Methodological quality characteristics of management staff culture subscales.
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\r\n\tAt present researches on direct water electrolysis have shown significant progress. For example, boron-doped diamonds and complex metal oxides are widely used as an electrode, and the interposing polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) between electrodes has become one of the major processes of water electrolysis.
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Relevance of the research and the level of problem exploration. Quite different opinions about the construction of new instruments, their tests and methodological, psychometric characteristics are found. According to the authors of this book, very high requirements are raised to the quantitative research instrument to make it suitable in case of various samples. During the exploratory research, 159 employees of one of the regional municipalities of the country (public sector) have been surveyed [1] and 1717 respondents, representing two industrial clusters (private sector) have been surveyed [2, 3] during the retest. It should be emphasized that our aim was to develop as universal instrument as possible so that it could be used by other scientists as well to carry out the studies of similar nature.
Problem of research: the problem of the research is raised by the question: what are methodological and psychometric characteristics of the questionnaire in case of a larger sample and how they changed after the retest compared to the results of the exploratory research?
Object of the research: methodological and psychometric characteristics of the research instrument.
Purpose of the research: to check the methodological and psychometric characteristics of the questionnaire with respect to this sample.
Objectives of the research: (1) to provide methodological quality characteristics of the management culture subscales; (2) to carry out factoring of management culture scales and subscales; (3) to provide methodological quality characteristics of the subscales of behaviour of a socially responsible organization; (4) to carry out factoring of the scales and subscales of behaviour of a socially responsible organization and a socially responsible employee.
Methods of the research: In order to achieve the aim, the quantitative research method was selected—a written survey which was carried out by using a proven, statistically reliable questionnaire ‘Management culture level determination aiming to implement corporate social responsibility’. The data were processed by SPSS programme (version 21). Explained dissemination, Cronbach’s alpha and Spearman-Brown coefficients, factorial weight (L), correlation of the unit as a whole (r/itt) have been calculated and factor analysis has been carried out as well.
The research involved employees from 12 industrial organizations. Ten organizations form one group of companies (hereinafter the first (1) group of companies), the remaining two organizations also form a group of companies (hereinafter the second (2) group of companies). In total, 1915 employees worked in the two industrial groups in general during the researched period. There were 1030 employees in the first group and 885 employees in the second group. The total number of participants in the survey is 1717 employees (911 employees in the first group of companies, 806 employees in the second group of companies), representing 89.6% of all employees. The research sample was calculated from the total number of employees of all 12 organizations on the basis of Paniotto’s formula as in Eq. (1) [4]:
where n represents the sample size; ∆ represents the sample error size (= 0.05); and N represents the general size of the whole.
When the probability is 95% and the error is 5%, the necessary sample size is 331 employees as shown in Eq. (2). However, when the probability is 99% and the error is 1%, calculating on the 12 organizations’ scale, the necessary sample size is 1607 employees as shown in Eq. (3). When preparing the research plan, it is essential to determine the minimum number of the researched. This is necessary in order to draw statistically valid conclusions that are in line with the characteristics of the general set. In our research, this estimated sample is considered not only to be minimal, but sufficient to find out reasonable research conclusions.
Two Lithuanian groups of companies operating in Eastern Europe were selected for the research whose main activity is production. The companies are mainly based in Lithuania, but the activities also cover other countries such as the Ukraine, Russia, Estonia, Latvia and Romania, where branches of groups of companies were established. The activities, size and other indicators of both groups of companies are more or less similar. It is important to mention that both groups of companies seek for the status of corporate social responsibility.
The highest level managers of the group of companies, who were involved in coordination of the questionnaire content and survey process, were interested in the research performance and the results. The survey was organized in Lithuanian and English. There were 1915 questionnaires distributed in the companies; 198 questionnaires were removed from the research, because the questionnaires were filled incorrectly and/or incompletely. A total of 1717 filled in questionnaires were recognized valid, which fully meets the sample size when the probability is 99%.
As the pilot research was carried out by using a Lithuanian version of the questionnaire, before the start of the research in multilingual sample, an adaptation of the questionnaire was conducted in English [5, 6, 7]. The adaptation process consisted of six conditional stages. The first stage involved questionnaire translation into English that was carried out by two professional translators whose native language is English (and who speak Lithuanian well). In the second stage, translation versions of both translators were evaluated and together with translators the questionnaire authors formed the primary English version of the questionnaire. In the third stage, the questionnaire was given to the translator whose native language is Lithuanian and who has good knowledge of English. In the fourth stage, the translator (native Lithuanian) conducted the translation of the initial English version of the questionnaire into the Lithuanian language (‘back-translation’). In the fifth stage, after the translation of the questionnaire was finished, the discussion of every statement was performed. There were chosen the most appropriate options, expressions, words that would be acceptable and understandable to both Lithuanians and foreigners and would not change the meaning of the statements formulated in the questionnaire. In the sixth stage, the primary survey—a questionnaire testing (10 people) was conducted. Testing is necessary for clarity of the questions, intelligibility and suitability to assess in the linguistic and cultural aspects. The goal of the primary survey is to identify words, statements, questions that cause doubt or uncertainty; to determine the cause and make suggestions how to reformulate obscure terms. It should be emphasized that the questionnaire name and structure of the questions, the number of the questions and answers were not changed, i.e., only the wordings of the statements and questions were corrected. Each of the 10 respondents was interviewed individually. The respondent completed the questionnaire and then together with researchers looked at each statement and question. The aim of this review was to determine whether the respondents, when carrying out the research in the future, will not have any doubts about the questions and answers. During the review, the researchers suggested that the respondents who participated in the primary survey should provide more understandable versions of the statements and questions. After adapting the questionnaire in English, the survey was conducted.
Having conducted the survey again, with new research results, with respect to bigger and multilingual sample questionnaire, methodological and psychometric characteristics reliability determination was carried out. Table 1 presents the methodological quality characteristics of four subscales making up the scale of management staff culture. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values range from 0.74 to 0.86. The closer the Cronbach’s alpha value is to 1, the higher internal consistency of the questionnaire (the greater accuracy of the questionnaire measurement) is shown by the coefficient. As it can be seen, the explained dissemination percentage in this scale ranges from 39.16 to 53.77, which indicates that such percentage of the survey respondents agree with isolated factors.
