (capital letter) between CC1 and CC2 of a given maize part, with a different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The percentage of carbon storage in different parts of maize. CC1 and CC2 are the first and second crop cycles, respectively. Data are shown as the mean ± 1SD, derived from ** independent samples. Means within a row (small letter), or within a column (capital letter) between CC1 and CC2 of a given maize part, with a different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The amount of carbon stored in different parts of maize. CC1 and CC2 are the first and second crop cycles, respectively. Data are shown as the mean ± 1SD, derived from ** independent samples. Means within a row (small letter), or within a column (capital letter) between CC1 and CC2 of a given maize part, with a different letter are significantly different (p < 0.05).
With respect to the results from the CC2 (Figure 3), TMBC3.0 still gave the highest carbon storage (7.46 ton/ha), followed by TMBC2.5, TBC3.0, TBC2.5, TMBC0.5, TBC0.5, and TBC0. The amount of carbon storage was clearly different among the soil treatments, especially with the addition of fertilizer plus a high level of biochar which resulted in a significantly higher amount of carbon storage than the addition of fertilizer alone, which is the standard agricultural soil amendment used by farmers. Soil amendment with fertilizer and a sufficient amount of biochar (TMBC2.5 and TMBC3.0) resulted in significantly higher root carbon storage than the addition of only fertilizer to the soil. Similarly, the ratio of carbon storage in the other parts of the maize plants was in the same pattern as that seen in the first crop (Figures 4 and 5), being highest in the upper roots (46.50–48.21%), then the seeds (35.39–37.49%), corncobs (6.64–8.27%), and roots (7.57–9.55%).
\nWith respect to the amount of carbon storage between the first and second maize plantings, the total carbon storage on maize was increased only in the soil treatments with sufficient biochar addition alone or with the fertilizer adding sufficient biochar. Treatment TMB3.0 gave the highest amount of carbon storage in maize (+0.235 ton/ha), followed by TBC3.0 (+0.094 ton/ha), TBC2.5 (+0.083 ton/ha), and TMBC2.5 (+0.076 ton/ha. In contrast, soil amendment without any biochar, but with the fertilizer only (TBC0), resulted in the highest level of decreased carbon storage (−0.551 ton/ha) between the two maize planting cycles.
\nConsidering the rate of total carbon change in maize biomass, the use of fertilizer (5.6 ton/ha) and biochar (30 ton/ha) (TMBC3.0) increased the amount of carbon storage in the maize biomass compared to that in the first crop cycle by 3.25%. The use of fertilizer alone (TBC0) or biochar alone showed a 9.45% or 2.28% decrease, respectively, in the total carbon storage in the second maize crop, whereas the soil amendment with fertilizer plus the lowest amount of biochar (TMBC0.5) gave only a 1.32% decrease in the total carbon storage in the maize biomass in the second crop.
\nAdding the appropriate amount of biochar into the soil promotes plant growth [23, 25, 55], especially the roots stems, leaves, stamen, and corn stalk, leading to an increased plant biomass. Moreover, the presence of biochar in the soil promotes the plant growth and productivity even without soil amendment with fertilizer because biochar is organic carbon that cannot be easily digested by soil microorganisms [17, 42, 59, 60, 61, 88]. Although the soil mixed with fertilizer initially provides sufficient nutrients for maize growth, this may be insufficient in the longer term for successive crops due to the rapid microbial degradation and leaching of the nutrients, leading to the requirement for continual reapplication of fertilizer every crop cycle. To help restore the soluble nutrients and reduce their leaching from soil, [21, 41, 45, 46, 89, 90, 91], especially in tropical regions where the soil has a low organic matter and high washout rate, the biochar with the fertilizer was applied. Under these conditions, adding organic matter alone to tropical soil is not stable in the long term because the soil has a low anion exchange capacity, and so much of soluble fertilizer is washed out before being absorbed by plant roots. Instead, the requirement to continuously add a high amount of organic matter to the soil increases the production cost and decreases the soil quality and environment in the long term [47, 57, 92, 94, 95]. In contrast, when adding biochar with the fertilizer into the soil, the biochar helps improve both the physical and chemical properties of the soil allowing the plant’s roots to absorb the nutrients over a longer time period [20, 42, 43, 60], and so the maize received enough nutrients continuously leading to higher productivities. Thus, the total biomass of the maize in second plantation in TMBC3.0 and TMBC2.5 had decreased by less than 10%.
