Technical details for the Spanish subsample of the European Manufacturing Survey 2012 edition.
\r\n\t
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He is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), the Energy Institute, UK and is registered as a chartered petroleum engineer. He has published more than 50 publications on International peer-reviewed Journals and conferences, has contributed to 5 textbooks, and served in many scientific committees.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"92105",title:"Dr.",name:"Mansoor",middleName:null,surname:"Zoveidavianpoor",slug:"mansoor-zoveidavianpoor",fullName:"Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92105/images/system/92105.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mansoor Zoveidavianpoor has over 24 years of experience, built upon his technical, operational, and management roles in the industry and academia. Mansoor holds a BSc degree in Geology, MSc, and Ph.D. degrees both in Petroleum Engineering. He was involved in different disciplines such as project management, geology, flow assurance, piping construction, artificial intelligence, environmental engineering, drilling and production engineering, He has lectured several courses at the University Technology Malaysia (UTM), Petroleum University of Technology (PUT), and Islamic Azad University (IAU). He is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and registered as a Chartered Petroleum Engineer at Energy Institute, and EIA subject specialist at DOE Malaysia. He has published more than 50 publications on International peer-reviewed Journals and conferences, has contributed to 5 textbooks, and served in many scientific committees. Currently, he is working as an Associate Professor at UTM and involved in several consultancies in petroleum engineering and energy transition. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51019",title:"Analysing the Adoption of Energy-Saving Technologies in Manufacturing Firms",doi:"10.5772/62852",slug:"analysing-the-adoption-of-energy-saving-technologies-in-manufacturing-firms",body:'\nSustainable development, meaning meeting the needs of present generations without jeopardising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs [1], implicitly calls for an energy- and resource-efficient society, in which all pillars of the quadruple helix—academia, industry, government and citizens—are challenged to move towards energy and resource efficiency. Generating and enriching the current knowledge base by academia, implementing energy-efficient solutions and producing goods/services by companies towards this end, setting goals and promoting policy measures by local, regional, national and supranational bodies, as well as making informed choices by users/consumers are some of the generic musts towards sustainable societies.
\nEven some progress has already been made; new energy systems are gradually adapting, while the scale of challenge increases. Industrial activity, in particular, is reputedly a primary cause of pollution situating manufacturing firms in the centre of the focus. Nowadays, firms are facing strong pressure from their stakeholders to implement environmental management policies and practices. Moreover, the energy efficiency of the manufacturing processes is gaining importance due to the rising energy costs and the effects of the gas emissions over climate. From the perspective of manufacturers, the challenge is to improve the overall environmental performance of products throughout their life cycle and to boost the demand for better products and production technologies.
\nIn one of the most recent studies on energy efficiency and saving potential in Europe-wide industry [2], the authors make a comprehensive study of the topic, using a sectoral approach as well as detecting barriers and policy measures towards further advances. Global results point towards market competitiveness remaining the strongest driver for energy-efficiency solutions, where the internal barriers to access energy-saving opportunities are not well understood. Another valuable finding is the taxonomy provided by the authors, distinguishing between a series of external and internal aspects that play an important hampering role in implementing energy efficiency and energy-saving potential. The same report calls for innovation as a catalyst towards more energy-efficient manufacturing.
\nInnovation is a key aspect and possible contributor towards novel solutions’ implementation in order to achieve higher energy efficiency. Efforts should be deployed by the targeted promotion and commercialisation of existing solutions, as well as R&D support for emerging alternatives/technologies. The implementation of technologies in the production processes of manufacturing firms falls under process innovation typology.
\nDefined by the Oslo Manual [3] process, innovation is understood as ‘the implementation of a new or significantly improved production or delivery method. This includes significant changes in techniques, equipment and/or software’ (p. 49). According to the same source, the main effects that process innovation might cause are: reduced time to respond to customer needs, improved quality of goods and services, improved flexibility of production or service provision, increased capacity of production or service provision, reduced unit labour costs, reduced consumption of materials and energy, reduced product design costs, reduced production lead times, achievement of industry technical standards, reduced operating costs for service provision, increased efficiency or speed of supplying and/or delivering goods or services, improved IT capabilities, improved communication and interaction among different business activities, increased sharing or transferring of knowledge with other organisations, increase in the ability to adapt to different client demands, development of stronger relationships with customers , improved working conditions, reduced environmental impacts or improved health and safety and meeting regulatory requirements (p. 108).
\nMonitoring particular, singular and specific energy efficiency technologies ultimately means the disposing of firm-level data in all manufacturing areas and in more than one country. Regularly conducted large-scale surveys on innovation (see the Community Innovation Survey) are often multipurpose and remain conceptually global. Having argued the importance and possible benefits of energy-saving technologies (EST) as well as the lack of data on detailed and multiple technologies in manufacturing, we detect a possible gap worth filling with our contribution.
\nTherefore, the objective of this chapter is to map the implementation degree of energy-efficient technologies in manufacturing firms, as well as to identify and understand the structural and operational characteristics that are expected to introduce variations in adoption. The authors also link energy-efficient technologies with perceived saving potential. Using data from the European Manufacturing Survey, we argue the necessity to provide recent data on EST implementation
\nThe chapter is structured as follows. After the introduction, we present the research methodology and methods used to analyse the characteristics of ESTs’ adoption and their adopters. The results and findings are presented for the manufacturing firms with the use of descriptive statistics and simple correlation tests. Finally, we discuss our results and present some implications.
\nOur research is based on data from the European Manufacturing Survey (EMS), 2012 edition [4]. EMS is coordinated by the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research—ISI, which is the largest European survey in manufacturing activities conducted, to date.
\nThe 2012 edition of the EMS was carried out in 19 countries, mainly the European ones including Russia and Turkey, plus PR of China and Brazil, covering the 70% of firms within the European manufacturing sector with at least 20 employees, NACE codes from 15 to 37 [5].
\nHowever, our study will only include data from EMS Spanish subsample, formed by 170 responses (Table 1). In this case, no other subsamples from additional countries have been included in order to analyse the major number of different available EST, given that the rest of the subsamples do not contain five of the ESTs kept in the Spanish one for the 2012 edition of the EMS. These five excluded technologies were considered for the 2008 edition of the EMS, but not for the 2012 one in the majority of the involved countries. This fact occurs because, apart from the main body of questions inside the survey, each participant country’s partner can include a limited number of particular questions of its interest.