Subscales | Number of statements in subscales | Explained dissemination, % | Cronbach’s alpha | Spearman-Brown | Factorial weight (L) | Correlation of the unit as a whole (r/itt) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | |||||
Management staff general culture level | 7 | 53.77 | 0.86 | 0.83 | 0.73 | 0.63 | 0.77 | 0.53 | 0.34 | 0.77 |
Management science knowledge level | 5 | 41.56 | 0.74 | 0.61 | 0.64 | 0.47 | 0.71 | 0.39 | 0.11 | 0.68 |
Managers’ personal and professional characteristics | 5 | 51.01 | 0.76 | 0.66 | 0.71 | 0.64 | 0.77 | 0.50 | 0.25 | 0.76 |
The level of the ability to manage | 9 | 39.16 | 0.80 | 0.77 | 0.62 | 0.47 | 0.72 | 0.37 | 0.13 | 0.70 |
Methodological quality characteristics of management staff culture subscales.
Source: compiled by the authors.
As the explained factor dissemination is bigger than the allowable lowest 10% limit, this means that this scale does not contain statements that reduce dissemination. The minimum factorial weight (L) may not be lower than 0.3. If it is less than 0.3, it indicates that an inappropriate statement in the subscale was found. The analysis of the factorial weight minimum values in management staff culture scale showed that the lowest weight, i.e. 0.47, was recorded in only one subscale. In management staff culture subscales, the average of the minimum unit correlation (r/itt) is from 0.37 to 0.53. So, it is not less than 0.2, which confirms that there are no inappropriate statements in the subscales.
Methodological quality characteristics of culture of managerial processes in an organization subscales are shown in Table 2. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values on this scale are high, i.e. ranging from 0.72 to 0.82. The percentage expression of the explained dissemination in the analysed scale falls into the interval from 42.21 to 49.29, indicating a relatively high level of approval. On this scale, the minimum factorial weight is found in only one subscale, i.e. in the subscale of optimal regulation of managerial processes, its value is 0.36. However, even the lowest factorial weight exceeds the indicated minimum limit of 0.3. The correlation of the unit as a whole indicates that the questionnaire statements correlate with the isolated subscale as r/itt average is 0.40–0.47.
Subscales | Number of statements in subscale | Explained dissemination, % | Cronbach’s alpha | Spearman-Brown | Factorial weight (L) | Correlation of the unit as a whole (r/itt) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | |||||
Optimal managerial processes regulation | 7 | 49.29 | 0.82 | 0.75 | 0.69 | 0.36 | 0.78 | 0.47 | 0.13 | 0.77 |
Rational organization of management work | 5 | 48.60 | 0.73 | 0.70 | 0.69 | 0.55 | 0.75 | 0.47 | 0.22 | 0.75 |
Modern computerization level of managerial processes | 5 | 49.64 | 0.72 | 0.68 | 0.70 | 0.40 | 0.81 | 0.46 | 0.09 | 0.76 |
Culture of visitors’ reception, conducting meetings, phone calls | 7 | 42.21 | 0.77 | 0.76 | 0.64 | 0.48 | 0.73 | 0.40 | 0.17 | 0.71 |
Methodological quality characteristics of managerial processes organization culture subscales.
Source: compiled by the authors.
The methodological quality characteristics of management working conditions culture subscales presented in Table 3 show that the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient values range from 0.66 to 0.84. The explained dissemination lowest percentage of 37.61 is above the established 10% limit. Here, the minimum factorial weight is 0.50, so it may be claimed that the statements of the subscales on this scale are quite closely related to each other. The correlation of the unit as a whole on this scale shows that the lowest mean is 0.35, the highest—0.42, which confirms that the statements in the questionnaire correlate with isolated subscales.
Subscales | Number of statements in subscale | Explained dissemination, % | Cronbach’s alpha | Spearman-Brown | Factorial weight (L) | Correlation of the unit as a whole (r/itt) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | |||||
Working environment level (interior, lighting, temperature, cleanness, etc.) | 9 | 43.51 | 0.84 | 0.80 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.76 | 0.42 | 0.24 | 0.73 |
Level of organizing working places | 5 | 53.29 | 0.78 | 0.72 | 0.73 | 0.68 | 0.78 | 0.52 | 0.32 | 0.77 |
Work and rest regime, relaxation options | 6 | 46.54 | 0.77 | 0.76 | 0.68 | 0.51 | 0.76 | 0.45 | 0.21 | 0.76 |
Work security, socio-psychological microclimate | 6 | 37.61 | 0.66 | 0.62 | 0.61 | 0.50 | 0.71 | 0.35 | 0.13 | 0.67 |
Methodological quality characteristics of management working conditions culture subscales.
Source: compiled by the authors.
The methodological quality characteristics of the documentation system culture subscales are shown in Table 4. Psychometric characteristics of this subscale show that the strongest approval of the respondents was seen with respect to culture of official registration of documentation, that is, the percentage of the explained dissemination (46.58) as well as Cronbach’s alpha (0.77) coefficient values are quite high. Although in the subscale of rational use of modern information technologies Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value is higher (0.80), the percentage of explained dissemination in this case, although not significantly, is lower (41.75), comparing these two subscales with each other. The minimum factorial weight on this scale ranges from 0.47 to 0.66, while the average of unit as a whole correlation is from 0.37 to 0.45. Thus, it can be said that discussed indicators of this subscale meet the necessary conditions for the questionnaire reliability.
Subscales | Number of statements in subscale | Explained dissemination, % | Cronbach’s alpha | Spearman-Brown | Factorial weight (L) | Correlation of the unit as a whole (r/itt) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | |||||
Culture of official registration of documentation | 6 | 46.58 | 0.77 | 0.66 | 0.68 | 0.62 | 0.72 | 0.45 | 0.23 | 0.71 |
Optimal document search and access system | 5 | 48.33 | 0.73 | 0.72 | 0.69 | 0.66 | 0.74 | 0.47 | 0.28 | 0.73 |
Rational use of modern information technologies | 8 | 41.75 | 0.80 | 0.74 | 0.64 | 0.54 | 0.69 | 0.40 | 0.19 | 0.69 |
Rational storage system of archival documents | 6 | 39.59 | 0.69 | 0.63 | 0.62 | 0.47 | 0.74 | 0.37 | 0.12 | 0.70 |
Methodological quality characteristics of documentation system culture subscales.
Source: compiled by the authors.
Traditionally, when methodological quality characteristics of questionnaire subscales have already been stated, their secondary factorization must be carried out. Primary and secondary factorizations are required when there are questionnaires of very large-scale. Subscales that make up the scale must be similar in content and logic. During primary factorization, the whole complex of criteria is deducted, while during the secondary factorization, these criteria are combined to scales. Table 5 gives the general factorization results of management culture scales and subscales.
