Mercury compounds in flue gases from coal combustion processes.
\r\n\t
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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72129",title:"Methods to Reduce Mercury and Nitrogen Oxides Emissions from Coal Combustion Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92342",slug:"methods-to-reduce-mercury-and-nitrogen-oxides-emissions-from-coal-combustion-processes",body:'\nIn nature mercury is present in trace amounts only; due to its toxicity and the ability to join various natural cycles, it poses a threat to human health and life. Mercury exposure, even in small amounts, poses a threat to both people and the environment. A global study commissioned by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) confirmed the high environmental impact of mercury, entirely justifying the actions implemented to combat its spread on the international level. In recent years, the European Union has been systematically tightening standards for permissible mercury concentrations in atmospheric air.
\nAccording to UNEP data, in 2015 the global emissions from anthropogenic sources amounted to 2220 tons of mercury, accounting for almost 30% of the total atmospheric emissions of mercury. The remaining 70% comes from environmental processes and contemporary natural sources [1]. The technological processes with the largest share in mercury emissions are gold production, 38%; coal combustion, 21%; nonferrous metallurgy, 15%; cement plants, 11%; waste incineration plants processing mercury-containing waste, 7%; and combustion of other fuels, including biomass, 3%. Analyzing data on mercury emissions in the respective continents, it can be stated that we find the highest ones in Asia, with about 1084 tons p.a.; in South America, about 409 tons p.a.; Sub-Saharan Africa, 360 tons p.a.; and in the European Union, with 77.2 tons p.a. [1]. Therefore, we can see that the processes of burning fossil fuels form one of the most significant sources of global atmospheric emissions of mercury.
\nResearch on Polish coals [2] demonstrates that the average mercury content in hard coal ranges from 50 to 150 ppb and 120 to 370 ppb in the case of lignite. For comparison, the mercury content of American coals is about 30–670 ppb, with the average content for hard coal of 70 and 118 ppb for lignite. The mercury content in furnace waste indicates that it is mainly found in fly ash and only a small part of it in slag. Literature data indicates that in the result of burning coal, approximately 30–75% of the mercury, contained in the fuel, will be released into the atmosphere [3].
\nIn the process of coal combustion, a number of chemical reactions occur that lead to the decomposition of all chemical compounds containing mercury. In the result of these processes, at a temperature above 600°C, only the metallic mercury Hg0 in the form of vapor will be present in the exhaust gas [4]. As the exhaust gas is cooled below 540°C [5], this mercury can be oxidized by gas phase components such as NO2, HCl, SO2, H2O, and fly ash, producing various compounds of mercury (Table 1).
\nNo. | \nName | \nSymbol | \nBoiling point | \n
---|---|---|---|
1. | \nMercury | \nHg | \n356.6°C | \n
2. | \nMercuric chloride | \nHgCl2\n | \n302.0°C | \n
3. | \nMercuric bromide | \nHgBr2\n | \n322.0°C | \n
4. | \nMercury(II) iodide | \nHgI2\n | \n354.0°C | \n
5. | \nMercurous oxide | \nHg2O | \nDecomposes at >100°C | \n
6. | \nMercuric oxide | \nHgO | \nDecomposes at >500°C | \n
7. | \nMercury(I) carbonate | \nHg2CO3\n | \nDecomposes at >130°C | \n
8. | \nMercury(II) nitrate | \nHg(NO3)2\n | \nMelting point 79°C | \n
9. | \nMercury(II) sulfate | \nHgSO4\n | \nDecomposes before reaching liquid phase | \n
Mercury compounds in flue gases from coal combustion processes.
It was noticed that when burning coals containing significant amounts of chlorine, bromine, or iodine, the concentration of oxidized mercury increases with simultaneous decrease in concentration of metallic mercury. In the process of burning carbons containing chlorine, bromine, or iodine, the process of mercury oxidation is such that during this combustion salts containing chlorine, iodine or bromine is decomposed into HCl, HI, and HBr, whereby 0.5 ÷ 9% of these compounds are further decomposed to CL2, I2, and Br2. These react with metallic mercury to form HgCl2, HgBr2, and HgI2 salts, respectively, which are stable at high temperatures in vapor form. Oxidized mercury is removed from the flue gas both in dust collectors and in wet and semidry flue gas desulfurization units [6]. However, the efficiency of removal of metallic Hg0 in the aforementioned devices is low.
\nThe degree of the removal of mercury and its compounds depends mainly on the degree of transition of metallic mercury to oxidized mercury, with HgCl2 accounting for the main part of oxidized mercury. The value of Hg emissions depends on the combustion process and the method of exhaust gas purification; the mercury removal efficiency in an electrostatic precipitator is 30–40%, while in a wet desulfurization plant, as much as 80–90% of Hg2+ (divalent) mercury and mercury adsorbed by the solid phase will be removed, but in the case of elemental Hg0 mercury, far less is removed, with a removal efficiency of just 26.6% [3].
\nThe proportions between individual forms of mercury in the exhaust gas downstream the boiler depend mainly on the type of furnace and fuel characteristics (mercury, halides, and ash content of coal). The content of halides (fluorine, bromine, iodine, and chlorine) and mercury in fuel has the greatest impact on the amount of Hg2+, while the ash content determines the amount of Hg(p) [7]. For example, the proportions between elemental mercury, oxidized mercury, and ash-bound mercury in flue gas downstream of a pulverized coal boiler are on average 56% (8–94%), 34% (5–82%), and 10% (1–28%), respectively [7]. The type of furnace is not without significance for the mercury speciation in the exhaust gas. Circulating fluidized bed boilers generate the highest amount of Hg(p) (up to 65% of the so-called total mercury HgT defined as HgT = Hg0 + Hg2+ + Hg(p)) due to the extended contact time between gaseous mercury and fly ash and the low temperature of the exhaust gas downstream of the boiler [7].
\nThe European Commission (on July 31, 2017) established conclusions on the best available techniques (BAT) for large combustion plants (LCP). BAT conclusions tighten the regulations related to the emissions from combustion processes, including nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and introduce mercury emission limits (that were not present in the EU till that date). Table 2 contains the permissible concentrations of mercury and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gas, resulting from the BAT conclusions. BAT conclusions include ranges of emission limit values for mercury and nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases, with maximum concentration values that will apply from 2021 onwards. Permissible mercury concentrations in exhaust gases resulting from BAT conclusions [8] are referred to as total mercury HgT. These values vary depending on the status of the source. For existing sources with a capacity of >300 MWt, they are 1–4 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for hard coal and 1–7 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for lignite. For new sources with a capacity of >300 MWt, they are 1–2 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for hard coal and 1–4 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for lignite. Concentrations are converted to standard USR means conditions: (dry gas at a temperature of 273.15 K and a pressure of 101.3 kPa, calculated for oxygen content in the flue gas O2 = 6 %).
\nOxidant | \nOxidizing potential, V | \nOxidizing potential relative to oxygen | \n
---|---|---|
Oxygen, O2\n | \n0.695 | \n1.00 | \n
Oxygen radical, O | \n1.229 | \n1.77 | \n
Chlorine, Cl2\n | \n1.360 | \n1.96 | \n
Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2\n | \n1.760 | \n2.53 | \n
Ozone, O3\n | \n2.080 | \n2.99 | \n
Chlorine (I) anion, ClO−\n | \n0.890 | \n1.28 | \n
Chlorate (III) anion, ClO2\n−\n | \n0.786 | \n1.13 | \n
Hypochlorous acid, HClO | \n1.630 | \n2.35 | \n
Oxidation potentials of oxidants used [31].