\nUniverse | \nSpanish manufacturing firms with at least 20 employees CNAE 2009; codes from 10 to 32 16.183 companies | \n
Target population | \n4000 firms | \n
Sample | \n170 firms | \n
Confidence margin | \n95% | \n
Variance | \nMaximum indetermination | \n
Documentation | \nPaper (8 pages questionnaire) + Return envelope + Presentation letter | \n
Channel | \nPostal | \n
Period conducting the survey | \nMay–September 2012 | \n
Reference period | \n2009–2011; 2011 | \n
Fieldwork | \nOGEDP Department, University of Girona – Girona (Spain) | \n
Data base recording and creation | \nDAP GmbH—Passau (Germany) | \n
Sample distribution | \n\n |
By technological sector | \nLow technology: 38; medium–low technology: 67; medium–high and high technology: 64 (59 + 5) | \n
By relative energy efficiency group | \nLess efficient: 16; equal efficient: 50; more efficient: 71 | \n
Technical details for the Spanish subsample of the European Manufacturing Survey 2012 edition.
In summary, the EMS 2012 Spanish subsample considers nine ESTs, which are as follows:\n
– T0: Dry process/Minimum lubrication;
– T1: Control system for shutdown of machines in off-peak periods;
– T2: Electrical motors with speed regulation;
– T3: Compressed air contracting;
– T4: Highly efficient pumps;
– T5: Low-temperature joining processes;
– T6: Energy retrieval;
– T7: Bigeneration/Trigeneration;
– T8: Use of waste materials for energy generation;
T0, T1, T6 and T7 are the ESTs included in the main body of the 2012 survey for all the countries, of which T0 was not included in the 2008 EMS edition. T2, T3, T4, T5 and T8 are only considered in EMS 2008 and the Spanish subsample of the EMS 2012.
\nAll these ESTs are evaluated for each firm in terms of use, yes or no, and their extent of use, grouped in three categories: ‘low’ for initial attempts, ‘medium’, when partially utilised and ‘high’ for extensive use. This extent of use is represented with an ordinal variable containing values 1, 2 or 3, for low, medium or high, and it is always relative, comparing the present to the most reasonable potential use.
\nIn the present study, the EST for this sample of firms will be characterised through descriptive and frequency analyses.
\nAnother descriptive analysis will be presented for the companies inside the sample, including parameters such as number of employees, turnover in 2008 and 2011, firm R&D expenditures, exportation intensity, implementation of environmental management systems, such as ISO 14000 and ISO50001:200, and energy-saving potential according to the several elaborated homogenous groups, based on their technological intensity or their energy efficiency level. Averages for these descriptive parameters mentioned above were directly calculated from variables obtained from the survey.
\nIn particular, the parameter of energy-saving potential becomes a key factor for our study, since it represents a measure of the energy efficiency degree resulting after different implementation levels of EST in manufacturing firms. In this sample, the energy-saving potential is represented by percent, and it corresponds to the relative amount of energy a company could save if it is highly implemented in its production system and in all the available EST nowadays.
\nCharacteristics of EST adopters will be presented according to OECD’s taxonomy of industries, classified by their technological intensity [6]. In this regard, firms have been classified and also presented in three groups: ‘Low technology’, for firms from NACE codes 15, 16, 17–19, 20–22, 36–37; ‘Medium technology’, with medium–low technology firms from NACE codes 23, 25, 26, 351, 27, 28; and ‘High technology’, with medium–high and high technology firms from NACE codes 24, 31, 34, excluding 2423, 352+359, 29, and 353, 2423, 30, 32, 33.
\nAs shown in Table 2, only five firms of this sample have NACE codes 353, 2423, 30, 32 and 33, corresponding to a high technology industry. It is for this reason that medium–high and high technology firms from the OECD’s taxonomy have been grouped together in a ‘High technology’ category (
\n | Low technology | \nMedium–low technology | \nMedium–high and high technology | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
N | \n38 | \n67 | \n64 (59 + 5) | \n169 | \n
% | \n22% | \n40% | \n38% | \n100% | \n
Number of employees in 2011, | \n97 ( | \n112 ( | \n276 ( | \n171 | \n
Number of employees in 2009, | \n98 ( | \n116 ( | \n279 ( | \n160 | \n
Turnover 2011 [M€], | \n44 ( | \n188 ( | \n183 ( | \n154 | \n
Turnover 2009 [M€], | \n35 ( | \n341 ( | \n224 ( | \n229 | \n
Firms with R&D expenditures, | \n53% | \n60% | \n61% | \n59% | \n
High exportation intensity firms, | \n40% | \n48% | \n33% | \n41% | \n
Firms with ISO 14000 implemented, | \n38% | \n36% | \n46% | \n40% | \n
Firms with ISO50001:2001 implemented, | \n3% | \n2% | \n2% | \n2% | \n
Energy saving potential, | \n15% | \n13% | \n15% | \n14% | \n
T0: dry process/minimum lubrication, | \n6% | \n15% | \n13% | \n12% | \n
T1: control system for shut down of machines in off-peak periods, | \n14% | \n14% | \n23% | \n17% | \n
T2: speed regulation, | \n76% | \n63% | \n72% | \n69% | \n
T3: compressed air contracting, | \n38% | \n40% | \n44% | \n41% | \n
T4: highly efficient pumps, | \n43% | \n30% | \n40% | \n37% | \n
T5: low-temperature joining processes, | \n3% | \n15% | \n7% | \n9% | \n
T6: energy retrieval, | \n14% | \n5% | \n18% | \n12% | \n
T7: bigeneration/trigeneration, | \n24% | \n2% | \n10% | \n10% | \n
T8: waste material for energy, | \n14% | \n5% | \n14% | \n10% | \n
Summary of descriptive features of the sample by technological intensity.
A discrete variable ‘TechLevel’, with value 1 for ‘Low technology’, value 2 for ‘Medium technology’ and value 3 for ‘High technology’, following the previously explained criteria, was calculated from the NACE code data for each firm in the survey. Corresponding dummy variables ‘LowTech’, ‘MedTech’ and ‘HighTech’, with values 0–1, were also elaborated to obtain three subsets of 38, 67 and 64 manufacturing companies, respectively, according to their technological level.
\nIn a similar way, a second classification of firms in the sample, according to their relative energy efficiency level, was performed. To do that, a response in the survey regarding the potential energy saving in the company was utilised. Firms answered to a question on what percent of their current energy consumption could they save if they utilised all the available technical possibilities in the present.