Questionnaire scales and subscales | Principal components | Alpha factoring |
---|---|---|
Management staff culture | ||
The level of the ability to manage | 0.87 | 0.84 |
Managers’ personal and professional characteristics | 0.87 | 0.82 |
Management staff general culture level | 0.86 | 0.82 |
Management science knowledge level | 0.74 | 0.62 |
Explained dissemination: | 70.38% | 61.27% |
Managerial processes organization culture | ||
Optimal managerial processes regulation | 0.90 | 0.89 |
Rational organization of management work | 0.87 | 0.82 |
Culture of visitor reception, conducting meetings and phone calls | 0.87 | 0.82 |
Modern computerization level of managerial processes | 0.84 | 0.76 |
Explained dissemination: | 75.74% | 67.85% |
Management working conditions culture | ||
Working environment level (interior, lighting, temperature, cleanness, etc.) | 0.86 | 0.84 |
Level of organizing working places | 0.80 | 0.67 |
Work security, socio-psychological microclimate | 0.77 | 0.72 |
Work and rest regime, relaxation options | 0.69 | 0.56 |
Explained dissemination: | 61.28% | 49.40% |
Documentation system culture | ||
Rational use of modern information technologies | 0.88 | 0.85 |
Optimal document search and access system | 0.87 | 0.83 |
Culture of official registration of documentation | 0.84 | 0.77 |
Rational storage system of archival documents | 0.80 | 0.71 |
Explained dissemination: | 71.70% | 62.54% |
Factorization results of management culture scales and subscales.
Source: compiled by the authors.
Management staff culture secondary factorization results indicate that factorial weights in the subscales of this scale range from 0.74 to 0.87 (by principal components method) and from 0.62 to 0.84 (by alpha factoring method). The subscales including the scale of culture of organization of managerial processes reflect such factorization results: minimum weight—0.84, maximum—0.90 (by principal components method) and the minimum—0.76, and maximum—0.89 (by alpha factoring method). On the scale of management working conditions culture, the indicators of these subscales are established: 0.69–0.86 and by the second method 0.56–0.84. Documentation system culture secondary factorization shows that factorial weights range from 0.80 to 0.88 (by principal components method) and from 0.71 to 0.85 (by alpha factoring method).
The results of secondary factorization indicate that factorial weights are high, therefore, the scales are reliable, the made up questionnaire is suitable for the measurement of the set whole of signs. In that case, the explained dissemination, revealing how strongly the respondents agree with this criterion, is also high, i.e. in the general context of management culture scales it ranges from 61.28 to 75.74% (by principal components method) and from 49.40 to 67.85% (by alpha factoring method). Factorial weights range from 0.48 to 0.84 (by principal components method) and from 0.40 to 0.83 (by alpha factoring method). With the help of secondary factorization method, it was found that factorial weights are high, so the scales are reliable; the made up questionnaire is suitable for the measurement of the set whole of signs (Table 6).
Questionnaire scales and subscales | Primary factorization | Secondary factorization |
---|---|---|
Behaviour of a socially responsible organization | ||
Market responsibility (consumer information, health and safety) | 0.84 | 0.81 |
Environment protection responsibility | 0.82 | 0.78 |
Responsibility in relations with society | 0.82 | 0.77 |
Market responsibility (services and their quality) | 0.80 | 0.73 |
Responsibility in relations with employees | 0.75 | 0.66 |
Explained dissemination: | 65.18% | 56.71% |
Behaviour of a socially responsible employee | ||
Intentions to leave work | 0.83 | 0.83 |
Uncertainty and lack of information at work | 0.81 | 0.60 |
General physical and psychological condition of the employee | 0.81 | 0.74 |
Social responsibility criticism: staff attitude | 0.73 | 0.84 |
Corruption, nepotism, favouritism | 0.78 | 0.72 |
The employee‘s opinion about the organization | 0.48 | 0.40 |
Explained dissemination: | 53.63% | 47.82% |
Factorization of behaviour of socially responsible organization and socially responsible employee.
Source: compiled by the authors.
Below verification results of four subscales (market responsibility subscale is divided into two parts), forming of the scale of a socially responsible organization behaviour is presented. Subscales range from 5 to 7 statements (total number of statements on a scale is 31). The general percentage of explained dissemination on the scale of socially responsible organization behaviour ranges from 43.36 to 51.20. Meanwhile, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient ranges from 0.74 to 0.81. Market responsibility (with the respect to services and their quality) subscale‘s high level of reliability is indicated as a percentage of explained dissemination expression (51.20%) as well as Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value—0.81 (respectively high and high sensitivity, i.e. Spearman-Brown’s coefficient indicator—0.78). The lowest Cronbach’s alpha coefficient value (0.74) and the lowest percentage of explained dissemination (43.36) on the scale of socially responsible organization behaviour are recorded in the statements of the subscale of responsibility in relations with society. Regardless of the fact that these figures are lower if compared with other presented indicators, they are considered to be quite high in statistics. The explained factor dissemination, as has been already said, is a factor affecting the result which cannot be less than 10%. In the presence of 1717 respondents participating in the survey (100%), the highest explained factor dissemination is 51.20%, and this means that 51.20% of respondents approve the isolated factor (Table 7).
Subscales | Number of statements in subscale | Explained dissemination, % | Cronbach’s alpha | Spearman-Brown | Factorial weight (L) | Correlation of the unit as a whole (r/itt) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | |||||
Market responsibility (services and their quality) | 6 | 51.20 | 0.81 | 0.78 | 0.71 | 0.65 | 0.79 | 0.50 | 0.30 | 0.78 |
Market responsibility (consumer information, health and safety) | 5 | 50.26 | 0.75 | 0.67 | 0.71 | 0.66 | 0.76 | 0.49 | 0.29 | 0.76 |
Environment protection responsibility | 7 | 44.40 | 0.79 | 0.72 | 0.66 | 0.59 | 0.72 | 0.43 | 0.19 | 0.71 |
Responsibility in relations with employees | 7 | 44.57 | 0.79 | 0.74 | 0.66 | 0.55 | 0.73 | 0.43 | 0.23 | 0.73 |
Responsibility in relations with society | 6 | 43.36 | 0.74 | 0.64 | 0.66 | 0.55 | 0.75 | 0.41 | 0.18 | 0.73 |
Methodological quality characteristics of behaviour of socially responsible organization subscales.
Source: compiled by the authors.