BAT conclusions include the range of mercury emission limit values for exhaust gases while specifying maximum concentration values that will apply from August 18, 2021 onwards. The lower values indicate levels that can be obtained using best available techniques, and as long as these values are not required now, it can be expected that existing and new coal units will have to achieve them in near future [8]. This means that users of combustion plants should seek for methods to achieve lower emission levels resulting from the BAT conclusions. The implementation of BAT conclusions thus forms a significant challenge for coal energy in Europe and in particular for the Polish energy sector. The introduction of emission limits also necessitates the addition of HgT measurement devices to the pollution monitoring system [8].
\nBAT conclusions also reduce the permissible levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. For existing sources, fired with hard coal and lignite, with a capacity of >300 MWt, these amount to 85 (65)–150 mg/m3, and for new sources with a capacity of >300 MWt to 50 (65)–85 mg/m3 in standard conditions.
\nThe above provisions are associated with the need to implement selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) techniques as well as other techniques, including integrated exhaust gas treatment (multipollutant technologies), in which a single device is applied to remove at least two pollutants. In this study, we would like to point to the possibility of such integrated flue gas treatment in absorbers of the wet flue gas desulfurization method. The wet limestone method is a common SO2 removal technology used in power plants both in Europe and worldwide. The desulfurization efficiency of this method ranges from 90 to 95%. This technology is also very popular in Polish conditions, accounting for some 90% of the desulfurization installations.
\nEnrichment of coal prior to the combustion process, e.g., by removing pyrite, can significantly reduce mercury emissions. It is estimated that 65–70% of mercury in Polish coals occurs in combination with pyrite.
\nCoal enrichment methods are mainly based on physical separation of the mineral substance and involve the use of density differences (gravitational separation) or differences in the wettability of the components (flotation).
\nOne of the methods that do apply dry gravitational separation is the removal of pyrite in purpose-modernized coal mills. The technology is offered by Hansom [9].
\nPrimary methods also include changing the combustion process. For example fluidized bed furnaces to lower the exhaust gas temperature and ash grain composition or using of low emissions burners to lower exhaust gas temperature. Another solution is to replace the coal used for combustion and mixing high Hg and S content coals with those with lower contents of these elements [10]. What is also applied is the addition of halides, in the form of bromine, iodine, and chlorine salts, to the burning coal [11]. The oxidizing properties of these compounds contribute to the increase in the proportion of oxidized mercury in the exhaust gases, which in turn contributes to its more effective retention in existing aftertreatment devices. Unfortunately, these methods cannot guarantee the reduction of mercury to the level required by BAT conclusions.
\nThe degree of the removal of mercury and its compounds depends mainly on the degree of transition of metallic mercury to oxidized mercury. Secondary methods consist mainly of removing oxidized mercury adsorbed on ash particles or other adsorbent, e.g., activated carbon, in its form bound with particulates—Hg(p).
\nAn important group of secondary methods are the adsorptive mercury removal methods. They rely on binding of oxidized forms of mercury on the surface of adsorbents. What they use is the affinity of mercury vapors to various adsorbents. The most common adsorber is activated carbon in powdered form (powdered activated carbon). However, due to the limited efficiency of Hg0 reduction of this typical form of carbon, it is necessary to impregnate this medium with sulfur, iodine, chlorine, or bromine to improve the efficiency of mercury vapor retention. This increases the efficiency of mercury oxidation and its adsorption on PAC particles. Studies demonstrated that ordinary activated carbon can retain up to 80% of mercury in a higher oxidation state but only some 40–50% of elemental mercury. In contrast, carbon impregnated with sulfur, for example, adsorbs over 80% Hg0 and the iodine impregnated carbon virtually 100% [12].
\nActivated carbon is usually injected into the exhaust gas duct before the ESP or fabric filter (Figure 1). This technology is used in waste incineration facilities and coal-fired power plants. The effectiveness of this method depends primarily on the type and structure of PAC, the chemical properties of the sorbent surface, the amount of injected coal, and the temperature of the exhaust gas. The main disadvantage of this technology is the increase in the carbon content of ash, which significantly limits the possibilities of ash utilization. Sometimes it can also reduce dust collection efficiency, especially when particles of submicron scale are considered.
\nDiagram of activated carbon injection technology upstream of the ESP; APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulfurization installation.
To tackle this issue, activated carbon injection downstream the ESP and further exhaust gas purification in the fabric filter are applied (Figure 2). However, this makes it necessary to dispose ash from two different locations [13].
\nDiagram of activated carbon injection technology downstream of the ESP; APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulfurization installation.
Another solution for the injection of activated carbon into exhaust gases is the sorbent injection upstream the air preheater into the zone with a much higher temperature than in the solutions used so far downstream the air preheater or the electrostatic precipitator, i.e., the Alstom Mer-Cure™ technology [14] (Figure 3).
\nDiagram of the Mer-Cure™ technology for activated carbon injection; APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulphurization installation.
It was found, based on the research, that in flue gas denitrification installations based on the selective catalytic reduction method, the oxidation of Hg0 mercury to Hg2+ form occurs. The condition for this process, however, is the appropriate chlorine content in the flue gas. Typically, for hard coal, this content proves sufficient to trigger the oxidation process. Important for this process is the fact that the denitrification and oxidation reactions of mercury cannot occur simultaneously, because they depend on the same active centers. Research in industrial conditions indicates that the achievable degree of mercury oxidation is up to 78% [15].
\nWhen lignite is burned, the absence of chlorine in the flue gas causes oxidation reactions not to occur. In this case, NH4Cl injection upstream of the SCR catalyst is proposed to allow mercury oxidation in the catalyst (Figure 4). NH4Cl or NH4OH injection takes place in a zone with a temperature of about 370–420°C, and then activated carbon is added to the exhaust gas, after which the exhaust gas is directed to a dust collector (ESP or fabric filter), and finally to the absorber of the wet desulfurization method [16].
\nDiagram of mercury emission reduction technology for lignite-fired boilers: SCR—catalytic flue gas denitrification reactor; APH—air heater; and FGD—flue gas desulphurization installation.
Based on numerous studies [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23], it was found that with use of chloride additives, it is possible to achieve high efficiency of mercury vapor adsorption on ordinary activated carbon or other sorbents (fly ash) [12, 24].
\nThe proposed method involves the injection of aqueous additive solutions based on chlorite and/or potassium permanganate into the exhaust duct upstream the electrostatic precipitator [25] (Figure 5).
\nDiagram of liquid additive injection technology upstream of the ESP: APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulphurization installation.
The degree of mercury oxidation in this technology depends on numerous parameters; the most important of them are flue gas temperature; flue gas composition, including the SO2, SO3, and NO concentrations; pH; and the chemical composition of fly ash. The main oxidized mercury compounds are HgO and Hg (NO3)2. Part of the oxidized mercury is adsorbed on fly ash particles and as Hg(p) is removed with dust in the ESP unit. The remaining Hg2+ mercury in gaseous form is retained in the WFGD absorber and is removed along with the wastewater.
\nTests of mercury content in fly ash upstream of the electrostatic precipitator demonstrate that it is several times higher than the mercury content of coal, which indicates a high sorption capacity of fly ash [26, 27]. The mechanism of mercury adsorption is as follows: in the boiler (temperature of above 1400°C), mercury is in the form of metallic mercury vapors, while the chlorine (HCl) contained in the flue gas activates carbon particles in the ash, and as the flue gas cools down, Hg0 adsorbs in the chlorinated carbon pores and undergoes oxidation. If there is no HCl (HBr, HI) in the flue gas, there is also no Hg0 sorption on the ash particles, and the sorption of oxidized HgCl2 mercury is also low.
