\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-678-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-677-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-679-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"6dcb071a2e978694b6b1cb9c20afc1a3",bookSignature:"Prof. Hai-Zhi Song",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11494.jpg",keywords:"Electric Field Effect, Nano-Materials, Electric Field Design, Antenna, Microelectronics, Optoelectronics, Electric Field Stimulation, Brain and Nerve, Electric Field Imaging, Atomic Electric Field, Space Science, Climate",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 22nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the fields of new materials, optoelectronic devices, and quantum information processing, appointed vice director of the Science and Technology Committee of SWITP, author/co-author of more than 170 research papers, and holder of 40 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196114",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"hai-zhi-song",fullName:"Hai-Zhi Song",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196114/images/system/196114.jpg",biography:"Curriculum Vitae\n\nName: Hai-Zhi Song \nGender: male\nDate of Birth: Oct. 20, 1968\nPlace of Birth: Shanxi, China\nAffiliation and Address: \nSouthwest Institute of Technical Physics\nNo.7, Section 4, Renminnan Road, Chengdu 610041, China\nAnd\nInstitute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences,\nUniversity of Electronic Science and Technology of China,\nNo. 4, Section 2, Jianshebei Road, Chengdu 610054, China\n\nWork Phone: +86-28-68180751, +86-28-83208728\nMobile Phone: +86-158-28239155\nFax: +86-28-83201896\nE-mail: hzsong1296@163.com, hzsong@uestc.edu.cn\n \nEducation \nSept, 1990 – July, 1995:Peking University, PhD, Thesis “Visible luminescence of porous silicon and its mechanism”, Researches on hydrogen-influenced Schottky diodes and silicon-based light-emitting materials. \nSept, 1986 – July, 1990:Nanjing University, Bachelor of Science, Thesis “Study of refractory metal silicides”, Research on Ohmic contact of semiconductors.\n\nWork Experience \nJuly, 1995 – Sept. 1997: Nanjing University, Nanjing, China, Postdoctoral Researcher, Research on silicon-based light-emitting materials. \nOct, 1997 – Sept. 1998: Catholic University Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Visiting free Researcher, Research on amorphous semiconductors. \nOct, 1998 – Sept. 2001: Tsukuba University, Tsukuba, Japan, Assistant Professor, Research on semiconductor quantum dots. \nOct, 2001 – March 2012: Fujitsu Lab. Ltd., Atsugi, Japan, Researcher/Senior Researcher, Researches on Semiconductor Quantum Dots for Quantum Information, Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nApril, 2012 – March 2014: University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, Senior Researcher, Researches on Quantum Information Processing Devices. \nApril, 2014 – now: Southwest Institute of Technical Physics, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Semiconductor Optoelectronic Materials and Devices. \nJune, 2015 – now: University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, China, Professor, Researches on Nanoscaled Semiconductors and Quantum Information Processing Devices.\n \nAchievements\nSystematically studied the property of porous silicon materials and verified their mechanism; found green and ultraviolet luminescence, and clarified the multiple luminescence mechanisms of nanocrystalline-silicon embedded in SiO2, which is valuable to silicon-based optoelectronic integration; realized enhanced hole mobility in amorphous silicon, verified the existence of deep trap states in amorphous selenium, providing ways to improve amorphous optoelectronic materials. \nDiscovered lateral coupling between self-assembled quantum dots (QDs) and their tuning effect to 2D electron gas; illustrated and deeply explained the metal-insulator transition in 2D ordered QD arrays, all of which are worth in optoelectronic application of semiconductor QDs. \nDeveloped Sb-free technique to double the InAs/GaAs QD density and suppress the atomic interdiffusion, helped producing 1.3 um QD lasers, which won Japanese national prizes and had been merchandized; developed 1.06 um quantum-well lasers, which have been used to produce pure-green lasers robust against high temperature. \nFound a way to access buried QDs by scanning tunneling microscope; achieved a way to prepare diluted QDs by post-annealing and clarified its mechanisms; invented a technique to control the size and site of QDs by atomic-force microscopy lithography, and an apparatus to detect single electron spin states by optically-detected magnetic resonance; designed a few types of micropillar cavities applicable to realize 1.55 um highly-efficient, even coherent (strongly coupled) InAs/InP QD single photon sources; produced fiber-integrated photon-entangled sources, all of which are very useful to the applications of QDs in quantum information processing. \nDeveloped focal-plane single-photon avalanche detectors, providing central devices for 3D laser detecting and ranging system; explored antimonide middle- and long-wavelength infrared detectors and the surface plasmon enhancement effect in such detectors; advanced the acetone-sensing function of Eu-doped SnO2 nano-belt; found Nickle Phosphide serving as a good catalyst in hydrogen-producing. Realized a series of optoelectronic quantum devices for quantum information processing, such as fiber-integrated photon-pair-entangler, chiplet heralded single photon emitter, fiber quantum memories, quantum number generator, etc.\n\nHonor and Group Memberships \nSelected Scholar of the Recruitment Program of Global Experts, China\nEditorial member of “Laser Technology”\nEditorial member of “Journal of Electronic Science and Technology”\nEditorial member of “Internal J. Mat. Sci. Appl”\nMember of APS (American Physics Society)\nMember of OSA (Optical Society of America)\nPermanent Member of China Physical Science and Technology\nPermanent Member of the Chinese Optical Society\nTechnical committee member of PIERS, organizing a series of “quantum information processing and devices” sessions\nTechnical committee member of ICICM",institutionString:"Southwest University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Southwest University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50482",title:"Pesticides, Environmental Pollution, and Health",doi:"10.5772/63094",slug:"pesticides-environmental-pollution-and-health",body:'\nIn the last three decades, there has been an increasing global worry over the public health impacts attributed to environmental pollution. It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we realize it today. Populations of developing countries are particularly vulnerable to toxic pollution resulting from industrial processes.
\nPollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environments that cause harm or discomfort to other living organisms or damage the environment, which can come in the form of chemical substances or energy, such as heat, light, or noise. Pollutants can be naturally occurring energies or substances but are considered contaminants when in excess of the natural levels. Santos divided environmental pollutants into biodegradable and nonbiodegradable ones. Biodegradable pollutants can be broken down and processed by living organisms, including organic waste products, phosphates, and inorganic salts. Nonbiodegradable pollutants cannot be decomposed by living organisms and therefore persist in the ecosphere for extremely long periods of time. They contain metals, plastics, glass, pesticides, and radioactive isotopes [1].