When analysing the methodological quality characteristics on employee’s social behaviour scale, it is necessary to emphasize that this scale has six subscales, including 41 statements in total. The number of statements in the subscales is spread fairly unevenly, but the results are not obviously affected by this, except the situation in the subscale ‘The employee‘s opinion about the organization’. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is relatively low in the subscale ‘The employee‘s opinion about the organization’, i.e. 0.62, and it is impossible to calculate Spearman-Brown’s coefficient when the number of statements is less than 5 (Table 8).
Subscales | Number of statements in subscale | Explained dissemination, % | Cronbach’s alpha | Spearman-Brown | Factorial weight (L) | Correlation of the unit as a whole (r/itt) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Min | Max | Mean | Min | Max | |||||
Intentions to leave work | 6 | 59.59 | 0.86 | 0.84 | 0.77 | 0.70 | 0.80 | 0.59 | 0.42 | 0.80 |
Uncertainty and lack of information at work | 6 | 49.26 | 0.79 | 0.72 | 0.70 | 0.64 | 0.75 | 0.48 | 0.30 | 0.74 |
General physical and psychological condition of the employee | 5 | 58.03 | 0.82 | 0.77 | 0.76 | 0.68 | 0.80 | 0.57 | 0.32 | 0.79 |
The employee‘s opinion about the organization | 4 | 43.55 | 0.62 | – | 0.65 | 0.38 | 0.86 | 0.52 | 0.22 | 0.77 |
Corruption, nepotism, favouritism | 10 | 36.61 | 0.80 | 0.74 | 0.59 | 0.36 | 0.72 | 0.34 | 0.05 | 0.70 |
Social responsibility criticism: staff attitude | 10 | 43.27 | 0.85 | 0.79 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.72 | 0.42 | 0.23 | 0.71 |
Methodological quality characteristics of behaviour of socially responsible employee subscales.
Source: compiled by the authors.
Comparing methodological quality characteristics of behaviour of socially responsible organization and behaviour of socially responsible employee subscales, it is seen that coefficient values of behaviour of socially responsible organization scale are slightly higher, but the difference is quite insignificant.
The percentage of the explained dissemination of the factor in both scales is above the lowest limit for at least three times, so it is clear that the respondents’ approval of isolated factors is high. The resulting high Cronbach’s alpha values suggest that the statements of the subscales included in the questionnaire in the scales of social responsibility are closely interlinked, because if they are lower than 0.3, it indicates that an inappropriate statement was found in the subscale. Comparing the minimum factorial weight values on both scales, it is seen that the lowest weight, i.e. 0.36, was recorded in only one subscale. The unit as a whole correlation r/itt shows how the questionnaire statements correlate with an isolated subscale. In behaviour of socially responsible organization subscales, the unit correlation average ranges from 0.41 to 0.50, and in behaviour of socially responsible employee subscales, it ranges from 0.34 to 0.59. This indicates that the statements in the questionnaire correlate with isolated subscales.
Consensus agrees that the term known as “marketing” first appeared between the years 1906 and 1911 in the United States. Although its origin is linked to the act of sales and distribution by the period’s small-time merchants, Kotler believes that, instead, it was born alongside the arrival of humanity [1].
\nThe American Marketing Association (AMA) introduced the first formal definition of this discipline as “the conducting of business activities that direct to the flow of goods and services from the producer to the consumer or users” ([2], pp. 191). This definition was widely accepted by the international scientific community and is still in use today.
\nIn retrospect, marketing has experienced substantial change in its conceptualization since it first appeared. One such case is the introduction of a strategic component to the discipline during the 1980s, where a proactive vision of environmental control was created in alignment to a new idea of marketing that is capable of generating change and expanding its influence in the field [3]. In this regard, Sheath et al. [4] classified marketing into 12 different schools of thought, organizing the common denominators and components into the general theory of marketing.
\nConsidering the aforementioned, it is Kotler and Keller [5] whom proposed the new concept of marketing that best adapts to the current world. According to the authors, and from the perspective of companies, marketing is “the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy the specific objectives and organizations. Marketing management is the art and science of selecting target markets and to attract and retain customers through the generation, delivery and communication of superior value” ([5], pp. 816).
\nIn addition, the theories and domains of marketing have increased in number since the very start of the discipline [6]. Hence, the current approach of marketing now defines that it must not only be beneficial for all the relevant actors and people involved in the business but must also bring positive benefits to society as a whole [3]. These numerous changes have increased interest in marketing from various groups in society [7]. It is in this context that the relationship between marketing and innovation has been highlighted [8, 9], bringing an understanding that innovation in marketing serves to utilize and generate significant change in design, packaging, positioning, promotions, relationships, brand, and product or service pricing, all with the aim of increasing sales [3].
\nIn this regard, innovation in marketing mainly tackles client needs beyond the general scope of the product [8]. Hence being part of a corporate competitivity nurturing process that contributes to the economic development of companies and society [10, 11]. In addition, innovation in marketing can bring to (1) the rise of a new idea, such as developments or radical innovation, and (2) incremental innovation, which is incremental modification of an existing concept, thus improving it [12]. Regarding radical innovation, this includes new products or business models [12], as well as generating value over an already existing product by means of improvements [12].
\nRegardless that the literature originally considered innovation in marketing as an effect of competitivity, modern context highlights the importance of the relationship as an indicator that measures a company’s competitive level [13, 14]. This considers the fact that resource-advantage theory recognizes competitive advantage as a function of marketing, identifying a company’s capability of innovating in marketing as a true measure that demonstrates a firm’s true abilities [15, 16, 17, 18].
\nThe resource-advantage theory shows that the firm is determinant of profitability and not only the industry. This theory is based on the view that superior performance and a sustainable competitive position depend primarily on the resources of the firm [16, 18]. The key challenge is to transform imitable and substitutable resources into core competencies, which form the foundation of superior competitive positions in specific market segments [16, 17]. By doing this, these resources are developed and embedded as core competencies within the firm, not acquired, and improve with use, making them a source of sustainable competitive advantage [18].
\nThe interest in resources and capabilities highlights the role of the management and strategic development. That means the firm’s ability to make decisions regarding the resources to be allocated for the main actions to take place, where the effectiveness will be influenced by such decisions and their objectives [19]. Hence, the process of innovation transforms existing markets by creating new markets and opportunities. Furthermore, innovation encourages financial growth and is an important element in the search of sustainable competitive advantages that can ensure the survival and growth of companies [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25].