\nThose percentages are represented by a variable in the survey that was used to elaborate three new dummy variables, ‘Low Efficient’, ‘Equal Efficient’ and ‘More Efficient’, with values 0–1. The purpose was to use these dummy variables to obtain three separated groups according to their relative energy efficiency level, comparing its present situation with a hypothetical stage where the company highly used all the available EST today.
\nTo build these categories and collapse the continuous variable with percentage data into three approximately equal groups, a frequency analysis calculating percentiles at 33.33 and 66.66% was performed [7]. The obtained cut-off points for the percentiles 33.33 and 66.66% were 10 and 20%, respectively. In consequence, firms with a relatively low percent of energy-saving potential from 0 to 10% are considered in the ‘More Efficient’ group (
Finally, in order to explore the possible relationships and their strength and direction (positive or negative) between several continuous and dichotomous variables describing firms’ characteristics and the use or extent of use of ESTs, a simple bivariate Pearson correlation analysis has been conducted. When a positive correlation between a pair of variables is significant, it indicates that as one variable increases, so does the other. Analogously, a negative significant correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.
\nGiven that the data corresponding to the size of the companies in the survey do not follow a normal distribution, neither in the number of employees, nor in the case of the turnover, a transformation of these variables is required to use parametric statistics [7]. As these data in the histogram appear left-skewed, a recalculation, using the logarithm of the original values, has reset the histogram into a normal bell-shaped distribution.
\nOther mapping analyses were performed on the EMS 2008 edition Spanish samples, as in the case of [8], and from Spanish and Slovenian samples in [9]. Palcic et al. also mapped EST implementation in manufacturing firms, following a similar methodology.
\nResults about the typology of the manufacturing firms in our sample, with regard to their technological intensity according to the OECD’s taxonomy, are shown in Table 2.
\nWe can observe that companies with higher technological level have, on average, a considerably higher number of employees (276 vs. 112 and 97 in 2011), a strong use of environmental management systems such as ISO 14000 [10], but a lower number of firms with a high exportation intensity (more than 50% of sales abroad).
\n‘Medium–Low Technology’ and ‘High Technology’ groups have higher number of companies with R&D expenditure compared with the low technology ones.
\nFirms in low technology industrial sectors also had an average turnover in 2009 and 2011, of less than a quarter of each one of the other two technological groups (35 vs. 341 and 224 M€ in 2009, and 44 vs. 188 and 183 M€ in 2011).
\nNo significant differences can be observed with regard to energy-saving potential according to the firms’ technological intensity. These averages of energy-saving potential for each technological group are represented by a percentage, with values between 13 and 15%.
\nWith regard to the ESTs, according to each technological intensity group, we can stress that low technology firms have a relatively lower use of T0 but a higher use of T7, compared with other industrial sectors with higher technological intensity. ‘Medium–Low technology’ firms have a higher percentage of use of T5, and a lower percentage for T2, T4, T6, T7 and T8.
\nCompanies in high technology sectors have a considerably higher percentage of use of T1 and a slightly higher one for T3. Percentage of use of T3 increases homogenously with the technology intensity of the sector.
\nIn the case of MST (T9 and T10), their percentage of use decreases with the technology intensity of the sector.
\nResults about the typology of the manufacturing firms in our sample and their relative energy efficiency are shown in Table 3.
\n\n | Less efficient | \nEqually efficient | \nMore efficient | \nTotal | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
N | \n16 | \n50 | \n71 | \n137 | \n
% | \n12% | \n36% | \n52% | \n100% | \n
Number of employees in 2011, | \n83 ( | \n136 ( | \n236 ( | \n171 | \n
Number of employees in 2009, | \n81 ( | \n138 ( | \n243 ( | \n160 | \n
Turnover 2011 [M€], | \n19 ( | \n41 ( | \n137 ( | \n154 | \n
Turnover 2009 [M€], | \n17 ( | \n36 ( | \n73 ( | \n229 | \n
Firms with R&D expenditures, | \n63% | \n61% | \n58% | \n59% | \n
High exportation intensity firms, | \n25% | \n33% | \n48% | \n41% | \n
Firms with ISO 14000 implemented, | \n38% | \n47% | \n38% | \n40% | \n
Firms with ISO50001:2001 implemented, | \n0% | \n2% | \n2% | \n2% | \n
Energy saving potential, | \n32% | \n18% | \n7% | \n14% | \n
Technology level (1–3 from low to high), | \n2.25 | \n2.10 | \n2.23 | \n2.15 | \n
T0: dry process/minimum lubrication, | \n20% | \n6% | \n16% | \n12% | \n
T1: control system for shutdown of machines in off-peak periods, | \n19% | \n22% | \n15% | \n17% | \n
T2: speed regulation, | \n81% | \n78% | \n61% | \n69% | \n
T3: compressed air contracting, | \n50% | \n38% | \n46% | \n41% | \n
T4: highly efficient pumps, | \n50% | \n41% | \n38% | \n37% | \n
T5: low-temperature joining processes, | \n19% | \n4% | \n11% | \n9% | \n
T6: energy retrieval, | \n13% | \n20% | \n7% | \n12% | \n
T7: bigeneration/trigeneration, | \n6% | \n12% | \n9% | \n10% | \n
T8: waste material for energy, | \n7% | \n10% | \n10% | \n10% | \n
Summary of descriptive features of the sample by relative energy efficiency in production.
As it is observable in Table 3, companies with higher relative energy efficiency have, on average, a considerably higher number of employees (236 vs. 136 and 83 in 2011) and a considerably higher average turnover in 2009 and 2011, compared with the other two relative energy efficiency groups (73 vs. 36 and 17 M€ in 2009, and 137 vs. 41 and 19 M€ in 2011). Both, the average number of employees and the average turnover, are directly proportional to the relative energy efficiency level. The same effect occurs with the average exportation intensity (more than 50% of sales abroad) being significantly higher in the case of the more efficient group than in the other two groups (48 vs. 33% and 25%, respectively). On the other hand, the average of R&D expenditures is slightly higher in the lower relative energy efficiency groups.
\nThe ‘Equally Efficient’ group has a higher percentage of firms with ISO14000 environmental management system. A very low percentage of firms have implemented ISO 50001:2001 (2%). The average relative energy saving is 7% for the group of ‘More Efficient’ firms, 18% for the ‘Equally Efficient’ group, and a 32% in the case of the ‘Less Efficient’ ones. On an average, manufacturing companies in Spain could have declared a 14% of relative potential energy saving.