\nResearch on mercury content in fly ash from hard coal combustion in both pulverized coal and grate boilers indicates a higher Hg content in fine grains. In Figure 6 we present the results of mercury content testing in individual fractions of fly ash grains from a pulverized coal boiler.
\nMercury content in individual fractions of fly ash from an OP-230 pulverized coal boiler.
The sorption of mercury and its compounds depends significantly on the flue gas temperature and the content of unburned carbon in fly ash particles. Thus, the removal efficiency of mercury and its compounds increases with the mercury oxidation efficiency and the increased dust removal efficiency, especially of fine particles.
\nOxidized mercury compounds contained in the flue gas (mainly the HgCl2) are removed in FGD absorbers, whereas the Hg2+ reacts with the sulfides in the exhaust gas, e.g., with H2S, to form mercury sulfide HgS, which is then precipitated. We also know the phenomenon of mercury re-emission from flue gas desulfurization absorbers. If the sulfide content in the suspension is too low, a chemical reduction of Hg2+ to Hg0 may occur, resulting in higher concentration of metallic mercury downstream the absorber than upstream of it.
\nIt is assumed that the efficiency of removing oxidized mercury in FGD absorbers reaches a value of up to 70%, while it can happen that almost all the oxidized mercury is removed in a dust collector, with only the metallic mercury reaching the absorber [6]. In this case, it is recommended to directly introduce oxidizing additive to the main FGD cycle [28].
\nIn semidry installations, the desulfurization process of the desulfurization reaction products (waste) remains dry. This process is implemented either by spraying lime milk in the upper part of the reactor (spray dryer) or using the so-called pneumatic reactor, where the sorbent and water are separately fed in its lower part. The resulting dry waste is most often recirculated, and the exhaust gases are dedusted in a fabric filter. The long residence time of sorbent particles in the reactor and the flow of exhaust gas through the filter cake in the bag filter allow for the additional benefit of removing quite a number of impurities, including mercury, provided that an appropriate sorbent is selected.
\nThe semidry method using a pneumatic reactor integrated with a fabric filter for desulfurization of flue gas demonstrated a significant mercury removal efficiency of about 96%, when feeding additional activated carbon together with the primary sorbent (hydrated lime) [29].
\nMethods for reducing nitrogen oxides from coal combustion in power plants can be divided into two main groups, i.e., the primary and secondary methods. Primary methods rely on the organization of the combustion process in the chamber, primarily through the use of low-emission burners, air staging, exhaust gas recirculation, or reduction of the combustion temperature (fluidized bed boilers). The second group of methods is the secondary method, i.e., the selective catalytic and non-catalytic reduction and oxidative methods.
\nThe latter group of secondary methods is applied in the integrated flue gas cleaning process. The basis for the operation of oxidative methods is the oxidation of sparingly soluble impurities in exhaust gases, i.e., nitric oxide and mercury to soluble forms, and their removal together with SO2 by means of absorption or condensation [30]. There are many oxidants that are applied in oxidative methods. The most recommended oxidizing agents are ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and numerous compounds of chlorine (NaClO, NaClO2, Ca(ClO)2, ClO2) [31]. Whenever a gaseous oxidant is used, it may be fed directly to the flue gas duct; in the case of liquid oxidants, the conditions necessary for their evaporation should be provided, or, alternatively, they can be used as an additive to the sorption liquid in the absorber [18]. Comparison of the oxidizing potential of individual oxidants with respect to oxygen is presented in Table 2.
\nAs you can see, ozone has the highest oxidation potential, and it has the valuable advantage in that it enables oxidation of NO and NO2 to higher nitrogen oxides, while other oxidants oxidize it predominantly to NO2 only [31]. The fact that oxidation occurs in the gas phase, which affects the increase in reaction rate, is also significant. Oxidation methods allow for the simultaneous removal of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and mercury from flue gases in a single installation, with an efficiency exceeding 90%. Due to the lower operating and investment costs, they form an alternative to the commonly used combination of SCR and FGD. The presence of dust in the flue gas affects the amount of oxidizer used, and therefore a high-performance dust collector should be used upstream of the installation. In the case of commercial pollutant removal installations, ozone is the main oxidizer used for nitrogen oxides. Removal of the reaction products of nitrogen oxides with ozone takes place by means of absorption, for example, by the Lextran [32, 33] and LoTOx methods [34, 35, 36]. In Lextran method ozone is added to the flue gas before the absorber feed by mixture of water and catalyst. In LoTOx method, ozone is introduced before FGD absorber.
\nAnother solution is to reduce pollution from flue gas with liquid oxidants. It involves their introduction into flue gas upstream of the wet or semidry flue gas desulphurization installations. Their task is to oxidize both the nitrogen oxide to NO2 and the metallic mercury to Hg2+. In the case of wet flue gas desulfurization installations, liquid oxidants may also be added to the sorption liquid tank. Hydrogen peroxide [37] is a very popular oxidant used in industry, having the valuable advantage in that it is not as harmful to the environment as chlorine compounds and, at the same time, it is relatively cheap. Exhaust gas treatment with hydrogen peroxide is an extremely promising process. Many researchers around the world are working to improve its effectiveness in relation to the oxidation of nitrogen oxides. Works are carried out on combining the dosing of hydrogen peroxide with metal oxides [38], activating hydrogen peroxide using ultraviolet rays [39], combining H2O2 injection with catalysts (Fe-Al, Fe2O3, Fe-Ti) promoting the formation of OH* radicals [40], and using a combination of two oxidants, e.g., H2O2/NaClO2 [41]. The results of these experiments are all very promising, and we can expect that future industrial flue gas cleaning installations will apply the presented processes. The achieved efficiency of NOx and Hg removal from the carrier gas, at least in lab scale tests, is at the level of 90% [42]. Work on the use of sodium chlorite was also carried out on a laboratory and pilot scale [43]. It achieved a removal efficiency of 99% for SO2 and Hg and 90% for NOx.
\nAs already mentioned, the efficiency of mercury removal in flue gas cleaning installations depends on the speciation of mercury, and the mercury present in the flue gas occurs in both the Hg0 and the Hg2+ forms. Hg2+ oxidation increases with the increase in the content of halides (chlorides, bromides, and iodides) in carbon. In the absence of a natural oxidant, as is the case with lignite, liquid oxidative additive can be used for Hg0 oxidation. Absorbers of the wet flue gas desulfurization plant capture mercury in the Hg2+ gas form. In the result of cooperation between the Wrocław University of Technology and Rafako S.A., we developed an Hg emission reduction technology dedicated for hard coal and lignite-fired units. The method involves the injection of sodium chlorite into the exhaust duct upstream the WFGD absorber. In the result of injection of the oxidant, Hg0 is oxidized to Hg2+ and NO to NO2, and these oxidation products are captured from the flue gas together with SO2 in the WFGD absorber. The technology has been tested on an industrial scale in a 400 MWe lignite-fired unit.
\nThe tests were carried out using exhaust gases from a lignite-fired dust boiler (400 MWe) equipped with a selective non-catalytic NOx reduction installation, an electrostatic precipitator, and a wet flue gas desulfurization installation. The WFGD absorber is equipped with four levels of sprinkling and a system for feeding adipic acid into the suspension in order to increase the desulfurization efficiency. The test installation for injection of oxidizer (sodium chlorite) was built between the exhaust fan and the fan supporting the WFGD installation. The choice of the additive injection site upstream the booster fan guaranteed very good mixing of the additive with exhaust gases. The mercury content of the fuel during the tests varied between 0.215 and 0.701 mg/kg. A diagram of the installation, along with the location of the measuring points, is shown in Figure 7 [44].