\nInnovation in marketing is a key factor for company survivability, growth, job creation, improved productivity, and corporate competitiveness [9, 26, 27]. To benefit from it, pioneering firms must develop organizational models that can align to the business context, client needs, and company situation [28]. Traditional business models focus mainly on creating and retaining corporate value. In retrospect, the new economic environment requires business models to ask additional questions pertaining client value and structural reconfigurations for companies in the field [29]. Such reconfigurations demand firms to develop competitive capability through innovation and collaboration with providers, clients, government agencies, and other organizations [30].
\nIn this regard, organizational capability is a work method that represents a collective problem-solving system due to its “dynamic” aspect. This dynamism is possible from its tendency to evolve in time through learning processes, which is distinctive and superior in the role of combining and assigning resources [31, 32].
\nWhen an organization possesses a specific ability, it means “the organization (or the parts that compose it) can perform an activity in a trustworthy, and at least in a minimally satisfactory manner” ([33], pp. 1244). “Minimally satisfactory” is defined as that the result of an activity complies with the minimum requirements of the organization. The use of organizational capability is linked to an action and performance. An organization possesses capability when it does something that is valued in an effective manner when compared to others. However, a case of isolated effective performance does not imply that the organization possesses the capability to solve the problem, as this would require the existence of recurring (problem-solving) patterns in time [34].
\nBased on this logic, a strong (dynamic) capability in organizational innovation in marketing would mean superior capability (in regard to the competition) to integrate, construct, and reconfigure internal competences to tackle or achieve changes in the corporate environment and diverse marketing situations [35]. Hence, understanding the determinants of innovation capability in performance is of great importance to companies, particularly when faced with markets that have different factors and competitive intensity [36].
\nThe new models of competitivity in organizations highlight the existence of strong capabilities as sustainable competitive advantages. This is due to companies having learned how to copy various systems of costs, technology, distribution, service chains, manufacturing processes, and product features [37]. This makes it important to create business models that allow for the development of dynamic organizational capabilities related to innovation and proactive response to the needs of clients, consumers, and society as a whole [35]. Thus, business model sustainability is the result of creation and transformation of organizational capability [35].
\nIn this regard, in the context of resource-based vision (RBV), a company builds a sustainable competitive advantage due to its resources and capabilities, which can be rare, valuable, inimitable, and nonsubstitutable in the market [38]. The capabilities (or competences) allow companies to use resources to achieve a desired result [39]. Thus, integrating resources and complementary capabilities encourage a generation of innovation and increase positive innovation influence, improving corporate performance [40, 41].
\nHenceforth, managing a marketing innovation project in today’s world has deeper significance than simply planning and developing a series of sequential and interrelated activities. It now requires taking actions from before the official “project development phase” by helping encourage an enabling environment [42]. This increase in complexity also requires greater coordination and collaboration efforts [43]. The latter, where knowledge and resources are exchanged, allow companies to benefit from the advantages that come from specialization, knowledge integration, and post-innovation performance [44].
\nCollaboration is defined as a type of cross-organizational integration with high levels of transparency, responsiveness, and synergy [45]. Collaboration refers to the capability of two or more actors/groups to communicate, coordinate activities, and share a team goal [22]. Concerning the aforementioned, various studies show the role of cooperation networks in the generation of innovation [46, 47]. The most common arguments presented for collaboration involve the beneficial combination of sharing risks, resources, and competences [48, 49], gaining access to new markets and technologies [50], accelerating the launch of products to the market and combining complementary skills [51, 52], encouraging joint solutions of problems [53, 54], and facilitating the generation of cocreation of value and conservation of clients [55].
\nThus, the choice to collaborate depends on balancing the risk versus the returns. Companies collaborate to acquire resources and abilities that they cannot internally produce but only when the risks of cooperation can be controlled at a tolerable level [56]. After all, there are always risks and limitations that are important to consider when collaborating [57, 58]. Based on the intangible nature of the assets in play, the probability of experiencing opportunistic behaviors and knowledge disclosure increases, hence also increasing the transactional costs required to prevent such behaviors [48, 51]. Furthermore, organizations might have difficulty in evaluating the value of a partner due to information asymmetry and the secret nature of collaboration itself [59]. In addition, each additional collaborator increases the costs of monitoring, coordination, and transactions [59].
\nIt is important not only to collaborate between companies [60], as the involvement of other agents in marketing innovation can bring positive effects to future quality of service [61]. In this respect, project changes have strategic impact when the relationship between development efforts of an area and the business results are achieved through collaboration with the agents of interest [62, 63, 64]. Agents can be other companies, trade associations, universities, and even public institutions depending on the economic sectors and objectives that are sought [65, 66, 67]. Therefore, innovation is a collective process that involves multiple actors [65].
\nWith the corporate cooperation for innovation is reflected in cocreation value, which emphasizes stakeholder participation in the various innovation processes [68]. Since “value is always co-created” and “all social and economic actors are resource integrators,” value creation is increasingly interconnected and collaborative by nature [55]. As value is “always uniquely and phenomenologically determined by the beneficiary” ([55], pp. 9), value cocreation processes can include multiple actors; thus value as an outcome is subjectively determined.
\nPerks et al. [69] define cocreation as “the joint creation of value by the company and its network of diverse entities (clients, providers, and distributors). Hence innovation is the result of the interaction and behaviour between individuals and organizations” ([69], pp. 935). Therefore innovation is the valuable potential result of interactions and meetings with the involved actors in the process of cocreation [70, 71].
\nSeveral researchers have studied cocreation value and coinnovation, highlighting the importance of commitment, teamwork, and generation of convincing experiences in the creation of value [68]. Based on the works of Sheath and Uslay [72], Vargo and Lusch [55], Frow and Payne [70], and Frow et al. [73], 12 specific different forms of cocreation can be identified: (1) coconception of ideas (i.e., solutions of public origin), (2) joint design (i.e., product personalization), (3) coproduction (i.e., working collaboratively with producer), (4) copromotion (i.e., brand community), (5) shared prices (i.e., political events), (6) joint distribution (i.e., direct and indirect distribution channels), (7) coconsumption (i.e., digital platforms), (8) joint maintenance (i.e., army), (9) cooutsourcing (external customer support and service), (10) codisposition (i.e., recycling initiatives from tech companies), (11) joint experiences (i.e., adventure-based vacations), and (12) creation of shared meanings (i.e., organizational culture).
\nRegardless that the list covers a substantial number of possible ways of cocreation, Frow and Payne [70] recognize that in the future, new ways can rise. These authors also point to the fact that one form of cocreation can jointly exist with others. Thus, in a cocreation framework value is created for all actors through a win-win perspective [74]. In this regard, the inclusion of various agents that can form part of the cocreation value process becomes the very reason that the output can be so attractive [75, 76].