\nIn recent years, people have been exposed to several types of substances with broad spectrum due to the rapidly evolving technology. Technology has brought us clear conveniences, and thousands of chemicals produced in different areas are up on the market every year. One of these chemical substance groups are pesticides [2,3].
\nThrough the ages, it seems increasingly that people find a need to minimize the damage of pests with the use of pesticide chemicals and by other means [4]. Of the many examples of how pests have impacted human society, one of the most infamous is the Black Plague in Europe in the 14th century, when millions of people died from mysterious diseases. At that time, the diseases were believed to be because of God’s punishment. A number of reports in the literature, art, and public statues certify the fear and destruction of those epidemics. Many years later, scientific data proved that a bacterial disease spread by rat fleas was the cause of the plague, which ruined almost the whole of Europe. Today, this disease, known as bubonic plagues, can be easily treated if it is properly diagnosed. Hence, controlling rodents including rats as well as fleas can reduce the relative frequency of the occurrence of diseases [5].
\nIreland’s potato crop destruction by a pest in the 19th century is another story. At that time, late blight, a plant disease, wasted potatoes in Ireland. Up to 1 million Europeans starved to death during the Great Irish Famine of 1845 to 1847. Late blight is still one of the major potato pathogens that chemists aim to synthesize new pesticides against [5].
\nPesticides are chemical substances used on agricultural land but also in private gardens, along railways, and in other public areas [6]. The use of pesticides for crop protection is expected to increase based on a growing world population and the need for more food supplies. While pesticides increase agricultural production, bioaccumulation through the food chain can eventually become a risk to mammals because pesticides induce certain negative effects [7–10]. Some parts of pesticides sprayed on crops will remain in farmland, but some of them will enter the surrounding soil, water, and air [11,12]. As artificial organic compounds, pesticides can remain in the environment for many years and may be transported over a long distance [13]. Pesticide residues in soil and water are significant environment threats and have been classified as carcinogen pollutants in many countries [14,15]. Hence, the excessive application of these compounds over the past half-century has posed serious risks to human health [16,17]. There have been numerous reports regarding pesticide residues detected in grains [8], milk [18], vegetables [19], and fish [20].
\nAlthough the benefits of pesticides have been immense, humans and other living organisms are often exposed to them in the environment [21]. Several epidemiological studies reported in the last two decades suggest harmful effects of pesticides on human health, including a possible relationship between pesticide use and cancers, such as non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, leukemia, and various types of solid tumor [22–24]. Public health concerns regarding the improper use of pesticides and poison have increased in recent years. To date, certain countries, regions, and international organizations have established maximum residue limits (MRLs) for foodstuffs. Additionally, national food monitoring programs for pesticides have been enacted worldwide [7–9] to ensure consumer health, improve the management of agricultural resources, and prevent economic losses [10].
\nDespite the adoption of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides (Code of Conduct) [25], the strict control of banned/legacy pesticides has been proven difficult in many developing countries. This could be attributed to weak regulations on importation and use of dangerous substances and the activity or absence of control agencies at international borders [26]. This scenario has led to the proliferation of banned chemicals in local markets located in agricultural areas, making large quantities of pesticides available to rural farmers, which eventually could pose potential threats to the environment and the health of the people [27–29].
\nThe existence of persistent chemical substances in the environment and their effects on the wildlife and mankind has raised a serious global concern. In this case, we need to mention the risks of pesticides.
\nPesticides are poisons and can be hazardous. Fortunately, people are becoming more aware of their danger, and even producers are trying to produce safer chemicals and better application methods. Even the awareness is improving for risk-benefit ratio side; the job has not been completed yet. Misuses of pesticides still occur. On the contrary, even if they are used correctly, some pesticides can harm nontargeted living organisms and the environment. Just as the benefits of pesticides are real, so are the risks. The purpose of this publication is to explain the nature of pesticides and their history, classification, risks, and effect on health and the environment [4].
\nPesticides are used for a number of decades. People have been fighting with pests for centuries [5]. Chemical experiments during the late 19th and early 20th centuries allowed human beings to develop modern pesticides. Producing new mixtures with a right proportion made it possible to control unwanted organisms. Paris green was one of the first chemical pesticides produced, marking the beginning of chemical insecticide use in the United States in 1867 [30]. By the late 19th century, U.S. farmers were using calcium arsenate, nicotine sulfate, and sulfur to control insect pests in field crops, except Paris green [4]. Since the middle of the 20th century, these chemicals have been widely used to control pests [31,32]. Ancient Romans controlled weeds with salt and killed insect pests by burning sulfur [4]. Sulfur, also known as brimstone, was used by pagan priests 2000 years before the birth of Christ. Additionally, sulfur was used to purify a sick room and cleanse its air of what was believed to be evil. In the 1600s, ants were controlled with mixtures of honey and arsenic. Early plant-derived insecticides included nicotine to control aphids, hellebore to control body lice, and pyrethrins to control a wide variety of insects [5].
\nThe availability of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), starting in 1945 for civilian/agricultural usage, opened a new era of pest control, leading to not only its extensive usage but also the development of numerous other synthetic organic insecticides. DDT was especially favored for its broad-spectrum activity against insect pests of agriculture [4]. Unfortunately, its properties of persistence, along with its broad-spectrum biological activity against pests and beneficial insects alike, made it a poor choice for use in agriculture after World War II [33]. Except DDT, aldrin, BHC, endrin, dieldrin, and 2,4-D began to be used after World War II. These new chemicals were effective, inexpensive, and enormously popular [34]. However, with continuous usage of pesticides, some pests developed resistance to them. As a result, nontarget plants and animals were damaged; surprisingly, pesticide residues were observed to be present in unexpected places. Rachel Carson’s book,
As chemical controls became more and more common in agricultural, public health, and nuisance applications throughout the first half of the 20th century, a myriad of problems were being discovered. Chemically reliant methods had quickly resulted in pesticide resistance within the target species, harm to nontarget species, food contamination, water contamination, overall ecological degradation, and public health problems [30].
\nThe word “pesticide” is an umbrella term for all insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, garden chemicals, wood preservatives, and household disinfectants that may be used to kill some pests. Pesticides have different identities and physical and chemical properties. Synthetic pesticides are classified based on various ways. In general, there are three main ways to classify them: classification based on the (i) mode of action, (ii) targeted pest species, and (iii) chemical composition of pesticides [35].