\nIn relation to the implemented ESTs according to each relative energy efficiency group, we can stress that firms in ‘More Efficient’ group have a relatively lower use of T8 but a higher use of T4, compared with other industrial companies in less relative energy efficiency groups. Firms in the ‘Equally Efficient’ group have a higher percentage of use of T1 and T7 and a lower percentage for T0, T3 and T5.
\nCompanies in the ‘Less Efficient’ group have a considerably higher percentage of use of T4 and a slightly lower one for T8. Percentage of use of T4 decreases in groups with higher relative energy efficiency.
\nIn Figure 1, we can observe the use of the different analysed EST. In the first place, T2 is the most implemented EST with 69% of the companies in the sample; second comes T3 (with 41% and in the third place T4 with 37%).
\nUse of EST for all manufacturing sectors.
The rest of the ESTs are implemented by a significantly lower percentage of the firms compared with the top ranked ones.
\nFurthermore, the most used EST, that is T2, has a considerably higher percentage of use than the rest of the ESTs. This fact could be caused by a wide interpretation of the concept ‘electric motors with speed regulation’, as almost any system producing movement or rotation powered by an electric motor with a basic speed control could be included in such category. The problem is that, sometimes, this is not an option for this system that could be considered an EST, but a mere intrinsic characteristic of these particular machines.
\nAn exploration of the extent of use of each of these ESTs according to their degree of implementation, ranked from the highest to the lowest percentage for the ‘High degree’ group, is shown in Figure 2. The first effect perceived when studying the extent of use of the ESTs is the radical variation in the ranking for the group of firms that has an extensive use of ESTs and a perceptible reduction of the variance between percentages of high use.
\nDegree of implementation of EST for all manufacturing sectors.
This effect also supports the idea stressed above, regarding a possible wide interpretation of the concept of T2 that now is in seventh position for the group of companies with higher level of implementation of ESTs. Only 14% of the companies declared an intensive use of this technology of the 69% that had declared its use.
\nT0 is the first EST in the ranking of high implementation with 53% of the firms that use it, followed by T1 with 52% and T7 with 47%.
\nOnly 36% of the companies that use T8 declared an extensive use of it, representing the lowest percentage for the ‘High degree’ group.
\nA classification of the companies that have implemented ESTs by technological sector is presented in Figure 3. The ESTs are ranked in the graphic, according to percentages in the ‘High Tech’ group.
\nImplementation percentage of EST by technological sector.
Companies using T5 are mainly 57.9% of firms within the High Tech group. Moreover, 50% of the companies that have implemented T7 and T1 are the high technological ones.
\nT6 is implemented by 56.3% companies in the ‘Low Tech’ group. Only 7.1% and 10% of firms using T4 and T0, respectively, belong to the ‘Low Tech’ group, while 64% and 50% of the companies in the ‘Med Tech’ group, respectively, implemented these particular ESTs.
\nWhen the same classification is made, considering only an intensive use of the ESTs by technological levels in Figure 4, and also ordered according to the percentages in the High Tech’ group, a new ranking is established.
\nHigh implementation percentage of EST by technological sector.
About 63% and 60% of companies with an intensive use of T6 and T8, respectively, are firms within the ‘High Tech’ group. On the other hand, only 17% within this group highly implemented T5.
\nOtherwise, 71% of the companies that have an intensive use of T7 are the low technological ones. However, only 11% of firms using T0 belong to the ‘Low Tech’ group, and there is not any company in this group with a high implementation of T5.
\nT5 is implemented by 83% companies in the ‘Med Tech’ group; 56% of the intensive users of T0 also belong to this group.
\nImplementation percentage of EST by level of efficiency relative to the energy-saving potential.
Results in Figure 5 are obtained by classifying companies according to their relative energy efficiency level and ranking the percentages of the ESTs’ use from the ‘More Efficient’ group.
\nHigh implementation percentage of EST by level of efficiency relative to the energy-saving potential.
More than 50% of the companies implementing T0, T5, T3 and T8 belong to the ‘More Efficient’ group. Firms in the ‘Less Efficient’ group do not represent more than 25% of the companies using any of the analysed ESTs. These results point to a probable relation between the use of ESTs and the relative energy efficiency of a company.
\nResults in Figure 6 are obtained by analysing the same relative energy efficiency groups, considering only an intensive use of the ESTs.
\nGenerally, the average percent in the intensive use of ESTs in the ‘More Efficient’ group is higher than that when considering only their use, apart from the cases of T0, T1 and T5 that are slightly lower, but quite close. In seven of the nine ESTs studied, the percentage of companies belonging to the ‘More Efficient’ group that have highly implemented them, represents more than 50% of the firms. Only companies in this group have highly implemented T8.
\nThese facts suggest that a high implementation of the ESTs also contributes to the relative energy efficiency of manufacturing firms.
\nHowever, T6 and T1 are highly implemented at 57% and 54%, respectively, by companies in the ‘Med Tech’ group.
\nPossible relationships between use or high use of ESTs in manufacturing companies and other parameters such as technological level, size, environmental management systems implemented, export intensity, R&D expenditure and potential energy saving are presented in Table 4, by means of a correlation test.