\nCocreation allows companies to use the creative thought of other agents in the innovation process [77]. The sum of results in each process produces an increase in collective cocreation performance [78, 79]. Considering that cocreation generates benefits to the interested parties, it also brings forth new challenges due to the characteristics, interests, and diverse objectives that exist among the different involved actors [80].
\nThe participation of various actors (such as clients, providers, and partners) makes the cocreation value process to be complex by nature. Hence, it needs the development of new frameworks to analyze the creation of value because of numerous relationships between all involved actors, instead of only focusing on the relationship between providers and clients [74]. Based on previous research, a firm can establish collaborative activities in marketing innovation with a wide range of agents. These can be categorized as (1) those belonging to the value chain, providers and customers, with those who seek to optimize existing skills; (2) those with which new knowledge is generated, universities and research centers; and (3) those with which both ends can be sought, governments, competitors, and others [62, 63]. Thus, understanding the determinants of innovation capability in performance is of great importance to companies, particularly when faced with markets that have different factors and competitive intensity [36].
\nStrategy is defined as the logical combination of actors, factors, and actions selected among other combination alternatives to achieve a specific objective in a specific context [81]. It is the ability (of the organization) to make decisions regarding the resources to be allocated for the main actions to take place [19]. The effectiveness of project strategy management is influenced by the decisions and the objectives set during the process.
\nThe operation of a firm is focused on achieving the objectives, facing difficulties, and facing opportunities in the context in which the company carries out its activities with the capabilities and resources it possesses. Hence, in seeking to achieve its objectives, a firm will intend to ensure the development of these activities in the most appropriate manner while generating value [82].
\nIn this regard, Brand et al. [83] affirm that governance consists of setting control mechanisms, incentives, rules, and penalties and coordinating the actions of network players, which the authors define as collective structuring [84]. These elements of governance are the mechanisms used by managers and network players to ensure better control over the formal and informal aspects of the network [83]. Concerning network management, Roth et al. [85] state that management is responsible for positively influencing the members’ competitiveness and for reaching the goals proposed by the organization. The authors also list some of the roles of interorganizational network management such as member selection, planning and communication, assessment, integration, providing services to members, coordination, incentives, and controls.
\nHence, innovation management is an intentional systematic process where the level of affinity that the company has with its environment plays an important role [86]. A firm can choose to apply different innovation strategies to achieve its objectives or improve its competitive advantages [87]. Thus, innovation stops being a single act that applies novel ideas, instead becoming a manageable and susceptible process that is both measured and systematically controlled [88]. In this regard, the structuralization of innovation processes becomes the starting point of great interest for companies [86].
\nThe structuralization of innovation is managed through the stabilization of processes and the setting of conditions, restrictions, behaviors, and expected results [89]. Hence, the management of the innovation process must consider the framework, criteria, and tools for identifying, elaborating, and systemizing each of the involved activities. Under these conditions, each organization will be able to control, improve the different aspects of innovation, and thus integrate them into the total processes of the company.
\nThe literature has addressed a series of aspects related to management structure and control such as the rules, penalties, formal agreements, and control mechanisms that include leadership and coordination, which are relevant to sustain innovation initiatives [84].
\nOrganizations must take into account the relevant guidelines to build, implement, and evaluate innovation strategies adopted by the company. Innovation strategy must (a) recognize the importance of the client in the process, (b) develop strong ties with providers, (c) integrate different phases and actors in the constructive process, (d) improve the flow of information, (e) transmit knowledge of one project to another, and (f) encourage the use of rules based on the results, which are not pre-established [90]. This is important because in any collaboration process, there are risks and limitations that are considered [48, 57]. Based on the intangible nature of the assets at play, the probability of experiencing opportunistic behaviors and knowledge disclosure increases, hence also raising the transactional costs required to prevent such behaviors [51]. Furthermore, organizations might have difficulty in evaluating the value of a partner due to information asymmetry and the secret nature of collaboration itself [59]. In addition, each additional collaborator increases the costs of monitoring, coordination, and transactions [59, 91, 92].
\nTherefore, collaboration is evaluated with a largely strategic focus [48]. The option to collaborate must depend on balancing the risks versus the returns, where companies collaborate to acquire resources and skills that they cannot internally produce, if the cooperation is maintained at a tolerable level [56].
\nAs humans are social beings, the creation of networks and relationships are phenomena that span since the very start of society [93]. The social network theory states that various agents of a society find themselves connected to each other, forming communication and influence channels [94]. In this regard, networks are among the most common tools for diffusing and acquiring knowledge. A (social) network is a means for communication, bonding, advice, and support that exists between the members of a social system [95]. The features and structure of relationship networks, created by an organization, are crucial to determine the flow of idea diffusion, innovation, and sharing of experiences [94, 95].
\nAn interorganizational cooperation network stands itself on the management of relationships between its members [84, 96, 97, 98], which are composed of individual and collective interests [99, 100, 101]. The former brings new members to take part in the network to chase common goals, thus obtaining individual and collective benefits [84].
\nManagement efficiency in the relationship with agents of interest is the main source of income and opportunity that increases profitability of a business [102]. It is the ability to collaborate interorganizationally; share risks, resources, and competences; unify skills; and foster joint solutions; among others [55, 103]. Superior performance comes from market detection capability, better reception of ideas, use of information, and bonding [104]. Thus, a relationship is the repetition and maintenance of solid interactions between parties due to the existence of economic or social links between them to achieve mutual benefits [102]. The exchange based on relationships corresponds to a larger number of complex exchanges of resources and information [55].
\nIn the case of innovation, cooperation can be a dilemma due to the existence of the transfer of knowledge, abilities, and resources, which can make members distrust in participating [36]. Some of the preoccupations in the innovation process that can be considered as deterrents for collaboration can be found in the form of profit splitting of a new tech, research and development decisions, and fearing that a member can benefit more than another, among others [47, 97, 105, 106].
\nThus, the concept of networks highlights two key observations: (1) intra- and interorganizational collaboration is not simply a means to compensate for the lack of internal skills; and (2) collaboration is not a series of discrete transactions. The value and capability of a company as a collaborator are based on its internal assets, but simultaneously, the activity of collaboration will develop and strengthen those internal competences. This means that companies deepen their capability to collaborate by not only managing relations in a dyadic way but also by instantiating and refining routines for synergistic association [107].