\nPesticides are classified based on the way they act to bring about the desired effect in this classification. Under this type of classification, pesticides are classified as nonsystemic and systemic pesticides. Nonsystemic pesticides are those that do not appreciably penetrate plant tissues and consequently not transported within the plant vascular system. On the contrary, systemic pesticides are those that effectively penetrate plant tissues and transported within the plant vascular system to bring about the desired effect [36].
\nClassification by target pest is perhaps the most familiar. For example, insecticides are pesticides that target insects, and herbicides target plants. The others are rodenticides, fungicides, acaricides and miticides, molluscicides, bactericides, avicides, and virucides.
\nIn this type of classification, pesticides are characterized regarding their chemical nature and active ingredients. This is the most useful one for researchers studying the field of pesticides and the environment, because it is this kind of classification that gives the clue of the efficacy and physical and chemical properties of the respective pesticides and precautions that need to be taken during application and the application rates, the knowledge of which is important in the mode of application [37].
\nAccording to chemical properties, pesticides can be generally divided into about seven types, including organochlorines, organophosphorus, carbamates, pyrethroids, amides, anilins, and azotic heterocyclic compounds. Organochlorine chemicals are organic compounds with five or more chlorine atoms. Organochlorines were the first synthetic organic pesticides to be used in public health and in agriculture. These pesticides generally have a steady chemical structure and often accumulate and persist in the environment. Most of them are widely used as insecticides for the control of a wide range of insects. Organochlorine insecticides act as nervous system disruptors leading to convulsions and paralysis of the insect and its eventual death. They can cause serious endocrine disorders in mammals, fish, and birds, so most of them have been banned in agriculture worldwide [36,38]. Organophosphates are another type of highly toxic pesticides that contain a phosphate group and occupied up to 48.6% of all pesticides in 1997 [39]. The importance of synthetic organophosphates increased considerably during World War II with their use as warfare materials. Since then, these pesticides have been used in agriculture, industry, cosmetics, medicine, and many other areas [40,41]. These chemical compounds inhibit the acetylcholinesterase enzyme, which hydrolyses acetylcholine in the nervous system of a number of species, including humans [42]. Although they are easier to be degraded than organochlorines, organophosphate pesticide residues is one of the biggest threats to the ecosystem and food industry because their acute toxicities are irreversible [43].
\nMany people are exposed to pesticides occupationally, and pesticide self-poisoning is a major public health problem [44]. Annually, 3 million cases of acute poisoning have been reported from pesticide exposure, resulting in the deaths of 250 to 370,000 people every year [45,46]. Therefore, the usage of organophosphates has been restricted or banned all over the world [43].
\nCarbamates are organic pesticides, reversibly inactivating the enzyme acetylcholinesterase; these pesticides are derived from carbamic acid. The cholinesterase inhibition of carbamates differs from that of organophosphates in that it is species specific and is reversible [35,47]. Organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates are three generations of traditional highly toxic pesticides, and the later developed pyrethroids, anilines, amides, and azotic heterocyclic compounds are generally less toxic [48].
\nPyrethroids are synthetic analogues of the naturally occurring pyrethrins, a product of flowers from pyrethrum plant (
Amide herbicides, such as acetochlor, butachlor, and metolachlor, are widely used in recent years. However, butachlor can persist in the environment for up to 10 weeks, and what’s even worse is that butachlor and metolachlor have been identified as mutagens. Another type of pesticides is aniline and dinitroaniline. Trifluralin and pendimethalin are widely used in this group of pesticides. These pesticides show high toxicity to aquatic organisms and they can impair the thyroid gland and liver. Hence, these two aniline herbicides have been banned in many European countries. Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds, especially for imidazole and triazole heterocyclic chemicals, have become the hotspot for new pesticide development. In the last 10 years, they occupied no less than 70% of all the newly developed chemical pesticides [48].
\nExcept for these classifications, pesticides are classified according to the mode of formulation, activity spectrum, and toxicity level. According to the mode of formulation, pesticides are classified into six groups as wettable powders, emulsifiable concentrates, baits, granules, dusts, and fumigants. In active spectrum, pesticides are classified into two groups as broad-spectrum pesticides and selective pesticides. Broad-spectrum pesticides are designed to kill a wide range of pests and other nontarget organisms. On the contrary, selective pesticides are designed to kill only specific pests. In toxicity level, the World Health Organization (WHO) has developed a classification system that group pesticides according to the potential risks to human health and they are grouped into the following classes: class Ia=extremely hazardous, class Ib=highly hazardous, class II=moderately hazardous, class III=slightly hazardous, and class IV=products unlikely to present acute hazards in normal use [37].
\nSince the middle of the 19th century, pesticides have been commonly used to control pests [31,32] causing a widespread release of these xenobiotics into the environment [51]. The intensive use of pesticide leads to an increased risk of contamination of the environment and harmful effects on biodiversity, food security, and water resources [52,53].
\nPests, such as insects, weeds, and plant diseases, are an ongoing challenge to agricultural producers. Oerke [54] reported that, globally, an average of 35% of potential crop yield is lost to preharvest pests. With the expected 30% increase of world population to 9.2 billion by 2050, there is a projected demand to increase food production by 70% according to Popp et al. [55]. Although nonpesticidal tools have a vital role, there will be a continuing need for pesticide-based solutions to pest control and food security in the future [55,56]. Figure 1 shows the average pesticide use intensity (kg ha-1 yr-1) on the cultivable and permanent cropland worldwide. High use intensity countries above 10 kg ha-1 yr-1 include Surinam, Malta, Columbia, Palestinian, Japan, Korea, Chile, and China [57]. Figure 2 presents that pesticide sales are increasing in Europe, Asia, and Latin America [58,59].
\nAverage annual pesticide use intensity (kg ha-1 yr-1) on arable and permanent cropland from 2005 to 2009. Data are from FAO [
Annual pesticide sales by geographic regions. Data are from FAO [
More than 500 different pesticide formulations are being used in our environment, mostly in agriculture [60]. In the past five decades, pesticide usages increased the quantity and improved the quality of food. However, due to their usage with increasing amounts, the concern about their harmful effects on nontarget organisms, including human beings, has also been growing. Nontarget pesticide poisoning has been reported from fish, birds, and humans [61]. Although it is estimated that less than 0.1% of pesticide applied to crops actually reaches the target, the rest of it enters the environment [62]. Additionally, many pesticides can persist for long periods in an ecosystem; organochlorine insecticides, for instance, are still detectable in surface waters 30 years after their use and had been banned [63]. In the food chain, they meet with nontarget organisms, including mankind. They accumulate in the body tissues of organisms and cause a number of health problems [64,65].