\nDiagram of the research installation during tests on lignite flue gas. (A) Measuring cross section before oxidant injection. (B) Measuring cross section downstream the injection site. (C) Measuring cross section in the chimney.
As part of the research, we performed continuous measurements of mercury concentration in exhaust gases (using two Gasmet mercury emission monitoring systems) in measuring cross sections located upstream the injection site (A) and in the chimney (C); we carried additional measurements of mercury speciation by the manual method (Ontario-Hydro) at the chimney (C), upstream the WFGD absorber (B), and upstream the oxidative additive injection site (A). Based on the continuous measurements of mercury concentration in the exhaust gas upstream of the absorber and in the chimney, the efficiency of removing mercury from the exhaust gas in the WFGD absorber was calculated with the following formula:
\nwhere HgT\nC is the mean total mercury concentration in the flue gas in the chimney (C), μg/m3\nUSR; and HgT\nA is the mean total mercury concentration in the exhaust gas upstream of the absorber (A), μg/m3\nUSR.
\nTo determine the NO to NO2 oxidation degree in a given measurement cross section, the volumetric share of NO2 in the flue gas in relation to the sum of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (NOx) was determined. The NO to NO2 oxidation degree was calculated by means of the relations:
\nwhere NO2\nB is the NO2 concentration in the flue gas in the measurement cross section (B), ppm; and NOx\nB is the NOx concentration in the flue gas in the measurement cross section (B), ppm.
\nThe effectiveness of NOx removal from the flue gas in the FGD absorber was determined based on the measurement of NOx concentration (sum of NO and NO2 calculated as NO2 [45]) in the cross section located in the chimney (C) and upstream the FGD absorber (A). The NOx removal efficiency was determined by means of the relation:
\nwhere NOx\nA is the average NOx concentration in the flue gas upstream the absorber (A), mg/m3\nUSR; and NOx\nC is the average NOx concentration in flue gas in the chimney (C), mg/m3\nUSR.
\nTo specify the number of moles of the oxidant to be applied in relation to the moles of nitrogen oxide in the flue gas, a molar ratio \n
Calculation of the molar ratio X was made for the concentration of NO in the flue gas measured in the chimney (C) in the period immediately prior to the oxidant injection.
\nWhen the aqueous solution of sodium chlorite is sprayed in the flue gas upstream the absorber, first it evaporates (the temperature of the flue gas during the tests at the oxidant injection site (A) varies from 165 to 170°C) as a result of the reaction of gaseous sodium chlorite (initial pH of sodium chlorite solution was 11.5) with nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sodium chloride being formed [46]:
\nDue to the significant share of moisture in the flue gas (from 28 to 29%), there were very good conditions for the formation of nitric and nitrous acids [47]:
\nThe nitric acid formed in the flue gas reacted with the metallic mercury and oxidized it to the form Hg2+ (mercury(II) nitrate), which increases HgT removal efficiency from flue gas [43, 46]:
\nBecause flue gas contains acidic gases such as SO2, HCl, and HF, they can be absorbed by oxidant droplet and drop its pH before evaporation which caused the release of ClO2 [48]. Chlorine dioxide can directly oxidized NO and Hg0; additionally emission of chlorine radical is possible, which enhanced Hg0 oxidation [15, 19]:
\nIn such a complicated gas mixture as flue gases from lignite combustion, the presented mechanism can occur simultaneously. For example, the efficiency of NO to NO2 oxidation and the removal of HgT and SO2 during the tests carried out in a lignite-fired power plant (sodium chlorite fed to the exhaust gas prior to the FGD absorber) are shown in Figure 8.
\nOxidation NO to NO2, NOx, SO2, and HgT removal efficiency in function of molar ratio X.
The efficiency of HgT removal and oxidation of nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases depend on the stream of injected sodium chlorite to exhaust gases, which is illustrated by the molar ratio X. Changes in total mercury concentration in exhaust gases in the chimney (C) and NO, NO2, and NOx downstream the sodium chlorite injection site (B) are illustrated in Figure 9. The undoubted advantage of the presented method is the almost immediate reaction of the entire system to the injected sodium chlorite. An increase in the amount of injected additive (series I < series II) causes an immediate decrease in the HgT concentration in the chimney and an increase in the NO2 concentration in the exhaust gas downstream the injection site. The HgT concentration in the chimney during the presented tests was below the level required by the BAT conclusions, i.e., <7 μg/m3\nUSR.
\nNO, NO2, and NOx concentrations in the flue gas downstream the injection site (B) and HgT concentration in the chimney (C).
Sodium chlorite injection into flue gas upstream of the WFGD absorber caused an increase in Hg2+ concentration in the flue gas, which translated into the efficiency of mercury removal. Unfortunately, in some cases, the increase in Hg2+ concentration in the exhaust gas intensified the phenomenon of re-emission [44].
\nThe phenomenon of re-emission consists in chemical reduction of the Hg2+ absorbed in the suspension to the elemental Hg0 mercury emitted back into the atmosphere [49]. Sulfite ions (SO3\n2−), acting as a reducing agent, are responsible for this phenomenon [50]:
\nIn FGD installations, where the addition of organic acids (formic, adipic and other) serves increasing the \n
The re-emission phenomenon is assessed on the basis of measurements of mercury concentration in exhaust gas both upstream and downstream the WFGD absorber. In order to find out the nature of the re-emission phenomenon, research was carried out on a lignite-fired unit. We assumed that the concentration of total mercury in the cross section (C) was higher than in the cross section (B) the phenomenon of mercury re-emission from the FGD absorber was present, and the intensity of this phenomenon was described using re-emission rate:
\nAn example of variations in total mercury concentration in exhaust gases in the period when re-emission occurred is presented in Figure 10.
\nTotal mercury concentrations in flue gas upstream the WFGD absorber (B) and in the chimney (C).
The observed phenomenon of mercury re-emission from the absorber lasted for approx. 4 h. Based on the analysis of the presented graphs, we calculated the degree of mercury re-emission according to Eq. (5); the calculation results are presented in Figure 11.
\nThe degree of mercury re-emission from the WFGD absorber during measurements for a lignite-fired unit.
The observed degree of re-emission from the WFGD absorber reached 220%. In order to explain the mechanisms of this phenomenon, the results of the re-emission degree were compared with the operating parameters of the unit and the WFGD (Figure 12). Mercury re-emission occurred when the absorber operating parameters changed, and the pH and ORP proved to be the most significant of them. A detailed description of the parameters affecting the intensity of the phenomenon of re-emission from the WFGD absorber is presented in the publication [44].
\nParameters of unit and WFGD absorber operation during measurements for a lignite-fired unit.
Research demonstrated that re-emission can be reduced by changing the absorber’s operating parameters. We noticed that an increase in suspension temperature and pH increased re-emission, while the increase in chloride concentration in the suspension and the intensity of air flow through the suspension reduced it [54]. At the same time, numerous studies indicate that significant reductions of Hg0 re-emission can be obtained by adding various additives [53, 54, 55]. The most common are simple additions of \n
Total mercury concentration in the chimney and upstream the WFGD absorber after a one-time injection of 4m3 of sodium sulfide (10%).
The phenomenon of mercury re-emission from the WFGD absorber is not always identifiable on the basis of measurements of total mercury concentration in exhaust gases. Hard coal tests were carried out for the WFGD absorber, purifying flue gas from two units with a capacity of 195 and 220 MWe. During the tests, both boilers operated at maximum power. Prior to the tests, measurements were performed with the Ontario-Hydro method revealing that the absorber is experiencing metallic mercury re-emission. The results of these measurements are presented in Figure 14.