\nThe massive and deep rooting systems in annual crops allow for direct movement of C into the soil and make it less available for removal by harvest [96]. Therefore, the results suggested that the incorporation of the appropriate amount of biochar into soil may help increase the amount of biomass in the maize. These results are in accordance with other biochar research, where the appropriate amount of biochar induced chemical reactions within the soil which enhanced the quantity and quality of the crops [23, 25, 28, 57, 98, 99, 100]. Incorporating biochar with the fertilizer could enhance and sustain the biomass gain from the fertilizer addition. Moreover, biochar remains in the soil for a long period of time with less leaching, and so it is not necessary to add more biochar every new crop cycle. The result from the main component (70–90% by weight) of biochar is amorphous carbon [23, 25, 43, 59] arranged in aromatic rings that are highly stable in the soil for long times [21, 22, 43, 59, 61]. Moreover, other important qualities of biochar are its high density of micropores, high surface area, and high ion exchange capacity. Therefore, biochar has good soil amendment qualities and can increase the agricultural productivity in terms of both the quality and quantity of crop obtained [10, 17, 20, 23, 25, 27, 28, 62, 91, 93, 97, 99].
\nThe amount of biomass has a direct effect on the amount of carbon stored in the biomass. The quantity of biomass is an important source of replenishing organic carbon in the soil. The potential for soils to sequester C depends on the rate of biomass production relative to that exported, such as by microbial activity [96, 100]. The treatments that resulted in a high maize biomass also had a high amount of carbon in their biomass. Using biochar in agricultural areas had a positive impact on the maize and increased the amount of biomass stored in every part of the maize (roots, stems, leaves, tassels, seeds, and corncobs), as reported previously [23]. This is because the characteristics of biochar are beneficial for plants and its ability to be used for soil amelioration [70, 71, 101, 102].
\nThe structure of biochar is amorphous, in the form of aromatic hydrocarbons bound with oxygenated functional groups, which influences its high stability characteristic [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 42, 43, 44, 49, 70]. Moreover, its highly porous structure contains a large amount of micropores with a high surface area giving a high adsorption capacity for cations [65, 70, 72, 73, 75, 89, 90, 91, 99]. Therefore, incorporating biochar within the soil in agricultural areas benefits the soil ecosystem and the physical, biological, and chemical characteristics of the soil [17, 18, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 62, 73, 79, 80, 101, 102]. The soil becomes more fertile, which in turn leads to higher maize productivity. Maize grown in biochar-incorporated soils had a higher amount of carbon stored in every part of the plant.
\nA single application of biochar to the soil used for maize plantations significantly increased the carbon storage in the plants (biomass quantity and amount of carbon in the biomass) even in the second crop. The amount of carbon storage was further increased when the fertilizer was also added with the biochar to the soil. The amount of plant biomass depends on the completion of plant growth, which is affected by the soil richness and nutrient availability. Adding organic material helps to improve the soil qualities and accelerate plant growth, but, especially in tropical soils, it can be washed out easily. The addition of biochar into the soil directly improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil, promotes microorganism activities and reduces nutrient leaching, and so leads to better plant growth and a higher biomass in the long term.
\nCarbon is stored in the soil directly by adding biochar, with its high stable carbon content, and will indirectly be the increased plant biomass. This is hence a method to reduce the carbon dioxide, a GHG emission, in agricultural areas and so help to mitigate climate change. This study revealed that adding a high amount of biochar together with fertilizer to agricultural soil only once is sufficient for at least two crops of maize and so would not only increase carbon storage in plants, but also the reduced fertilizer application will further reduce GHG release in agricultural areas and also reduce the production cost for farmers.
\nThis research was supported by the “Minimizing GHG Emissions from Industrial and Agricultural Sectors to Reduce Adverse Impacts of Climate Change in Thailand, Sub Project: Reducing GHG Emission from Agricultural Sector by Using Biochar” funded by the 2014 In-depth Strategic Research Fund, Ratchadapisek Sompoch Endowment Fund, Chulalongkorn University. Furthermore, this chapter was also partially supported by “Building a Smart Community for Climate Change and Natural Disasters Adaptation. Sub-project: Using biochar in urban farming areas for food security and carbon sequestration on high-rise buildings” (CU59-002-IC), the 2016 Ratchadapisek Sompoch Endowment Fund for in-depth high potential research projects.
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