\nPesticides and herbicides are heterogeneous chemicals used widely in agriculture. Their design as bioactive molecules to exterminate different animal, vegetal, or fungal species implies that they are toxic by definition. Due to this toxicity, their use is regulated in the European Union. Depending on the water solubility and polarity of each specific pesticide, they can follow different pathways to reach water bodies once applied in the crop fields. In the case of surface waters, the most common entry pathway for these pollutants is runoff from agriculture lands after precipitation or irrigation [66]. Pesticides could influence biological communities in lakes, forcing changes from a clear-water, macrophyte-dominated state to a turbid state due to their effect on zooplankton or macrophytes [67,68].
\nAs explained above, both point and diffuse pollution sources of pesticides, herbicides, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are usually anthropogenic. Therefore, it is expected that the concentration of some of these compounds in surface water is related to human activities that take place in the surroundings. The proportion of cultivated lands around the lake and the agricultural pressure and intensity are especially relevant, as certain substances such as herbicides and pesticides have a close relationship with agriculture. In fact, it has been observed that land uses are strongly related to nutrient concentrations in surface waters [69] and PAH concentrations in wetland sediments [70]. On the contrary, the distance between lakes and point or diffuse pollution sources such as urban areas, thermal power plants, industries and roads could also be related to the amount of these chemical compounds detected in aquatic ecosystems [68].
\nPesticide fate in the environment is characterized by a number of complex processes occurring in different environmental compartments, such as air [71], soil [72], plant [73], and surface and groundwater [53,74].
\nPollution due to the uncontrolled use of pesticides has become one of the most alarming challenges when pursuing sustainable development. Although pesticides are directly applied in soils and plants, only 1% of pesticide sprayed is delivered to the intended target. An accidental release of pesticides due to leaking pipes, spills, waste dumps, underground storage tanks, and groundwater may lead to their persistence in the environment for a long time (due to long half-lives). For proper management of pesticides, one needs to accurately assess the status of their contamination in soil, water, and air [75,76].
\nSoil is a major reservoir for a variety of pollutants [77] and is a secondary emission source of contaminants to surface water, groundwater, and air [78]. Multiclass environmental endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs), such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) phthalate esters (PAEs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) may coexist in soils and accumulate in crops and human bodies through food chains, posing risks to human health and the ecosystem [79]. In addition, soil plays an important role in pesticide residue in plants. There are two pathways for pesticide transfer between the plants and their planted soils. First, most of pesticides could shift or fall onto the soil when pesticide is applied onto plants. Next, most of the deposited pesticides on the plant could be washed off by rainfall to the soil. Second, the residues of adsorbed pesticides in soil, especially for organochlorine pollutants, remain as contaminants in the environment because of their long-term persistence and mobility, and they could enter into food again via the plant uptake effect [10,80,81].
\nPersistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as OCPs, are ubiquitous contaminants in different compartments of the environment [82,83]. Although a number of countries have been removed from the circulation of the usage of POPs for nearly 30 years, these synthetic chemicals are found in nature at considerable levels worldwide due to their persistence. These substances are mainly generated by anthropogenic processes and can be introduced into the environment through various routes. These pesticides are toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic features. They are extremely hazardous for the both biota and environment [84]. Hence, the investigation of POPs in aquatic environments is needed to provide relevant information on the anthropogenic impact on the environment, and concentrations serve as an indicator of contaminant load [85,86].
\nPesticides are major components of the modern agricultural production because of their reliability and high capability for crop protection against pests [87]. Approximately 5 billion kilograms of pesticides are applied worldwide per year, which can have serious effects on biodiversity, nontarget organisms, and the food chain, posing high risks to the environment and human health [88]. In rural areas of developing countries, 3 million farmers suffer annually from serious pesticide poisoning and 25 million farmers suffer from mild poisoning, resulting in approximately 180,000 fatalities among agricultural workers annually [89] because of incorrect perceptions, lack of knowledge, regulation, and education among farmers [90,91].
\nUnsafe pesticide use or misuse in developing countries includes the use of pesticides banned by the local government [92], lack of self-protection [93], incorrect pesticide storage [94], overspraying [95], improper handling of pesticide containers [96], and, in extreme cases, reuse of washed pesticide containers as containers for food and drinking water (as reported by 35.4% and 77.2% of farmers in Nigeria and Ethiopia, respectively) [97]. The local authorities, the WHO, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and various nongovernment organizations that focus on low- and middle-income countries (e.g. China, India, Vietnam, and African countries) have taken initiatives to improve the protective behaviors of farmers in pesticide use, including personal and environmental protection through education [98] and legislation and community intervention [99], although the results were often unsatisfactory [100]. The factors that affect farmers’ behavior in pesticide use are far more complex than expected. Pesticide use can be influenced by age [101], gender [102], perceptions [90,91], level of knowledge, pesticide retailers [103], and even cultural or planting differences [92].
\nThe chemical pesticide provides a necessary guarantee for the output increase, but pesticide abuse has led to daily worsening of the ecosystem of agricultural lands [104,105]. The use of large amount of pesticide is the main reason for agricultural pollution [106].
\nThe importance of agricultural pesticides for developing countries is undeniable. However, the issue of human health and environmental risks has emerged as a key problem for these countries in a number of studies [107–112]. Attention to the impacts of pesticide use on the environment and ecosystems has grown since the book
The released pesticides into the environment and their impacts on many species have been known for a long time. The senseless and widespread use of OCPs between the 1960s and the 1970s caused a striking decrease in wildlife populations nearly all over the world [113]. DDT, dieldrin, and other toxic OCPs affected birds and other wild species during that time and have been finally banned from agricultural use. Since then, however, decline in birds, wild bees, and aquatic organism populations have been continuing [114]. This could be linked to usages of newly synthesized pesticides that are present in every kind of habitat on the world. Pesticides are still being discovered in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial communities [115].
\nInsecticides may kill not only the target species but also other invertebrates on which birds rely on for their food. In addition, herbicides are designed to control weed species and they can also kill many other plant species in fields, including the essentially beneficial species, which give both shelter and food for the members of wildlife. Amphibians are now considered the most threatened and rapidly decreasing species on Earth. Brühl et al. [116] suggested that frogs are sensitive to the toxicity of pesticides that are currently used in agriculture.