\nComparison of mercury concentration in flue gas for hard coal tests.
The total mercury removal efficiency in the flue gas treatment installation (electrostatic precipitator and WFGD) was 72.4%. Mercury bound with the ash was virtually completely removed in the ESP. The flue gas downstream of the boiler contained a small amount of metallic mercury only (1.73 μg/m3\nUSR), which was a result of the high concentrations of halides in the fuel (Cl (0.110 ÷ 0.211%), Br (0.008 ÷ 0.011%), F (0.002 ÷ 0.004%)). The concentration of metallic mercury in the exhaust gas upstream of the absorber was lower than downstream the absorber, which meant that the absorber was the source of mercury re-emission. The total mercury removal efficiency in the ESP was 56.2% and another 36.9% in the WFGD absorber. Due to the fact that the proportion of oxidized mercury upstream the WFGD absorber is significant, sodium sulfide was fed to the absorber to reduce mercury emissions in the flue gas in the chimney. In Figure 15, we present the results of measurements of mercury concentration in exhaust gas upstream and downstream the WFGD absorber, during dosing of sodium sulfide. Measurements were carried out with two continuous emission monitoring systems and the Ontario-Hydro method.
\nMeasurement results of mercury concentration in flue gas upstream and downstream the WFGD absorber (continuous and Ontario-Hydro measurements) during the addition of Na2S.
The total mercury concentration in the exhaust gas before the administration of sodium sulfide was 4.3 μg/m3\nUSR, and after the addition of sodium sulfide, the concentration of total mercury in the exhaust gas dropped to 0.45 μg/m3\nUSR. The mercury removal efficiency for the exhaust gas in the WFGD absorber amounted to 25.5% without the addition of sulfide and increased to 90.5% after applying the additive. To sum up, due to the content of halides in coal, a considerable amount of Hg2+ is present in hard coal exhaust gas, which can be effectively removed in WFGD, as long as the phenomenon of re-emission is controlled.
\nThe chapter presents selected issues related to Hg and NOx emissions from coal combustion processes, in the aspect of regulations related to limiting permissible emissions of pollutants, as contained in the BAT conclusions. The review of methods applied to reduce mercury emissions demonstrates that the specific technology should be selected individually for each facility considered. There is no single, universal, cost-effective solution. In order to choose an effective method for reducing mercury emissions, it is first and foremost necessary to hold the knowledge of the speciation of mercury in the exhaust gas downstream the boiler. In the case of low concentration of oxidized mercury, there are no devices that can be installed in order to secure sufficient limiting of mercury emissions. In such a case, one should first consider the solutions that consist in supplementing the exhaust gas with additives to oxidize the metallic mercury first.
\nAmong the methods used for denitrification of exhaust gases, attention has been given to oxidative methods, which form an opportunity to simultaneously reduce NOx and Hg emissions. The results of the author’s own research in industrial conditions confirmed the usefulness of injection of the oxidant (sodium chlorite) to the exhaust gas upstream the WFGD absorber to reduce mercury emission. Under favorable conditions for lignite flue gases, up to 70% Hg removal efficiency was achieved, coupled with 17% NOx removal efficiency and an unchanged SO2 removal efficiency. Whenever there is the phenomenon of re-emission of mercury from the WFGD absorber, appropriate measures must be undertaken to limit it. Again, test results on lignite and hard coal exhaust gas indicate that it is possible to reduce re-emissions to such an extent, as to ensure compliance with emission standards in line with BAT conclusions.
\nBy using mercury oxidation technologies with simultaneous application of flue gas purification devices (DeNOx, DeSOx, and dedusting) and effectively combating re-emissions, we can achieve total mercury concentrations at the level required by BAT conclusions, i.e., in the order of 1–7 (4) μg/m3\nUSR.
\n\n air (pre)heater best available techniques electrostatic precipitator flue gas desulphurization powdered activated carbon selective catalytic reduction wet flue gas desulphurization
Plant parasitic fungi are a large group of eukaryotic living organisms lack of photosynthetic pigment and chitinous cell wall. It has been estimated around 15,000 species of them cause diseases in plants [1, 2], and annual crop losses exceed 200 billion euros [3, 4, 5]. Figure 1 shows differently infected plants by various fungal pathogens. During occurrence of plant diseases, they produce various types of essential elements to complete their life cycle [6]. Most of the plants are attacked by one species or several phytopathogenic fungi but also the individual species of fungi can parasitize one or many different kinds of plants [7, 8].
A. Leaf spot disease of Houttuynia cordata, B. Downy mildew of Cucumis sativus, C. Peach brown rot of Amygdalus persica, D. Rust disease of Prunus salicina, E-F. Brown rot of Cerasus pseudocerasus leaves and fruit.
In the pre-molecular era, the detection of fungal pathogens was mostly depending on microscopic, morphological and cultural approaches [9]. The culture-based diagnosis is time consuming and impractical when rapid results are required. With the advancement of molecular methods, detection and identification of phytopathogenic fungi have sped up and become more reliable [4], because of its high degree of specificity to distinguish closely related organisms at different taxonomic levels [10]. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technologies include multiplex PCR, nested PCR, real-time PCR and reverse transcription (RT)-PCR and DNA barcoding have been recently used as a molecular tool for detection and identification of fungal pathogens [11].
The rapid identification of fungal disease is an effective management practice and may help control and prevent their spread and progress successfully. Phylogenetic analyses have been employed for rapid identification of different kinds of fungi. However, the accuracy and reliability of DNA based methods depended largely on the experience and skill of the person making the diagnosis. Besides that, few plant pathogenic fungi were sometimes also detected and identified using different types of proteomics approaches [6, 11]. In this chapter, we also discussed the importance and confusion of “One fungus, one name”, and its impacts on identification of fungal plant pathogens. Finally, some suggestions were referred to the foreground of molecular identification.
[12] provided a chronological and systematic assessment of conventional methods of plant pathogen identification [13]. The application of light microscopy in the 1840s, the first evidence of plant disease was reported which was caused by Phytophthora infestans [14]. In the mid-nineteenth century, spore characters were accepted widely in classification [15]. In the middle of the twentieth century, different fungal structures were given emphasis in taxonomic systems, and separate scientific names (e.g., Cercospora were given for more or less similar fungi growing on different plant genera [16]. The observations of ornamentals of spores through scanning electron microscope (SEM) in the mid-1960s helped in separation of very similar plant pathogens and it also aided in clarifying patterns of conidiogenesis [17]. Then when came to the era of Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) which led to the discovery of fundamental differences in the major groups [18]. Figures 2 and 3 represent the ultrastructural morphology of spongy tissue cells of tea leaves infected by fungal pathogens and control leaves by TEM [19].
The healthy spongy tissue of tea leaves, observed by TEM.
Exobasidium vexans infects spongy tissue cells of tea leaves, observed by TEM.
During 1960s and 1970s thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and isozyme profiles were used to find out the chromosome numbers [20]. Vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) were developed and it was found importance in many research studies on pathogenic Fusarium spp. [21]. The cluster analysis was performed after having powerful computers in the 1970s which revealed large numbers of morphological, cultural, and physiological characteristics should be computed and analyzed together. With that situation, DNA-based methodologies moved from occasional to common use [22].