\nIn the literature, innovation is shown in two ways: as a structural approach and as a process-oriented approach [108]. The structural approach is tradition-based by nature, where by structuralizing certain parameters with innovation, companies bring value to the users and final consumers [109]. The process-oriented approach views innovation as a complex process that follows a defined design through the interaction of various social groups at an internal and external form from the organizations [110]. Both cases understand innovation as an iteration of decisions and implementation of new ideas by people who communicate with other people [108]. In this regard, the competitive environment in which a company operates affects the benefits and costs of collaboration [111]. Disclosure costs are higher for companies in highly competitive markets, where information leaks quickly translate into loss of market share, making collaboration riskier [112, 113, 114].
\nStrategic marketing literature assumes that the key to the success of organizational processes lies in the belief that market orientation provides the capability to detect the market, have a proactive attitude toward customer satisfaction, obtain greater use of information, possess a better reception of ideas, and have a degree of connection that leads to superior organizational performance [104]. This puts the concept of market orientation as an organizational cultural approach or as an integral part of the mission, vision, and values of a company [115]. It is important to note that the perspective from the conception of generation of intelligence identifies a series of specific actions around information [116].
\nThese different approaches are considered as interrelated perspectives [117]. Strategic orientation will reflect a company’s philosophy on how to conduct business through a set of deeply held values and beliefs that guide the company’s attempt to achieve superior performance [118]. In addition, these values and beliefs define the resources to be used, transcend individual capabilities, and unify resources and capabilities into a cohesive whole [119].
\nConsidering the concept of market orientation, there is a broad general consensus that it is a combination of three critical dimensions [116]: (1) generation of intelligence on all the elements of the market (customers, competitors, and the environment), (2) dissemination or establishment of internal common knowledge of the said intelligence, and (3) development and implementation of a response action that involves the effective satisfaction of the established target audience [115].
\nThe results of this chapter should be the obtainment of improved capabilities to adapt to changes in the business environment or to obtain a proactive decision-making ability to produce competitive advantages [120, 121, 122]. Hence, a company learns to acquire and develop new relevant knowledge and skills that will help it remain competitive in the market [115, 116, 123, 124].
\nThe methodology employed is exploratory by nature. This research uses the IBM SPSS version 14.0 statistical software, with a self-administered survey through Qualtrics platform. The survey considered three sub-scales that represent each of the three variables previously mentioned. The authors used a structured questionnaire, with closed questions on an 11-point Likert scale and questions regarding business characteristics. The scale considers that the most favorable response receives the highest score, while the least favorable response the lowest score.
\nThe authors sent the survey to 580 potential participants, obtaining a response rate of 41.7%. Thus, the sample is composed of 242 executives in relevant positions in the decision-making process of industrial companies with offices in Chile. This last inclusion criterion used by the authors has the objective of ensuring that the respondents have experience within the industry. Most of the respondents had positions of management and corporate levels (56.2%) and professions related to engineering (64%). The main industrial sectors represented are the iron and steel industry (15.7%), distribution (15.3%), mining (14.9%), financial (14%), and agroindustry (12.8%). Most of the companies have clients from the national market as their main buyers (80.2%), with most of the surveyed respondents being mainly established in the central region of Chile (71.9%).
\nA confirmatory and exploratory analysis using AMOS was done to have access to the properties of latent variables. The relation of variables can be observed with a 99% of confidence, KMO over 0.6, goodness of fit of data (\n
Industrial sector | \nManagement and strategic development | \nRelations and network management | \nMarket orientation | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n\n \n\n \n\n | \n\n\n \n\n \n\n | \n\n\n \n\n \n\n | \n|
Mining | \n6.9 | \n6.1 | \n7.0 | \n
Iron and steel | \n6.5 | \n5.8 | \n6.9 | \n
Distribution | \n6.5 | \n5.5 | \n6.5 | \n
Financial | \n5.6 | \n6.3 | \n6.2 | \n
Agroindustry | \n6.7 | \n5.0 | \n5.3 | \n
Others | \n6.9 | \n5.9 | \n6.7 | \n
Average | \n6.5 | \n5.8 | \n6.4 | \n
Empirical results.
Self-elaboration; α, Cronbach’s alpha; σ, standard deviation; k, standardized coefficient.
Based on the empirical data, the degree of progress in each of the analyzed variables (see \nTable 1\n) of the different sectors of the sample has been calculated. At a general level, the study shows an evaluation value of approximately 6 points (“Often”), which turns out to be regular with respect to the maximum of 11. The level of development is 54.5%, with respect to the potential of each variable according to the perception of the respondents. The relations and network management are the least perfected capability, while management and strategy development is the most developed.
\nAccording to the results of this study (\nTable 1\n), the mining sector is the one that presents the best overall evaluation due to the sector placing great importance in considering long-term strategic planning. This in part is due to the “virtuous, inclusive and sustainable mining by 2035” plan. Nonetheless, there is still a long way to go in terms of collaboration. Regarding this point, the management of relations and networks is the factor in which the mining sector shows less development and in which the managers should emphasize their future strategies. This would allow them to increase the value proposition and get a more stable level of profitability in the long run.
\nThe agroindustrial sector is worrisome regarding their relations and network management and market orientation. The companies of this sector require a greater focus on the external analysis of clients and competitors that would help them guide their plans toward innovation in marketing. This would allow them to increase their efficiency and effectiveness of their projects in those areas. In addition, data shows that the financial sector must work with special emphasis on management and strategic development in terms of collaboration. One of the lowest values obtained in this variable is on the establishment of collaboration as a source of competitiveness.
\nAt the variable level, the study shows that strategic focus makes possible improvement on organizational innovation capabilities. Without strategic value, the efforts and resources devoted to it will always be scarce. Hence, even though they possess the capabilities to develop initiatives successfully, in practice, this will not necessarily be true. It can be observed that the companies point out that the activities they do the most are to consider the costs in their planning, to encourage the participation of different functional areas of the company in the development of a project, and to consider innovation in long-term strategic planning.
\nFor its part, relations and network management were the worst evaluated variable according to the sample. It is interesting to note how companies have better results in the network items with clients than with other agents. This shows that companies are willing to cooperate with their clients with a short-term view oriented to sales but do not find it relevant to establish promises with other agents in the long term, which would allow them to establish continuous innovation projects over time. This short-term focus on products may impair the viability of long-term business relationships, where other factors such as networking and collaborative actions have a significant impact on results.