\nIn addition, pesticide factory workers and agricultural farm workers have high risk to pesticide direct exposures [88]. In recent years, pesticide residues in food have become a focus for food safety and trade. Quarantine regulations sometimes require pesticide treatment of food shipments to prevent the establishment of exotic pests. Nonetheless, local consumers and international trading partners increasingly demand food that is free from unsafe pesticide residues. Therefore, many countries have initiated programs to monitor pesticide residues in food. In addition, many countries are implementing programs to reduce the use of pesticides and thereby minimize pesticide impacts [59].
\nIntensively used pesticides, despite their ability to protect crops, threaten the environment and human health [88,117]. Besides, the use of pesticides also results in residue problems. Pesticide residue is defined by the WHO as any substance or mixture of substances in the food of either humans or animals that is caused by the use of pesticides and any specified derivatives, such as degradation and conversion products, reaction products, metabolites, and impurities that are considered toxic [118].
\nPeople who live in agricultural areas have a high disclosure to pesticides by inhalation of pesticide spray blow in urban areas and parks or in the houses after breathing contaminated air. Farmers and their families can have a higher exposure to pesticides than the general population. Besides, when nursing mothers and pregnant women are exposed to pesticides, their children may also be exposed. Some pesticides can pass through the placenta to the developing fetus in the womb and through breast milk to the nursing infant [119].
\nThese “poisons by design” are prevalent and serious occupational hazards faced by farmers and agricultural workers [117]. The high levels of occupational exposure to pesticides are correlated with low educational levels, which would preclude the ability of farmers to follow the hazard warnings developed by the chemical industries and agencies [120]. Tragedies, such as acute and chronic intoxication and, in some extreme cases, suicide, have frequently been reported, especially in rural regions [117,121]. The lack of a legislative framework regulating the use of pesticides also contributes to the high incidence of poisoning in developing countries [117].
\nThe present data seem to be too limited to analyze the full health effects of pesticide referable chronic exposures. On the contrary, suicide commitments in 2002 using pesticides resulted in 258,000 deaths [122]. In 2002, intentional poisoning from pesticides accounted for approximately one third of the world’s suicides, and in 2004, 71% of the unintentional poisonings were considered preventable by improving chemical safety methods [45]. The groups most at risk from unintentional pesticide poisoning are children, especially those between ages 0 and 4 years [123]. Human deaths induced by insecticides were mainly because of ingestion of OPPs. OPP poisoning is evident for “cholinergic syndrome”. The symptoms in this syndrome are headache, slurred speech, coma, blurred vision, convulsions, blockage of the respiratory center, and delayed neuropathy [124]. In this sense, survivors of acute OPP poisoning may suffer long-term adverse effects to the nervous system [119].
\nData show that there is a positive relationship between high pesticide exposures and occurrence of several types of cancer (e.g. prostate and lung) as well as the increase of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. There are also evidences that pesticides may impair endocrine function and the immune system. Although the mechanisms of such failures are not completely comprehended, there are some clear evidences showing the disruptions in enzymatic function and signaling mechanisms at cellular levels. DNA-based toxicity studies also indicate that pesticides affect gene expression and this may transferred to generations through epigenetic inheritance [119].
\nOrganophosphate compounds (OCs) and OCPs have been widely used as pesticides in agricultural productivity. However, they have been proven to be extremely hazardous for human health. OCs and other pesticides may persist on Earth for a long time, adverse to the ecology. Therefore, pesticide residues in vegetables, fruits, water, and on Earth are drawing more and more attention [125–128]. Applied pesticide residues may persist within the tissues or on the surface of the crops when we buy from market. Scientists have developed a variety of techniques to both determine and quantify the pesticide levels in food. Data obtained from these studies suggested that nonstop monitoring is needed to ensure that pesticide residues do not exceed their acceptable values [99]. Most countries, on either a regional or a national basis, maintain a threshold maximum residue level (MRL) for each substance, above which the foodstuff is thought unacceptable for human consumption [119].
\nOCPs are among the substances restricted or banned globally under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants [129]. These compounds are environmentally persistent [130], toxic, and apt to bioaccumulation [131] and have adverse effects on animals and humans [132]. Some developing countries are still using these compounds because of their low cost and versatility in industry, agriculture, and public health [133]. Consequently, environmental problems associated with toxic contamination in these countries are of great concern [134]. As a result, organochlorines in various environmental media have received much attention [133]. They are well-known anthropogenic and lipophilic pollutants due to their high bioaccumulation potential in fatty tissues of living organisms [135]. Although these substances are generally stored in the fat and muscles of the animals, some can also be found in the brain, lungs, liver, and other offal. Additionally, because milk and other dairy products contain a range of fat, these foods may also contain a number of pesticides. This is important because cow’s milk is one of the indispensable components of human diet [119,136,137]. OCPs can enter animal tissues through different pathways of ingestion, dermal contact of dust, and inhalation [138].
\nIn the past decades, attention was focused on the determination and pollution levels of OCPs in human blood serum, maternal and cord serum, adipose tissue, human milk, and hair and other available tissues to study human exposure and assess health risk [139]. Human exposure to OCPs is through many routes: breathing OCP-contaminated air, working in or living beside OCP factories, drinking and taking a bath with OCP-polluted source water, eating vegetables and grains containing OCP residues, and eating especially fish and animal meats [140]. OCPs accumulated in the human body could cause various negative effects such as immunological function damage, endocrine disruption, female spontaneous abortions and preterm, and children neurodevelopmental delays [141].
\nSeveral studies showed that cancer risks could be induced by OCP exposures [142]. At the same time, OCPs could be transferred from maternal to fetal tissues through placenta and from mother to infant through breast milk. Exposure to OCPs could also lead to some adverse effects on human productivity, including spontaneous abortions and preterm [143], delayed neurodevelopment during childhood [144], and reproductive disorders of man [145] and other negative effects. In the fetus, as the rapid growth and development occur during early development, the organs of the baby can be sensitive to the toxic substances; especially, the brain is more susceptible to neurotoxicants [146]. Increasing evidence suggests that prenatal pesticide exposure may have a permanent effect on children’s behavior and intelligence. Besides, organophosphates are also hazardous compounds in the environment and public health. When children are exposed to pesticides in various ways at a young age, there is an observed negative effect on the development of the central nervous system [147]. Developmental impacts were mainly described as behavioral or cognitive, particularly those related to attention-deficit disorders and motor skills [119].