[23] mentioned that the identification of fungi up to generic/species level or the formae speciales strains depended on their morphological characteristics and various kinds of reproductive organs. However, varieties or biotypes have to be identified by following pathogenicity, biochemical and immunological properties or nucleotide sequences of the genomic DNA, isozyme analysis, vegetative compatibility group (VCG) analysis and electrophoretic mobility of cell wall proteins etc. The development of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and monoclonal antibodies exhibit greater sensitivity and specificity in identifying fungi [23].
The molecular technologies are widely used in identifying plant pathogenic fungi and have been studied by mycologist and plant pathologists throughout the world. Many different types of diagnostic techniques may be used for detection, identification and quantification of fungal pathogens present in the infected above ground and below ground parts of plants and propagating and reproductive organs of different types of plants [23]. The nucleotide sequences of the pathogen DNA have become the preferred ones, because of their greater speed, specificity, sensitivity, reliability, and reproducibility of the results obtained, following the development of PCR [23]. [24] mentioned that the researchers over the last few years devoted their affords to develop the methods for detecting and identifying plant pathogens based on DNA/RNA probe technologies and PCR amplification such as [25] developed techniques for the rapid detection of plant pathogens; [26] used PCR for identifying plant pathogens; [27] used the modern assays for identification, detection and quantification of plant pathogenic fungi: and impacts of molecular diagnostic technologies on plant disease management was evaluated by [28]. The RT-PCR advances are helping the accurate detection and quantification of plant pathogens quickly and now being used routinely in most of the aspects of plant pathology.
In all molecular technology, DNA technology is most important in recovering from living cultures but is also useful to revise major groups of obligate fungi that cannot be cultivated, such as the powdery mildews [29], rusts and smuts [30]. Whole-genome sequence analyses indicated that the millions of dried fungal specimens preserved in different collection centers could hold great promise for understanding the evolution of many major fungal pathogens and their associated diseases and epidemics over time [31, 32]. [33] described a large number of various important common leaf diseases (from 2004 to 2019) caused by fungal plant pathogens with their symptoms and references of publications. [34] mentioned that the PCR and flow cytometry may be used in the genetic recognition of existing pathogens and the identification of emergent ones. The minute quantities of DNA in plant pathogens may be detected because of sensitiveness of DNA-based PCR technologies [35]. Further, genetic investigations could detect sources of pathogen and host resistance in diseases such as powdery mildew. [4] mentioned the different molecular diagnostics techniques (Table 1) used by many researchers throughout the world for the identification of phytopathogenic fungi with their advances and disadvantages.
Molecular method | Reference |
---|---|
Conventional PCR | [36, 37] |
Nested PCR | [38, 39, 40] |
Multiplex PCR | [41] |
Reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR | [10, 42] |
Real-time PCR (Q PCR) | [43, 44, 45] |
Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) | [46, 47] |
DNA barcoding | [32, 48, 49, 50, 51] |
DNA/RNA probe-based methods | [24] |
Northern blotting | [52, 53, 54] |
In situ hybridization | [55, 56, 57] |
FISH | [58, 59] |
Post amplification techniques | [60, 61, 62] |
Macroarray | [62, 63, 64] |
The isothermal amplification-based methods | [58, 65, 66] |
Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) | [66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71] |
Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA): | [68, 72, 73, 74, 75] |
RNA interference methods (RNAi) | [76, 77, 78, 79] |
RNA-Seq-based next-generation sequencing methods | [46, 80, 81, 82, 83] |
PCR-based molecular methods for the detection of fungi.
Accurate identification and diagnosis of plant pathogens with reliable technologies and methods are needed to control them for sustainable plant diseases management [84] as well as prevention of the spread of invasive pathogens [85]. [86] published their works on fungal protocols and the primers for the ITS were first introduced, and it is still valid and widely used [32] in identification of plant pathogens. [9] reported that species identification was frequently difficult because fungi are a large and diverse assemblage of eukaryotes and have complex and poorly understood life cycles [87]. They have mentioned that molecular (DNA sequence) data as an essential tool for the identification of plant pathogenic fungi by the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. The barcode gene for the fungi could be used to identify a wide range of plant-pathogenic fungi [9]. Protein-coding genes [glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), beta-tubulin (tub2) gene, translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1), actin (act), and histone H3 (his3)], generally prove a valuable supplement to ribosomal genes at the species level. More conserved gene regions such as large subunit (LSU), small subunit (SSU), and RNA polymerase II (RPB2) gene provide a better discrimination at the generic and/or family level [88, 89, 90]. The Q-bank fungal database contains DNA barcodes supplemented by morphological, phenotypical, and ecological data for more than 725 species of relevance to phytopathology. The database continues to be actively expanded, and parties interested in participating or contributing can contact its curators (
Additionally, the application of proteomics such as two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and mass spectrometry (MS) is used to characterize cellular and extracellular virulence and pathogenicity factors produced by pathogens as well as to identify changes in protein levels in plant hosts upon infection by pathogenic organisms and symbiotic counterparts [101]. Many of the techniques used in proteomics, in particular the 2-DE method was developed two decades before the term proteomics was coined [102, 103]. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) have been carried out to study the proteome of phytopathogenic fungi, mainly due to the difficulty of obtaining fungal protein extracts and/or the lack of available fungal protein databases [6]. In the last few years proteomic, in conjunction with genomic, has become one of the most relevant techniques for studying phytopathogenic fungi. Currently, the complete genome of over four hundred different species has been sequenced and this number is still increasing. With the availability of genome information for more and more species and the advancement in mass spectrometry technologies, proteomics has come into true since 1990s [104]. The advent of proteomics has allowed researchers to identify a broad spectrum of proteins in living systems.
Almost a little earlier, [86, 105, 106, 107] used immunological techniques with fungal plant pathogens-aspects of antigens, antibodies and assays for diagnosis. To speed up the identification of plant pathogens and allow their identification in field, a number of serological methods have been developed, mainly based upon the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). These methods are used to detect pathogens using a monoclonal antibody labeled with fluorescent compounds [108, 109]. Lateral flow devices (LFDs) are a simple paper-based dipstick assay able to detect and identify the causal agents of disease [110, 111]. [112] also described the methods using allozyme and isozyme markers to rapidly differentiate intersterility groups of Heterobasidion annosum [113], Phytophthora cinnamomi, and Seiridium sp. isolates [114].
Scientific names (Latin binomials) are an integral part for communicating details about fungi causing plant diseases. Assembled knowledge on fungal pathogens viz biology, distribution, ecology, host range, control measures and the risks are accessible through these names [12]. In naming new fungal species mycologists are governed by the ICN and, more specifically by the International Code for Nomenclature of plants, algae, and fungi [115]. The Code provides a platform to abolish any bias or taxonomic confusion where multiple names are used for the same species [116]. ‘1 Fungus = 1 Name’ was a meeting organized by CBS in the Netherlands that resulted in the ‘Amsterdam Declaration’ signed by some 80 participants [117], that strictly proposed the move to a unified nomenclature. Each fungal species should have one accurate name which is nomenclaturally accepted in a particular classification. Any of the previously used names for a particular species should be considered as a synonym with the oldest epithet taking priority over any younger name. If there is a wish/desire/movement to use a widely known younger name, then such usage must be in accordance with Art. 57.2 of the Code and its adoption should be accepted by the Nomenclature Committee for Fungi (NCF). Nevertheless, application of “one fungus one name” (1F1N) is in its infancy in mycology because most of the fungi are commonly known in only their sexual or asexual morph [116].