\n\n | Number of EST implemented | \nNumber of EST highly implemented | \nTechnology level | \nFirm size log 10 (turnover) | \nFirm size log 10 (employees) | \nISO14031 implemented | \nISO50001 implemented | \nHigh export intensity (>50% of sales) | \nR&D expenditure | \nPotential energy saving | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Number of EST implemented | \nPearson correlation | \n1 | \n0.7134_1 | \n.013 | \n0.2104_1 | \n0.1574_2 | \n0.131 | \n0.1784_2 | \n0.073 | \n0.027 | \n0.098 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | 0.000 | \n0.864 | \n0.010 | \n0.044 | \n0.105 | \n0.025 | \n0.375 | \n0.728 | \n0.253 | \n|
169 | \n169 | \n169 | \n150 | \n166 | \n155 | \n158 | \n152 | \n167 | \n137 | \n||
Number of EST highly implemented | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | 1 | \n0.001 | \n0.2084_2 | \n0.14 | \n0.049 | \n0.05 | \n0.027 | \n0.099 | \n–0.001 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | 0.985 | \n0.011 | \n0.070 | \n0.541 | \n0.530 | \n0.743 | \n0.205 | \n0.987 | \n|
\n | 169 | \n169 | \n150 | \n166 | \n155 | \n158 | \n152 | \n167 | \n137 | \n||
Technology level | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | 1 | \n0.12 | \n0.1604_2 | \n0.069 | \n–0.027 | \n–0.070 | \n0.015 | \n0.019 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | 0.151 | \n0.039 | \n0.396 | \n0.740 | \n0.394 | \n0.851 | \n0.825 | \n|
\n | \n | 169 | \n150 | \n166 | \n155 | \n158 | \n152 | \n167 | \n137 | \n||
Firm size log 10 (turnover) | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | \n | 1 | \n0.6324_1 | \n0.3444_1 | \n0.14 | \n0.005 | \n0.113 | \n–0.171 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 0.000 | \n0.000 | \n0.094 | \n0.958 | \n0.170 | \n0.059 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | 150 | \n149 | \n139 | \n142 | \n138 | \n149 | \n123 | \n||
Firm size \tlog 10 (employees) | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 1 | \n0.3784_1 | \n0.05 | \n–0.047 | \n0.121 | \n–0.132 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.000 | \n0.540 | \n0.568 | \n0.124 | \n0.127 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | 166 | \n153 | \n155 | \n150 | \n164 | \n135 | \n||
ISO14031 implemented | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 1.000 | \n0.1804_2 | \n–0.061 | \n0.100 | \n–0.001 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.027 | \n0.474 | \n0.215 | \n0.994 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 155 | \n151 | \n142 | \n155 | \n127 | \n||
ISO50001 implemented | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 1 | \n–0.024 | \n–0.136 | \n–0.077 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.780 | \n0.089 | \n0.387 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 158 | \n143 | \n158 | \n128 | \n||
High export intensity (>50% of sales) | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 1 | \n0.084 | \n–0.160 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.307 | \n0.074 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 152 | \n150 | \n126 | \n||
R&D expenditure | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 1 | \n0.035 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.684 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 167 | \n135 | \n||
Potential energy saving | \nPearson correlation | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 1 | \n
Sig. (two-tailed) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | |
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 137 | \n
Correlation matrix between environmental management systems use, export intensity, R&D expenditure, potential energy saving and the use and high use of EST.
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).
We can find different author criteria for the determination of the strength of relationships from the value of Pearson’s correlation coefficient (
The quantity of EST implemented in a company results in having a positive relationship with the firm size, in terms of turnover as well as number of employees, and with ISO50001:2001 implementation. This relationship is more significant (at 0.01 level; two-tailed) with respect to the company’s turnover.
\nWhen the extent of use of these ESTs is considered, only a significant relation with its turnover remains at a medium level of strength.
\nFirms’ technology level in our sample has only a light significant relationship with companies’ size in terms of number of employees.
\nFirms’ size, both in terms of turnover and in terms of number of employees, is also interrelated in a medium level of significance.
\nWith regard to the environmental management systems, in the case of ISO14000 implementation, a medium level of strength relationship appears with the company size, both in terms of turnover and number of employees.
\nFor the case of ISO50001:2001, there are small strength relationships with ISO14000 implementation and also with EST use.
\nHigh export intensity in companies and the existence of R&D expenditures are not linked with any other studied firms’ characteristics according to this test.
\nFurthermore, and directly related to the main objectives of this study, no significant relationships are revealed between the relative potential energy saving and any other variable in the correlation, especially with the use and high use of ESTs.
\nIn a previous study [12], a relationship was determined between the use, and mainly a high implementation level, of ESTs and energy efficiency in manufacturing firms.
\nFor that reason, an additional Chi-square test is presented in Table 5. In this table, a crosstab is shown between the number of ESTs highly implemented in a firm and the relative potential energy saving, scaled according to the three energy efficiency groups: ‘More Efficient’ (value = 3), ’Equal Efficient’ (value = 2) and ‘Less Efficient’ (value = 3). This test can be done between two categorical variables as is the case, and it allows the exploring of their possible relationship.
\nCrosstab | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | Relative potential energy saving (scaled in three groups) | \n\n | ||||
1 (Less efficient) | \n2 (Equal efficient) | \n3 (More efficient) | \nTotal | \n|||
Sum high use EST | \n0 | \nCount | \n7 | \n29 | \n33 | \n69 | \n
Expected count | \n8.1 | \n25.2 | \n35.8 | \n69.0 | \n||
% within sum high use EST | \n10.1 | \n42.0 | \n47.8 | \n100.0 | \n||
% within potential saving scale | \n43.8 | \n58.0 | \n46.5 | \n50.4 | \n||
% of total | \n5.1 | \n21.2 | \n24.1 | \n50.4 | \n||
1 | \nCount | \n2 | \n14 | \n15 | \n31 | \n|
Expected count | \n3.6 | \n11.3 | \n16.1 | \n31.0 | \n||
% within sum high T0 | \n6.5 | \n45.2 | \n48.4 | \n100.0 | \n||
% within potential saving scale | \n12.5 | \n28.0 | \n21.1 | \n22.6 | \n||
% of total | \n1.5 | \n10.2 | \n10.9 | \n22.6 | \n||
2 | \nCount | \n5 | \n2 | \n14 | \n21 | \n|
Expected count | \n2.5 | \n7.7 | \n10.9 | \n21.0 | \n||
% within sum high use EST | \n23.8 | \n9.5 | \n66.7 | \n100.0 | \n||
% within potential saving scale | \n31.3 | \n4.0 | \n19.7 | \n15.3 | \n||
% of total | \n3.6 | \n1.5 | \n10.2 | \n15.3 | \n||
3 | \nCount | \n0 | \n2 | \n7 | \n9 | \n|
Expected count | \n1.1 | \n3.3 | \n4.7 | \n9.0 | \n||
% within sum high use EST | \n0.0 | \n22.2 | \n77.8 | \n100.0 | \n||
% within potential saving scale | \n0.0% | \n4.0% | \n9.9% | \n6.6% | \n||
% of total | \n0.0 | \n1.5 | \n5.1 | \n6.6 | \n||
4 | \nCount | \n2 | \n1 | \n0 | \n3 | \n|
Expected count | \n0.4 | \n1.1 | \n1.6 | \n3.0 | \n||
% within sum high use EST | \n66.7 | \n33.3 | \n0.0 | \n100.0 | \n||
% within potential saving scale | \n12.5 | \n2.0 | \n0.0 | \n2.2 | \n||
% of total | \n1.5 | \n0.7 | \n0.0 | \n2.2 | \n||
5 | \nCount | \n0 | \n2 | \n2 | \n4 | \n|
Expected count | \n0.5 | \n1.5 | \n2.1 | \n4.0 | \n||
% within sum high use EST | \n0.0 | \n50.0 | \n50.0 | \n100.0 | \n||
% within potential saving scale | \n0.0 | \n4.0 | \n2.8 | \n2.9 | \n||
% of total | \n0.0 | \n1.5 | \n1.5 | \n2.9 | \n||
Total | \nCount | \n16 | \n50 | \n71 | \n137 | \n|
Expected count | \n16.0 | \n50.0 | \n71.0 | \n137.0 | \n||
% within sum high use EST | \n11.7 | \n36.5 | \n51.8 | \n100.0 | \n||
% within potential saving scale | \n100.0 | \n100.0 | \n100.0 | \n100.0 | \n||
% of total | \n11.7 | \n36.5 | \n51.8 | \n100.0 | \n
Chi-square tests | \n|||
---|---|---|---|
\n | Value | \ndf | \nAsymp. sig. (two-sided) | \n
Pearson Chi-square | \n22.8125_1 | \n10 | \n0.011 | \n
Likelihood ratio | \n22.850 | \n10 | \n0.011 | \n
Linear-by-linear association | \n0.010 | \n1 | \n0.921 | \n
137 | \n\n | \n |
Chi-square test crosstab between the number of highly used ESTs and the relative energy-efficiency group.