\nExperimental research has shown that many pesticides are endocrine disruptors that can disturb the functioning of various hormones throughout the body [148]. The production of thyroid hormone is thought to be inhibited by substances such as cyhalothrin, amitrole, pyrimethanil, and fipronil. Other pesticides may also alter thyroid hormone levels and potentially cause thyroid disease. Experimental studies
Studies showed that there are evidences of pesticide exposure and disorders in both hormonal regulation imbalance and immune system activities. The statistical results are associated with pesticide exposure and occurrence of some diseases. This finding cannot be ignored. The mechanisms of pesticide-induced diseases are not yet fully understood, but we now know that some key enzymatic activities in main metabolic pathways and/or the permeability of the ion channels are affected by them [149].
\nMoreover, some people carry susceptibility genes to the health effects of pesticides, and for that reason, they are likely to be more at risk than others. The questions on these epigenetical differences and developing policy approaches to ensure a high level of protection for mankind may remain insurmountable for a long time. In the meantime, people will continue with the routine application of pesticides to get more crops. On the contrary, the next generations, even they if are not exposed to pesticides, may also be at risk to these diseases due to epigenetical inheritance [119].
\nAs mentioned by Allsop et al., many synthetic pesticides used in agriculture are persistent and pervasive in the environment. As a result, mankind is exposed to the mixture of pesticides via the food consumed and the environment around. Evidences suggest that more exposure means more toxic effect we will face. Although assays have been made to describe the toxicity of these kinds of interactions, there are no validated international guidelines in assessing these risks. In this case, we need to essentially rethink and change our systems to get rid of the exposure of pesticides. We must protect the health of vulnerable groups as well as the general population and whole ecosystems [119].
\nReducing the use of pesticide strategies will not help us protect human health, because there are enormous kinds of pesticides in the market to be sold. In this case, people need to go towards ecological farming. This is a critical act in avoiding all risks. Protecting crops via a multilevel approach will help us increase the heterogeneity of the agricultural areas and this will provide a natural habitat for pollinators and natural pest control species. Thus, a functional biodiversity can be created if we can achieve an active vegetation management. A variety of crop types and cultivars increase both the fertility of soils and resistance to pests. Natural control agents, such as beneficial bacteria, viruses, insects, and nematodes, can be used in improving crop protection successfully [150].
\nThe experiences of children in early stages of life contribute to establish the foundations for future learning and development [1]. Great amount of experiences is related to those interactions with adults and peers in the natural environments were children growth [2]. Research findings support the positive impact of warm and sensitive interpersonal relationships with adults and peers in natural environments, highlighting the positive outcomes at social, emotional, and cognitive levels [3]. Moreover, caregiver-closeness and autonomy support from the caregiver predicts the vocabulary acquisition and emotion regulation of the child [4]. Therefore, it is crucial to understand which are the styles of interaction and environmental characteristics that will support positive interpersonal interactions. This chapter aims to discuss (a) the theoretical foundations that underline the promotion of positive interpersonal interactions, (b) the functional domains of development that serve as a guide to understand the development of children from a holistic perspective and the importance of child interactions with peers and adults, and (c) the considerations to ensure positive interpersonal interactions of children with peers and adults in different natural environments.
From the developmental science of normative development perspective, three types of family patterns of interaction are crucial for influencing children’s development (i.e., (1) parent-child interactions, (2) family-orchestrated child experiences and (3) health and safety provided by the family) [5]. The first one emphasizes as key aspects of effective parent-child interactions: reciprocal, sensitive, and affectively warm social exchanges, discourse-based interactions and avoidance of intrusiveness. The second pattern of interaction focuses on providing the child with developmentally appropriate materials, organizing activities compatible with the child’s interests and needs, choosing quality child care, making the child part of family routines and organizing activities that facilitate child interactions with peers. The third pattern of interaction addresses the parents’ responsibility for ensuring the child’s well-being (e.g., immunizations, adequate nutrition, protection form harm) to promote child developmental outcomes [5]. These types of family patterns of interaction promote learning and development through positive children’s experiences and by surrounding children with loving, secure and rich contexts. Nevertheless, to understand the link between development and experiences for positive developmental trajectories, the results of studies on epigenetics and development, and the bioecological model, can contribute to enlighten the reader about this linkage.
The results of research efforts to better understand brain development, its functioning and linkage to behavior have pointed at the importance of the first years of life, which will support current and future development of brain structures and learning [6]. It is well documented how the size of the brain increases at a speedy rate in the firsts years of life. By age 7, the brain reaches 95% of the size of the adult brain in males and 93% in females [7]. In fact, once the child is born not all structures that support all senses and functions are fully developed and the experiences of the child during this early years can determine the outcome of this development [8]. Experiences can act as facilitators or inhibitors of positive expression of genes [9]. Also, interactions with the environment can contribute to minimize the effects of gene expression related to developmental difficulties or delates. Therefore, the environment can have an impact on the phenotypical expression of genes.
Greater levels of brain neuroplasticity have been found in the first years of life [11, 12]. Interactions with family members and adults and peers in early childhood education and social contexts influence the way cognitive abilities and even personality is developed. By three years of life, the basic structure of the brain is fully developed, but other areas such as the prefrontal cortex (key structure for the recognition and expression of affection) or the visual cortex continue to develop [13]. Findings of studies with humans and animal models supported the influence of the environment in the development of the brain and the future behavior of individuals. The results of studies with monkey cubs provided evidence on the importance of the interaction with the mother after birth and the detrimental effects of isolation at this stage of life [14]. Monkey cubs which were deprived of the interaction with their mothers experienced significant negative effects such as malnutrition and alterations of the cognitive, affective and physical development, and such negative effects were irreversible [15].
The limbic system and the neocortex are responsible for the control of our emotions, which is directly related to the child’s ability to establish and maintain social interactions. The development of the connections among these brain areas occurs in the late early childhood period and continues through adolescence. The experiences children have in those early stages of development will contribute to the strengthening of synaptic connections between these areas facilitating a better functioning at the socioemotional level [16] and in other areas [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Interactions with adults who are responsive and procure emotional secure environments for children’s learning and development have a huge impact in the formation of such connections from an epigenetic standpoint.