Pleomorphism (having diverse fungal propagules) can be seen in many pathogenic fungi especially in Ascomycetes and in basidiomycetous rust fungi [118, 119]. Until the early 2000s, fungi were primarily classified on the basis of their sporing structures, and separate names were given to the sexual structures (formerly called the teleomorph) and asexual structures (formerly called the anamorph or if there are several asexual morphs, synanamorphs) even where the relationship between different morphs was proved by the culture of single spores [119]. For example, Calonectria with Cylindrocladium asexual morphs [120], Chaetosphaeria with Menispora asexual morphs [121], Cladosporium with Venturia asexual morphs [122], Gibberella with Fusarium asexual morphs [122], Ceratocystis with Thielaviopsis asexual morphs [123] and Grosmannia with Leptographium asexual morphs [124].
However, the concept of dual name became controversial to mycology in 21st century especially when a single DNA sequence could be attached to two names; one being the sexual morph name and the other under the asexual morph name (e.g. species of Diaporthe and Phomopsis) [125]. Many people working in fields related to agriculture/horticulture and plant pathology are confused by having to deal with two names for a single pathogen [119]. This can be very important when dealing with fungi of quarantine significance and quarantine regulations linked to import and export requirements. Some countries may list the asexual morph name for an organism, whereas others list the sexual morph name. It is true that the two names refer to the one genetically identical organism, but quarantine officers are not necessarily aware of these details when dealing with constantly changing asexual–sexual morph taxonomy. For instance, identification of an invasive new rust (Uredo rangelii) on Myrtaceae in Australia [126]. This raised confusion as to whether or not the much-feared Eucalyptus rust (Puccinia psidii), a serious quarantine organism, and a restricted fungus on quarantine lists in countries in which eucalypts are cultivated [127, 128], was identical and had been introduced into Australia. Genetically, these names represent the same fungus or, at least, very closely related fungi causing the same disease, which suggests that they should be treated in a similar fashion when it comes to quarantine decisions. However, the names have not been treated equally and this has caused substantial complications relating to the treatment of the new P. psidii sensu lato invasion in Australia [126].
Dual nomenclature also conflicts with biological philosophy; a type is the type of a single organism that can have only one legitimate name [129]. The concept of permitting separate names for asexual morph of fungi with a pleomorphic life-cycle has been also an issue for mycologists to collect and describe new fungal species, mostly with one morph [116]. Therefore, depending on the accepted recommendations of 1F1N concept, all legitimate fungal names are now treated equally for the purposes of establishing priority. Asexual morph genera compete with sexual morph genera based on priority. For example, the asexual genera names Alternaria (1817) takes precedence over the sexual genus name Lewia (1986), Cladosporium (1816) over Davidiella (2003), Fusarium (1809) over Gibberella (1877), Phyllosticta (1818) over Guignardia (1892), Sphaceloma (1874) over Elsinoë (1900), Trichoderma (1794) over Hypocrea (1825). However, the reverse can also happen where an older sexual genus name takes priority over a younger asexual genus name, e.g., Diaporthe (1870) over Phomopsis (1905). However, there are exceptions where younger, widely used names get priority over an older name, for example Hypomyces (1860) over Cladobotryum (1816).
[130] documented five alternatives which can be followed when deciding on a single name for a fungus with a pleomorphic life cycle. These are: 1) strict priority, ignoring names originally typified by asexual morph or sexual morph by considering the priority of both generic names and species epithets [131, 132]; 2) sexual morph priority, with asexual morph species epithets [133]; 3) sexual morph priority without considering earlier asexual morph species epithets [134, 135, 136]; 4) teleotypification and 5) single species names but allowing two genera per clade (Hypomyces/Cladobotryum) [137, 138]. A number of sexual and asexual morph fungal genera have been linked by applying the oldest available name for the lineage (strict priority) in various studies. For example, Neofusicoccum was assigned for the clade with unnamed Botryosphaeria-like sexual morphs [139] included asexual Phialophora-like fungi in the sexual morph genus Jattaea [120, 140, 141, 142]; Cylindrocladium species were included under the older generic name Calonectria, and Phomopsi species in the older, sexual genus Diaporthe [139]. Importantly, 1F1N is important to link asexual morphs of pathogenic fungi to sexual morph-typified generic names, even without ever having seen the sexual morphs (e.g Teratosphaeria toledana and Phaeophleospora toledana) [119]. Further, this approach is also crucial for the widely emerging whole genome sequencing projects specially to compare species representing single entities with their closest relatives [143]. Such as comparing Mycosphaerella tritici (now Zymoseptoria) with Mycosphaerella fijiensis (now Pseudocercospora), is not instructive, as they are just two genera within a family, but not two species of one genus [119].
Although the application of 1F1N has become a reality, determination of which name to use for certain fungal species is somewhat more complex. Also, it is doubtful when accepting the other morph if it has been described elsewhere with a different name especially when lacking molecular data [116]. According to 1F1N mycologists must now select a genus name formerly applied to taxa with either asexual or sexual reproductive modes, that decision often influences the scope of genotypic and phenotypic diversity of a genus, and even its monophyly. [144] showed that many pairs of legitimate asexual-sexual morph names are not homotypic synonyms and merging them may not be justified. Therefore, dual names continue to be available for use following [145] e.g. the name pairs Aspergillus niveus – Fennellia nivea and Aspergillus flavipes – Fennellia flavipes, were not conspecific in a molecular study by [146].
Another problem arises when pathogenic species have one or more generic names for sexual morph associated with one or more asexual states. The best example is Aspergillus species which are mostly opportunistic pathogens. There are 11 sexual generic names associated with this genus; phenotypic variation and genetic divergence within the asexual genera are low but between sexual genera they are high [147]. Applying the asexual name Aspergillus to the many sexual genera masks information now conveyed by the sexual genus names. This would lead to taxonomic inconsistency in the Eurotiales because the large Aspergillus sensu lato would embrace more genetic divergence than neighboring clades comprised of two or more genera. However, [148] proposed a phylogeny combined aspect to apply one name to one fungal genus in a scientific manner in such a case.
Establishment and full use of the single name concept may take a long time as it is difficult to discard fungal names in publications before 2013, and these materials are still in use. The old name of some species whose name has been changed is still used in many publications [148]. When identifying fungi that cause diseases in humans, animals or plants, it may be difficult to determine which is the correct name because there are different names for these fungi in the literature. It is unlikely that all researchers and workers in agricultural industries, or border protection officers will have a good knowledge and understanding of fungal taxonomy. Acceptance and widespread use of the fungal names that change due to 1F1N will take time. Therefore, in some ways we are trapped in the past and there is difficulty in applying recent knowledge, due to long-standing and traditional rules that define how we name fungi.
With the advent of “One fungus, one name” times from 2010s, many important fungal genera and species, for example Gibberella, Hypocrea, Phomopsis and Magnaporthe grisea causing worldwide rice blast towards the end became the synonyms of Fusarium, Trichoderma, Diaporthe and Pyricularia grisea respectively approved by the Nomenclature Committee of the Fungi and the General Committee (Art. 14.13). [149] listed nearly 7,000 generic names for eventual adoption, which made up just less than 50% of the total [24, 38] legitimate generic names) from Index Fungorum/ MycoBank database. For these changes, molecular techniques play an important role in the emergence of this great change, although for the species concept of fungi, we do still not get rid of the cruse of pragmatism. Thus, this has led to a very puzzling phenomenon, viz. on one side oceans of known species walk towards death, but on the other side mycologists spare no effort to ‘create’ many new species and even many higher-level taxa (genus, family, and order, etc.). Trichoderma harzianum as an ubiquitous species in the environment and also effective bio-control agents against the devastating plant diseases, became an aggregate species recognized by [150], using genealogical concordance and recombination analyses confirmed there were two genetically isolated agamospecies and two hypothetical holomorphic species related to T. harzinanum species-complex [151], but surprisingly split into at least 14 species based on morphological, ecological, biogeographical and phylogenetic data [152, 153]. For Alternaria and allied genera, even the whole Kingdom Fungi, 2013 was destined to go down in history because of “Alternaria redefined”, up to eighteen old generic name, for example, Embellisia, Nimbya, Ulocladium and Lewia turned into the synonyms of Alternaria, but in the meantime, 16 new Alternaria section were born [154].