11 cells (61.1%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.35.
However, despite this, there exists a low significance in the relationship between these variables, as the Pearson Chi-square is 0.011 < 0.05, and the assumption required for this test concerning the minimum expected cell frequency of 5 or more in the 80% of the cases is not respected.
\nIn the increasingly competitive and changing world, the use of EST has emerged as a strategic imperative for most companies, especially for the manufacturing firms, due to the progressively stricter legislation. Therefore, it is important to have an overall awareness of the current use of those technologies in order to establish future policies for encouraging a higher adoption.
\nIn order to map the current situation of the degree of use of these ESTs in the manufacturing sector, this chapter provides evidences based on data from the 2012 European Manufacturing Survey edition. The case of the Spanish survey is specifically exceptional, since it is a national survey that includes the highest number of ESTs. In total, nine ESTs are included in the analysis. Moreover, the technology intensity variable and the self-elaborated parameter energy efficiency degree are also included in order to contrast their role in the energy-saving performance of the adopters. Finally, some control variables (number of employees, turnover in 2008 and 2011, firm R&D expenditures, high exportation intensity and implementation of environmental management systems such as ISO 14000 and ISO50001:2001) are also included. According to the results, five main conclusions can be formulated.
\nA general observation on the use of EST shows that their adoption in manufacturing firms is still relatively low. Except for the case of speed regulation (T2, 69.1%), possibly due to a wide interpretation of the term, the technology with the highest percentage of adoption is compressed air contracting (T3, 41%). However, it is interesting to point out how these results vary according to the degree of implantation. Dry process/minimum lubrication (T0) and control system for the shutdown of machines in off-peak periods (T1) are the technologies with the highest degree of implementation, both over 50%.
\nSecond, it has been observed that the more relative energy-efficient companies are, on average, characterised as relatively bigger, both in terms of turnover and number of employees, than the equal and less efficient ones. This group of companies also has a higher average of export intensity (more than 50% of sales abroad). However, R&D expenditures are, on average, higher in the less relative energy-efficient group of firms, and the equal relative energy-efficient group is the one with a higher percentage of environmental management systems implemented.
\nThird, according to the technology intensity, six out of nine ESTs are implemented higher in low and medium–low technology sectors. Only the control system for shutdown of machines in off-peak periods (T1, 23%), compressed air contracting (T3, 44%) and energy retrieval (T6, 18%) are implemented higher in the group of high technology firms.
\nFourth, the results are more significant when the degree of adoption is contrasted with the energy efficiency of the firm, since none of the ESTs are mostly adopted by firms that declare being more efficient than the other firms of the sector. Five ESTs are mostly implemented in less efficient group and four in the equally efficient group.
\nFifth, in analysing ESTs, we focused on manufacturing firms that showed high implementation of these technologies. We have analysed these technologies according to their use in different technology-intensive sectors and based on the energy efficiency of the firms. We found that the analysed ESTs are predominately highly implemented in low and medium–low technology groups, except for two technologies, namely, waste material for energy (T8) and energy retrieval (T6). However, we could discard the significance of these ESTs, since the number of adopters is very low. Therefore, we could conclude that most of the highest implemented ESTs are more usual in sectors of low technology, confirming the same conclusion obtained when we generalised for all degrees of implementation. On the other hand, in seven out of nine ESTs studied, a high implementation of these ESTs occurs in the majority of the cases inside the more efficient group of companies. This fact could suggest a possible positive relationship between the high use of ESTs and firms’ energy efficiency. However, this potential relationship has not been demonstrated for this sample with the Pearson correlation and Chi-square analysis.
\nOur research has two main limitations: the statistical analysis applied and the geographical scope of the sample. The first is that only descriptive statistics and correlation tests were used to map the characteristics of EST and their adopters. Therefore, the next step is to use several advanced statistical methods to draw further conclusions. Related to the narrow geographical coverage, the option to focus our analysis on the Spanish survey is explained by the fact of having higher number of technologies. Practical and academic implications of having detailed, single and high number of ESTs convert into a strong argument towards a shared list of such ESTs, which remains further explorable in forthcoming EMS rounds.
\nIn conclusion, this study contributes to disclose to practitioners that Spanish manufacturing companies are recognised to have, on an average, 14% of relative energy-saving potential. It has also been illustrated which ones of these ESTs are the most implemented for each firm typology, in terms of use and extent of use. Moreover, firms have been characterised according to the relative energy efficiency groups to facilitate policy makers to take the right decisions, oriented to improve the energy efficiency in these sectors. Some clues have been pointed at for further researches in order to explore the possible relationships between energy efficiency and the implementation of ESTs, using more powerful statistical tools.
\nThe authors are grateful for the financial support from the University of Girona (Spain) MPCUdG2016/093.
\nThe human body cells need the energy to maintain their functions. This energy is mainly provided by sugar, carbohydrates and fat. To utilize these nutritive substances and to produce energy in return, inspired oxygen (O2) from the air is needed. In the mitochondrial electron transport chain, O2 is the final electron acceptor to generate ATP within the eukaryotic cells [1]. Whilst O2 is needed for most life on earth, most of the earth’s atmosphere does not contain a lot of O2. From the surface of the planet, up to the border of space, the atmosphere contains a constant fraction of around 21% O2 (often expressed as the FiO2 of around 0.21), 78% of nitrogen, 0.9% argon and 0.1% of other gases like carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, etc. At sea level, the partial pressure of the above-mentioned gases can be estimated to be 593 mmHg for nitrogen, 160 mmHg for oxygen and 7.6 mmHg for argon. Indeed, the weight of air is responsible for atmospheric pressure.