Positive interpersonal relations in early years, especially with main caregivers, are crucial. When the caregiver repeatedly pampers, feeds, cleans, talks, rocks, and cares for the child in a loving way, the developing brain is stimulated. These interactions modulate the behavioral patterns related to the early stimulation of brain areas (hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and nucleus accumbens) and neurohormonal substances (oxytocin, vasopressin and dopamine) directly related to early parental care [13]. Consistency in the interactions between the child and caregivers is most needed for optimal child development [16].
The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University pointed at serve and return interactions as fundamental for nurturing child development. Serve and return interactions are understood as back-and-forth interactions between the child and the caregiver [17]. The child initiates an interaction by pointing at something, babbling, getting the adult’s attention or crying. Then, the adult responds to the child in a sensitive and encouraging manner (i.e., through eye contact, words, or a hug). These responsive and contingent feedback from the adult contributes to the building of the child’s brain structure. Serve and return interactions consist of 5-steps: (a) noticing the child’s serve and sharing the child’s focus of attention, (b) returning the serve by supporting and encouraging the child, (c) naming it, (d) taking turns and waiting keeping the interaction going back-and-forth, and (e) practicing endings and beginnings. For example, while being at the park, a child may point at a bird on a three (i.e., a serve), the adult smiles and says: “Yeah! That’s a beautiful bird!”. The adult waits for the child’s response. The child bounces looking at the adult and looking back at the bird. The adult, then, responds by picking the child up so the child can have a better view of the bird on the three while saying: “Look Thomas, the bird is eating some of those red fruits”. The adult observes the child’s reaction and waits. The child losses interest on the bird and starts looking at some children climbing a slide steps. Then, the adult says: “Would you like to go to the slide?” This responsive, contingent, and encouraging interaction contributes to the child’s learning of language and provides a secure and loving space for the child to explore his surroundings. Such a rich experience would contribute to the strengthening of brain structures, therefore, impacting the child’s development.
When adults fail to respond to the child’s serve in a reliable and appropriate manner, or when there is a lack of interaction the child development may be negatively compromise. Toxic stress due to neglect or abuse is related to detrimental effects on healthy brain development. As neglect or abuse continue over time, the alert system of the child states on, activating the release of the hormone cortisol [17, 18]. High levels of cortisol and stress are negatively related to child learning and development. Thus, for healthy children, who will be prepare for future learning, adults must ensure that the experiences and interactions of children are responsive and encouraging and stress is not prolonged for long periods of time.
As Dr. Robin McWilliam, professor of The University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, USA, and an expert on child development and developer of the Routines-Based Model [19], would say “When children are busy, children are learning!”. Being busy is related to interactions with adults, peers, and materials [20, 21]. This idea of children’s learning and development occurring through interactions with the environment has been also supported by Bronfenbrenner [22]. Bronfenbrenner contributed to deepen the understanding of the influence of the context on the development of children through the development of the bioecological model [23]. This author describes development as a process of interaction between the person and his or her context [23, 24, 25]. Thus, child development is affected by four interacting elements, which are described in his Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model.
According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, the engines of development are the
The
The best-known element of the bioecological model is the
The first one, the
The fourth level is the
The last element of the PPCT model relates to the
The most important component of Bronfenbrenner’s model for the understanding the importance of interpersonal relationships, is the idea of development occurring through the interactions of the child with his or her environment. Such understanding of development goes along with the findings of epigenetic studies on the influence of experiences on the brain development in early years. Even though Bronfenbrenner does not explain child development from a neurobiological perspective, his model targets the engines of development (interactions with the environment). It is highlighted how positive proximal interactions or processes between the child characteristics and those of the surrounding environment, make possible to reach optimal developmental levels [28].
From this perspective, the vision of child development is seen as a constant process in which children acquire increasingly complex processes of thought, movement, affection, and social relationships through interactions with their context [19]. The child develops with the participation and engagement with his or her own environment, family, school, close people, culture, beliefs, and ideologies, among others [29].
McWilliam proposed the functional domains of development-engagement, independence, and social relations [19]. Engagement is understood as the cornerstone of development. The engagement of children in daily routines promotes their development and learning [21, 23]. When children are interacting with adults, peers, and materials have opportunities to practice and acquire skills. Receiving feedback from adults and peers while these interactions occur contributes to improve current abilities and crystalized previous learnings through practice. Engagement embeds social relationships and independence. A child who is capable of (1) communicating and relating with others in an adequate manner for the context and his or her age, and (2) carrying out actions to meet needs and meaningfully participate in everyday routines, where learning opportunities occur [30].
At the socioemotional level, interactions with caregivers and peers in early years mediate between internalizing problems and engagement levels [31], acting as protective factors against low engagement levels [32]. The effects of positive interactions remain strong even after controlling for variables like gender language proficiency of the child and the educational level of parents [32].
Engagement is defined as the interaction of the child with the context (peers, adults, and materials) in an appropriate manner for the child\'s abilities and the demands of the context [22]. It consists of nine levels of complexity ranging from non-engagement to sophisticated engagement [33]. Each level represents an increase on the complexity of the behavior of the child. Lower levels of engagement relate to repetitive behaviors, passive paying attention, or engaging in activities with no differentiated behaviors, and higher levels of complexity, relates to children engaged in symbolic play and speech who persist in the activities while trying to solve problems or challenges [34].
For an infant or child to engage in a routine, there must be a fit between the child\'s skills, his or her interests, and the demands of the routine [35]. In a routine where the abilities and interest of the child fit the demands of the routine, there is an increment in the duration and/or complexity of the child behavior, reflected on higher levels of sophistication engagement levels [34]. Adults in the natural environments who are responsive and skillful at identifying misfits between the child characteristics and the demands of the routines, are more likely to make the necessary adjustments to facilitate meaningful participation of the child in the routines, through their interactions. During adult-child interactions, adults can teach the child a skill so she or he can meet the demands of the routine, adjust the routine or make it more interesting -so it matches the abilities and interests of the child-, or decide that the fit between the child abilities and demands cannot be addressed by teaching the skill or adjusting the routine demands, therefore, it is better to let it be and focus on the learning and acquisition of other skills. Interpersonal relationships become relevant for promoting proximal processes. Positive and strong interpersonal relationships will facilitate more effective interactions (proximal processes) because feelings of trust and well-being are associated to the interpersonal interaction between the child and the adult or early childhood education peers [35].