Immediately, Hyde and Crous as well as their research groups open the dazzling “re-” doors published in Fungal Diversity, Studies in Mycology, Persoonia, IMA Fungus, Mycosphere. They provided a series of “backbone” trees of fungal genera, family, order or even higher taxonomic level based on DNA sequences from ex-type, epitype and authoritative strains. From 2014 to 2020, “One stop shop: backbones trees for important phytopathogenic genera: I-IV”, were published in Fungal Diversity and led by [155] and [156, 157, 158] with international co-operations, which provided phylogenetic frameworks of 100 groups or genera of plant pathogenic fungi in the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Mucormycotina (Fungi), and Oomycota. Almost at the same time, in Studies in Mycology, a series of “Genera of phytopathogenic fungi: GOPHY1-3”, which introduced stable platforms for the taxonomy of 62 phytopathogenic genera, including 5 new genera, 88 new species, 38 new combinations, four new names and 13 typifications of older names [159, 160, 161]. For these publications, the important disease information, viz. distribution, hosts and disease symptoms were referred, but without the key pathogenicity test (Koch’s postulates) to clarify whether they were real pathogens or not. In spite of this, these contributions still make us get rid of the embarrassment of using morphology as the only approach of pathogen identification and provide primary and secondary DNA barcodes for rapid and accurate recognition. After census of new pathogens report in the international mainstream journals of plant pathology, we discovered that in the latest three years, more than 200 new pathogens and first reports were recorded per year in our planet.
Now more and more mycologists and plant pathologists accepted that fungi causing plant or post-harvest diseases should be identified on the basis of morphology and phylogeny or at least ITS-blast on NCBI database (for example,
Accurate identification of pathogens must be the first step of plant pathology. Linnaeus published “Species Plantarum” in 1753 and then “Systema Naturae” (10th edition) in 1758 for planting naming with binomial nomenclature, which were continued in Kingdom Fungi. A dual system of fungal nomenclature for asexual fungi was promulgated by [15], at one time, which played an important role in the identification of plant pathogenic fungi but came to the end in 2013. [147] compared the distinction between theoretical and operational species concepts, and pointed that PSR (Phylogenetic Species Recognition) by genealogical concordance was well suited to fungi and developed and adopted at an increasing rate [163]. DNA barcode, as a relative short specific DNA sequence was able to utilize in taxonomic practice referring to OTUs (Operational Taxonomic Units), which was comprehensively discussed by [164]. Urgently [165, 166] even attempted to propose DNA sequences without vouchered specimens to serve as types for fungal taxon names, but was unfortunately rejected by Nomenclature Committee for Fungi and International Mycological Congress (IMC 11) [167]. Almost at the same time, [168] further pointed out ASVs (Amplicon Sequence Variants) could replace OTUs as the standard units by high-throughput marker-gene sequencing data analysis.
The rapid development about identification approach of fungi has entered a dazzling but seemingly at a loss stage in plant pathology and other related practical or applied scientific fields. Although this, we have to admit the reality or the status quo is existing mycological research networks, especially e-books or publications do really facilitate the rapid development of DNA identification and information sharing. We can even update our knowledge in almost days and more comprehensive. It can also be understood in this way, viz. easier to make mistakes but also correct them. Although [167] fully expounded the deficiencies of Hawksworth’s proposals, for identification of plant pathogenic fungi, we believe that accuracy sometimes gives way to quickness. Thus, DNA identification is competent to become a core or sole approach for fungal pathogens.
For plant pathologists in consideration of this method, we can quickly start the following two works, i) to make full use of the achievements of taxonomists to all-round confirm or correct the scientific name of old fungal pathogens, like “one fungus, one name” and “backbone trees” of fungal groups, which needs to be simultaneously done by pathologists in different countries of the world, or at least one continent, and 2) to standard the identification parameters of plant pathogenic fungi, for example the barcoding gene markers (only ITS or ITS plus a secondary generic marker) for PCR amplification (including forward/reverse primers), sequences threshold (99.6% for ITS or 99.8% for LSU is OK, or adopt the new standard?) and international specialized open database for rapid alignment. Of course, we also should keep pace with mycologists, and update our identification system on time.
The Edited Volume, also known as the IntechOpen Book, is an IntechOpen pioneered publishing product. Edited Volumes make up the core of our business - and as pioneers and developers of this Open Access book publishing format, we have helped change the way scholars and scientists publish their scientific papers - as scientific chapters.
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\\n\\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
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\n\nOut of all of the publishing options available to researchers, why choose to contribute your research to an IntechOpen Edited Volume? The reasons are simple. IntechOpen has worked exceptionally hard over the past years to fine tune the Open Access book publishing process and we continue to work hard to deliver the best for all of our contributors. The quality of published content is of utmost importance to us, followed closely by speed, and of course, availability and accessibility. To view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nQUALITY CONTENT
\n\nOver the years we have learned what is important. What makes a difference to the researchers that work with us, what they value. Something that is very high not only on their lists, but our own, is the quality of the published content.
\n\nOur books contain scientific content written by two Nobel Prize winners, two Breakthrough Prize winners and 73 authors who are in the top 1% Most Cited.
\n\nWith regular submission for coverage in the single most important database, the Book Citation Index in the Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI), and no rejected submissions to date, over 43% of all Open Access books indexed in the BKCI are IntechOpen published books.
\n\nIn addition to BKCI, IntechOpen covers a number of important discipline specific databases as well, such as Thomson Reuters’ BIOSIS Previews.
\n\nACCESS
\n\nThe need for up to date information available at the click of a mouse is one thing that sets IntechOpen apart. By developing our own technologies in order to streamline the publishing process, we are able to minimize the amount of time from initial submission of a manuscript to its final publication date, without compromising the rigor of the editorial and peer review process. This means that the research published stays relevant, and in this fast paced world, this is very important.
\n\nYOUR WORK, YOUR COPYRIGHT
\n\nThe utilization of CC licenses allow researchers to retain copyright to their work. Researchers are free to use, adapt and share all content they publish with us. You will never have to pay permission fees to reuse a part of an experiment that you worked so hard to complete and are free to build upon your own research and the research of others. The Edited Volume helps bring together research from all over the world and compiles that research into one book - accessible for all. The research presented in chapter one can inspire the author of chapter three to take his or her research to the next level. It is about sharing ideas, insights and knowledge.
\n\nCan collaboration be inspired by a publishing format? At IntechOpen, the answer is yes. The way the research is published, the way it is accessed, it’s all part of our mission to help academics make a greater impact by giving readers free access to all published work.
\n\nOur Open Access book collection includes:
\n\n3,332 OPEN ACCESS BOOKS
\n\n107,564 INTERNATIONAL AUTHORS AND ACADEMIC EDITORS
\n\n113+ MILLION DOWNLOADS
\n\nPUBLISHING PROCESS STEPS
\n\nSee a complete overview of all publishing process steps and descriptions here.
\n\nCURRENT PROJECTS
\n\nTo view current Open Access book projects that are Open for Submissions visit us here.
\n\nNot sure if this is the right publishing option for you? Feel free to contact us at book.department@intechopen.com.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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