It’s well known that increasing altitude leads to quasi-exponential reductions in barometric pressure (PB). At the summit of Mt. Everest (8848 m), the PB is about one-third of the sea-level values. The reduced atmospheric pressure has therefore a direct influence on the partial pressure of inspired oxygen, which can be seen in Figure 1.
Relationship between barometric pressure (PB), partial pressure of inspired oxygen (PiO2) and altitude. PB and PiO2 decrease exponentially with increasing altitude at a constant FiO2 of 21%. The solid line represents PB and the broken line represents PiO2.
The inspired partial pressure of oxygen (PiO2) is lower than atmospheric oxygen partial pressure because water vapor is in the airways. The pressure of water vapor (PH2O), which is not dependent on atmospheric pressure but temperature, should be taken into account when PiO2 is calculated [2]. The inhaled air gases will get humified and warmed by the airways and as a result, the PH2O will adjust the partial pressure of all inhaled gases, including O2.
Accordingly, the product of PiO2 can be calculated using Eq. (1):
Since PB is known to be approximately 760 mmHg at sea level, PH2O is normally about 47 mmHg and O2 makes up to 20.93% (FiO2 of 0.2093), PiO2 is equal to 0.20932 multiplied by 713 mmHg.
Consequently, hypoxia is defined as a combination of PB and the FiO2 that results in any PiO2 under a normoxic value of 150 mmHg [3]. However, the duration of hypoxic exposures as well as the magnitude of PB reductions has a significant impact on the (patho-)physiological response. Examples of fast-changing normoxic to hypoxic environments are fast ascended on the mountain summits during mountaineering, military and rescue services and travels with fast transportation to altitude. Acute mountain sickness is well-known to occur due to extensive and fast decreases in Pb, normally beginning at an altitude of above 2500 m. The Lake Louis Consensus Group defined acute mountain sickness as the presence of headache in an unacclimatised person (recently arriving at an altitude above 2500 m), plus the presence of one or more of the following symptoms: gastrointestinal symptoms, fatigue and/or weakness, dizziness or a positive clinical functional score, resulting in a total score of ≥3 [4]. If not treated correctly, people with acute mountain sickness can develop high-altitude pulmonary oedema or high-altitude cerebral oedema [5]. However, if the human body is gradually exposed to hypoxic conditions, it can acclimatize and adapt.
The following chapters will focus on the main types of hypoxia, the physiological consequences of acute hypoxia and the clinical consequences of the current chapter.
Insufficient O2 supply to the human tissues can have various reasons and can lead to severely impaired body functions. There are four main types of hypoxia, which can be classified as hypoxaemic hypoxia, anemic hypoxia, stagnant hypoxia and histotoxic hypoxia.
One of the most common types of hypoxia is called generalized or hypoxic hypoxia, which is generated from the actual (natural/simulated) environment and inside the lungs. This type is caused by a reduction of the partial pressure of alveolar O2 (PAO2) [6]. This value is well known and a great help to calculate the partial pressure of oxygen inside the alveoli (as it is not possible to collect gases directly from the alveoli), which can be used for potential cell diffusion [7]. The alveolar gas equation uses three variables to calculate the alveolar concentration of oxygen, which can be seen in Eq. (2):
where PaCO2 is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide which is under normal physiological conditions approximately 40 mmHg. RQ is the respiratory quotient which is, the ratio of the volume of produced CO2 divided by the volume of consumed O2 during the same time [8]. Dependent on metabolic activity and diet, RQ is considered to be around 0.825 [9], within a physiological range between 0.70 and 1.00. Consequently, PAO2 at sea level is: 0.2093 × (760–47) – 40/0.825 = 100.7 mmHg. PAO2 is the main driving factor for alveolar diffusion and thus O2 supply on a cellular level.
Hypoxic hypoxia can be observed typically when FiO2 is low, during hypoventilation of the lungs or at the presence of pathological airway conditions. Low FiO2 levels can occur due to failure of gas delivery systems, inadequate supply from altitude simulating machines, or e.g., exorbitant inhalation of nitrous oxide during anesthesia [10]. Hypoventilation can occur due to insufficient respiratory rate, obstruction of airways, skeletal deformities, respiratory muscle paralysis, etc. Severe lung diseases (e.g., pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary embolism) can also lead to alveolar-capillary diffusion blockade [11]. Hypoxic hypoxia affects the entire body. Typical symptoms are agitation and anxiety while low blood O2 goes along with increased heart rate, dyspnea and bluish color of the skin.
Anemic hypoxia is caused by reduced oxygen transport capacity in the blood [12]. The red blood cells (erythrocytes) are responsible for the transport of O2 through the body [13]. Around 90% of the erythrocyte is made up of haemoglobin, the iron-containing protein that binds O2 on its heme. Although, the arterial oxygen tension is normal at this type, reduced erythrocytes/haemoglobin or functional insufficiency of haemoglobin leads to impaired oxygen delivery to the tissues [14].
A deficiency in the number of erythrocytes can result, for example, from excessive blood loss after trauma. Other forms of the reduced number of erythrocytes can be present in case of abnormal red blood cell breakdown (haemolytic anemia) [15]. Increased haemolysis can be observed during hereditary spherocytosis, sickle cell disease or autoimmune diseases (e.g., aplastic anemia) [16].
Deficiencies of different factors can also lead to severe anemia. Iron is the main component of haemoglobin, giving the blood the red color and is the prime carrier of oxygen. During the physiological haemolysis, iron will be bound to the glycoprotein transferrin for transportation to the bone marrow, where it will be reused for haemoglobin synthesis. This process helps to limit an extensive loss of iron from the body. However, iron deficiency is one of the main causes of anemia, called microcytic hypochromic anemia [6]. This type of anemia can be caused by any factor which reduces the body’s iron storage, leading to small erythrocytes with reduced haemoglobin mass [17]. In contrast, deficiencies in vitamin B12 or folic acid can cause anemia due to abnormally enlarged erythrocytes and their immature precursors, called macrocytic hyperchromic anemia [18].