Independence refers to the degree to which a child can act to meet its needs, in other words, how much help does a child need to engage in a task or activity and successfully complete it. This functional domain has been related with selfcare behaviors and the child been able to request help from adults when needed after trying several times to solve a problem and failing to solve it [35]. Sensitive and responsive adults, observe the behavior of the child and offer help to the degree it would allow the child accomplish the task, and as children are able to complete more steps of the task by themselves the adults can withdraw the support. Emotionally supportive environments that focus positive learning (acknowledging all steps the child takes to accomplish a task even though his or her performance is not perfect on the first trials) will have a better impact on children’s skill acquisition than those environments where learning is based on trial and error, and error is emphasized after the child performance [36]. This does not mean the adult will not model adequate responses or provide prompts and supports to facilitate the success of the child when completing a task, but the adult does so by being empathic of the child’s efforts and providing encouragement after the attempt or completion of a task.
This domain relates to the way children communicate (express and respond) with others (peers and adults). In this regard, research supports the importance of the interactions with adults and peers for acquiring semantic language (vocabulary), phonetical awareness, and the pragmatics of communication (synaxis and nonverbal communication). Early years are crucial for the development and strengthening of the brain areas related to language acquisition and non-verbal forms of communication (imitating, understanding others no-verbal communication and using nonverbal communication) [37]. Adults model new words, offer feedback of children’s use of words and through interactions strengthen those neural circuits related to understanding of non-verbal communication forms. Research results support that frequency of exposure to vocabulary is correlated to noun vocabulary acquisition [38]. In addition, parents who provide more input in their interactions with children have children whose early vocabulary grows more quickly [39, 40]. Moreover, children who have difficulties imitating behaviors or participating in joint attention are more likely to have difficulties on language acquisition and expressive and responsive communication, such is the case child who suffer neglect or are at risk of presenting or have Autism Spectrum Disorders [15, 37].
In addition, the social relationships domain is associated to the degree which the child is able to get along with others by been able to understand and communicate with others and regulate his or her emotions. Vicarious learning (modeling) is crucial for the child learning to understand situations, control his or her affective and emotional responses [13], behavioral responses [41], and language acquisition [42, 43]. Direct learning through child-directed speech interactions has also been related to increased vocabulary size [44, 45]. As discussed previously, executive functioning and emotion regulation are acquired at later stages of development in early childhood [13]. Adults who are mindful and responsive of children’s emotional and communicative needs and model emotion regulation strategies and language can have an impact on the behavior of children when face with high emotional situations and children’s communication skills.
Natural environments are understood as home, classroom, and community settings. Learning occurs in each of these environments, and adults can take advantage of learning opportunities through caregiver-child interactions. Through this chapter, it has been emphasized the relevance of the caregiver being consistent, responsive, and sensitive in his or her interactions with children to promote learning and development. It is also important to provide the child with feedback of their actions in a loving way, focusing in positive learning (i.e., acknowledging child steps towards the completion of a task) instead of highlighting the child errors (i.e., trial-error learning). Adults must offer children opportunities to reflect on their actions and performance and must highly effort before outcome. For example, before providing feedback to a child on a task, the adults can ask the child his or her perception on his or her work. In this manner, the adult helps the child to identify his or her strengths and difficulties. Such interactions prevent the child from getting frustrated and cultivate trusting and loving relationships between caregivers and children.
Environments that are interesting, with a variety of materials and toys, promote child engagement. Based on child interest, adults can use
For example, the caregiver sees the child (6 months old) looking at a toy (e.g., a bottle with water and yellow glitter), the adult ensures the child is engaged (i.e., he is looking at the bottle), then follows the child’s interest (the caregiver takes the bottle and starts moving it), then elicits a behavior (the caregiver tries for the child to reach the bottle with yellow glitter, while bringing the bottle in his eye sight and moving it slowly back and forth). As the child looks at the bottle and tries to reach it, the caregiver says: “Thomas, look how pretty is the yellow color”. The child giggles in response to the adult’s comments and movement of the bottle content. Then, the caregiver reinforces this joint attention interaction by moving the bottle so the glitter moves a little bit more, while bringing the bottle closer to the hands of the child and saying: “You like the yellow color, don’t you? Do you want to grab the bottle?”. It is important to highlight that the reinforcement in this interaction must be related to the activity itself, it will not be enough with just saying: “Good job, Thomas!” as Thomas looks at the bottle. The caregiver reinforces the interaction by repeating the name of the color of the glitter and moving the bottle back and forth to maintain the child’s interest in the activity and had him try to reach the bottle. The adult is teaching the child color names and stimulating his visual and motor responses by moving the bottle and trying for the child to grab it. To continue the interaction, the adult could use other bottles with other glitter colors or materials to stimulate the child’s sight or hearing. This example of interpersonal interaction could apply to the home context (being used by the parents or other family members) or at the nursery classroom (being used by the teacher).
As for
These examples portrayed how
This chapter supported the importance of interpersonal relationships in early childhood. The important role of early experiences of children to impact their brain development was emphasized through the results of epigenetic studies. In the same line, Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological model, contributed to the understanding of the interaction of different system levels, which can ultimate affect the interpersonal interactions of the child in their microsystem supporting of hindering their developmental trajectories. As well, the functional domains are introduced to guide the understanding of the child’s meaningful participation in natural environments form his or her level of engagement, independence, and social relationships. Adults and peers in natural environments can support the acquisition of skills in those domains by providing sensitive, responsive, and contingent care. Finally, two strategies that could be used in different natural environments and during interpersonal relationships are introduce to support child development and learning in early childhood.
As stated by Bronfenbrenner and Evans [22], children’s learning and development occurs within the interactions with the context through proximal processes. Also, supported by the results of epigenetic studies, is well documented the impact of early experiences on the brain structure and functioning. Interpersonal relationships are crucial for early childhood development and the impact of the interactions occurring within such interpersonal relations will transcend the early stages of life, affecting future learning and development at cognitive, communicative, socioemotional and physical levels. Mindful caregivers who understand the importance of their interactions with the child in early years of life will provide care that spurs optimal developmental trajectories of the child promoting future optimal functioning and participation of this child in society.
This work is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Tânia Boavida, whose work has inspired the authors immensely. She mentored us in the kindest and most generous ways. We would like to thank her for her time and support. You are terribly missed.
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/161181",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"161181"},fullPath:"/profiles/161181",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()