\nIn terms of market orientation, the results show that the lowest scores come from companies investigating close to nothing on what their competitors do. Based on these results, it is possible to deduce that companies have a research process more focused to their own projects or problems than to surveillance mechanisms on what competitors do. For instance, agroindustrial sector, which was the worst ranked in this dimension. In addition, their values are significantly lower than the other sectors in the study.
\nThe chapter reveals that innovation in marketing is conceived as a process oriented to the market and the use of knowledge, which is modeled by the characteristics of the organizational culture, through a management that controls and assumes risks in its projects, often developing relevant activities collaborative in the process. The role of the degree of market orientation, collaboration, and strategic project management is highlighted as incident characteristics of the company’s capacity to reconfigure its assets and compete in current, emerging, or mature businesses.
\nCurrently, society is constantly evolving, so innovating is no longer a “nice to have,” but it has become a necessity in companies. In this context, innovation must be considered activity in the company strategic axis, where its magnitude and focus should be supported in the organizational plan. Innovating should not be just having a brilliant idea; it is generating something that creates value for the market, the organization, and/or the other agents of interest. The company must be able to identify, anticipate, and characterize its own potential to formulate the best strategy for innovation in the future. A methodology must be established to innovate and how to structure strategically innovative processes.
\nManagers should question possible gaps in the positioning map of the sector, decide to cover them, and make them grow. To develop an innovative strategy, you must question the business in which our organization is located, how we develop our processes, and what we know about the market. Reflect on our client (current and potential); analyze our availability of resources, skills, and our ability to develop new, as well as how we relate to other agents of interest.
\nAs a result, new businesses will not be discovered if they do not leave the security offered by the current ones. Innovation implies a need to be market oriented. When an organization makes the decision to innovate, it must have the ability to question how it does business and rethink it. Managers should look at new sources of their own ideas but also monitor innovation processes in their industries or in other industries, national or foreign. The key to success is not only in playing better than the competition, but in how an organization can effectively change the rules of the game.
\nHowever, having a look at strategic innovation and market orientation does not ensure success. The different mechanisms, networks, and relationships that facilitate the organization to carry out these processes must be taken into account. In this line, it is important to develop the capacity and corporate culture in the company to take risks, boost the commitment of employees, and empower them to propose ideas to innovate.
\nFor the above to be possible, it is important to promote the sharing of information between the different lines of business. But this collaboration is not just about encouraging conversations but generating structured processes that allow interacting and giving support to each of the areas on relevant issues of the process, where the contribution of the top managers is essential. To link collaborative initiatives to larger business objectives, the manager must create a comprehensive and measurable strategy that responds to the complexities of the extended enterprise. It is therefore important to adopt a methodical and detailed approach to collaboration and innovation. Collaborative initiatives should be linked to high-level business objectives, with careful attention to risk profiles and tolerance levels throughout the company.
\nHowever, collaboration must also extend beyond the company. The organization is in constant interaction with other organizations and agents that have their own knowledge of the industry and, therefore, turn out to be components that can and should influence the strategic direction of innovation processes. There is no generic list of possible collaborating agents, not even from the same sector. Each organization must identify and prioritize all those groups that can contribute to innovate, understanding that these can change over time. The prioritization criteria are ponderable, adaptable, and unique. However, a proposal of criteria could include analyzing the following strategic variables: (1) capacity of influence or dependence (current and future), (2) interest in the commitment and willingness to participate, (3) knowledge of the organization and industry, (4) geographical dimensions, and (5) social context (organizational culture, legal restrictions, etc.). Finally, the company must define the collaboration model to be developed. There are different existing tools to facilitate a model of integration of the relationship with stakeholders with different management levels that can be modulated according to the different strategic variables already raised.
\nIn conclusion, the strategic innovation depends on the sector where the organization competes, the real needs of the client, and the competitive position of the same, bearing in mind all the support of resources that the organization has, because without the operation and efficiency of these is difficult to ensure its success. Managers are required to be in a constant state of contemplation of their company, from an internal and external point of view with a long-term focus. This approach makes possible the strategic management of innovation, which becomes increasingly essential in the company.
\nThen, this study opens new lines of research and helps establish guidelines in which managers in innovation or marketing could manage their relationships with stakeholders in a proactive and efficient manner. This chapter shows a better understanding of the opportunities and challenges of organizational capability in marketing innovation, and cocreation value is achieved, allowing the identification of specific issues that need to be developed at the company and country level. For instance, long-term competitiveness for any company will depend on its ability to comprehend the environment, integrate knowledge about competitors and consumers’ needs, develop improvements, and manage the buying behavior of its customers. Furthermore, this business intelligence could be useful as a guide for businesspersons, politicians, managers, and researches, among others.
\nAuthors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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\\n\\nMohamed Oukka 2016-18
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\\n\\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\\n\\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\\n\\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nFei Wei 2016-18
\\n\\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
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\\n\\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\\n\\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJocelyn Chanussot (chapter to be published soon...)
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\n\nKhalil Amine 2017, 2018
\n\nEwan Birney 2015-18
\n\nFrede Blaabjerg 2015-18
\n\nGang Chen 2016-18
\n\nJunhong Chen 2017, 2018
\n\nZhigang Chen 2016, 2018
\n\nMyung-Haing Cho 2016, 2018
\n\nMark Connors 2015-18
\n\nCyrus Cooper 2017, 2018
\n\nLiming Dai 2015-18
\n\nWeihua Deng 2017, 2018
\n\nVincenzo Fogliano 2017, 2018
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\n\nYexiang Tong 2017, 2018
\n\nJim Van Os 2015-18
\n\nLong Wang 2017, 2018
\n\nFei Wei 2016-18
\n\nIoannis Xenarios 2017, 2018
\n\nQi Xie 2016-18
\n\nXin-She Yang 2017, 2018
\n\nYulong Yin 2015, 2017, 2018
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Omar obtained\nhis Bachelor degree in electrical and\nelectronics engineering from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2002, Master of Science in electronics\nengineering from Open University\nMalaysia in 2008 and PhD in optical physics from Universiti\nSains Malaysia in 2012. His research mainly\nfocuses on the development of optical\nand electronics systems for spectroscopy\napplication in environmental monitoring,\nagriculture and dermatology. He has\nmore than 10 years of teaching\nexperience in subjects related to\nelectronics, mathematics and applied optics for\nuniversity students and industrial engineers.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Sains Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"191072",title:"Prof.",name:"A. K. M. Aminul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"a.-k.-m.-aminul-islam",fullName:"A. K. M. Aminul Islam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191072/images/system/191072.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. A. K. M. 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