Functional insufficiency of haemoglobin is associated with reduced oxygen binding capacity. An example is an intoxication through excessive carbon monoxide inhalation. Compared to oxygen, carbon monoxide has a 200–300 times higher affinity to haemoglobin. After inhalation, carbon monoxide reaches the respiratory gas exchange zone and binds on haemoglobin [10]. This chemical binding process leads to the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin. Consequently, oxygen-carrying capacity is decreased which will lead to reduced oxygen transportation to the tissues and as a consequence tissue hypoxia [19]. Another possibility of functional insufficiency for the transportation of oxygen is methaemoglobinemia. Haemoglobin changes to methaemoglobin, when bivalent iron (Fe2+) is oxidized to Fe3+, which is worthless for oxygen transport [20]. Under normal circumstances, methaemoglobin reductase limits the build-up of methaemoglobin through the reduction of haemoglobin oxidation [21]. Patients with a deficiency of methaemoglobin reductase, strong oxidative stress (e.g., smoking) and medication can therefor experience very low concentrations of tissue oxygenation, demonstrating comparable symptoms as seen in hypoxic hypoxia. However, it must be mentioned, that the unfavorable conditions of low tissue O2 can be compensated better during hypoxic hypoxia than during anemic hypoxia.
Stagnant, also called ischemic or circulatory hypoxia takes place as a cause of insufficient blood supply to the tissues while the blood is normally oxygenated. Ischemic hypoxia can be observed on a central and local level [6].
Central circulatory hypoxia can often be observed in patients with cardiac manifestations. If the left ventricular output is for example decreased, blood flow to the organs is impaired [12]. This can also happen during shock or, at a local level after strong vasoconstriction (e.g., cold exposures) or venous stagnation of blood [22]. Oxygen can only be stored to the very limited amount within the human cells. Even myoglobin, binding O2 on its heme protein, has a very limited oxygen storage capacity [23]. Consequently, myoglobin is more involved in transportation than the storage of oxygen. Oxygen saturated myoglobin enables facilitated intercellular O2 transportation, because the oxygen-enriched myoglobin molecules can “move” within the cells (facilitated diffusion) which is extremely important at a low partial pressure of O2 (PO2) [24]. Although, the gas exchange rate on the alveolar level, the concentration of haemoglobin, oxygen content and tension are on a normal level, O2 extraction at the level of the capillaries will be increased [6]. This process will directly elevate the arteriovenous difference of blood O2 content leading to venous hypoxia. However, as the increased oxygen extraction is normally insufficient to supply the tissue with an adequate amount of O2, this process will lead to impaired cellular oxygen coverage and impaired functioning.
Histotoxic hypoxia or dysoxia is a state, where cells are unable to utilize oxygen effectively [12]. This is the case, when the mitochondrial terminal oxidation is disturbed while there is sufficient oxygen available in the blood. Dysoxia will therefore lead to a pathological reduction in ATP production by the mitochondria and is not preceded by hypoxaemia [6].
An example of histotoxic hypoxia is the intoxication with cyanides, which can occur from fire sources. Intravenous and inhalation of cyanide produce a more rapid onset of hypoxia than the oral or transdermal route due to the fast diffusion into the bloodstream [25]. The main effect of cyanide intoxication is related to the inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation, where oxygen is utilized for ATP production. Cyanide can reversibly bind to the enzyme cytochrome C oxidase, blocking the mitochondrial transport chain. This will cause cellular hypoxia and, as mentioned above, pathological low levels of ATP, causing metabolic acidosis and impairment of vital functions [26, 27].
Rapid ascends from sea level to altitude and sudden exposure to a hypoxic environment will immediately lead to acute physiological responses to adapt to the acute hypoxaemic situation [28]. The degree of acute hypoxic stress about time can lead to symptoms ranging from dizziness, feeling of unreality and dim visions to rapid unconsciousness [29]. Sudden exposure to the summit of Mt. Everest will for example lead to unconsciousness within 2 min. However, when the same amount of hypoxaemia is experienced over several days to weeks, one could function relatively well under these conditions. This adjustment is called acclimatization which is a complex process over time and shows great variability within individuals [29]. In the following chapters, the acute response to sudden exposure to a hypoxic environment is discussed.
The respiratory system will directly respond to the low oxygen availability in the air and is often seen as the primary defense against the hypoxic environment. Chemosensory systems will rapidly lead to increased pulmonary ventilation because of compromised O2 availability [30]. These regulatory responses can be attributed due to specialized chemoreceptors such as the carotid bodies in the arterial circulation and neuroepithelial bodies in the respiratory tract as well as the direct response of vascular smooth muscles to hypoxia [31].
Whilst hypoxia acts as a vasodilator in the systemic circulation, it has been observed, that the vessels of the pulmonary vasculature constrict under hypoxia, leading to pulmonary hypertension [32, 33]. Hypoxic vasoconstriction is intrinsic to the pulmonary vasculature smooth muscle cells and is initiated by the inhibition of K+ channels which set the membrane potential [34]. This process will lead to depolarization, activation of Ca2+ channels as a result of the electrical impulse and, as a consequence, an increase in cytosolic calcium levels and therefore constriction of the myocytes [31]. Pulmonary hypertension might help to match ventilation and perfusion within the lungs. However, pulmonary hypertension can also lead to severe pathological situations (e.g., altitude-related right heart failure).
Carotid bodies, sensitive to monitoring a drop in arterial O2 levels, and neuroepithelial bodies, detecting changes in inspired O2, respond immediately to decreased O2 supply [35]. Both respond by activating efferent chemosensory fibers to produce cardiorespiratory adjustments during hypoxic exposures [36, 37]. When low arterial PO2 is detected, the carotid body signals the central respiratory center to increase the (minute) ventilation. The increased ventilation of the respiratory tract can be primarily associated with an elevated tidal volume and an even greater elevation in respiratory rate [38]. This hypoxic ventilatory response counteracts the hypoxic environment by decreasing PACO2, increasing PAO2 and therefore improving oxygen delivery. Genetical determinants, as well as various external factors (metabolic and respiratory stimulants), lead to wide inter-individual variety of ventilatory response intensity [39]. The increased ventilatory response demonstrates that adaptive processes are taking place and a “good” ventilatory response is known to enhance acclimatization and performance and that a very low response may contribute to the formation of illness [39, 40]. However, hyperventilation will subsequently lead to hypocapnia (increased pH) known as respiratory alkalosis by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the alveoli [41]. This condition will cause the oxygen dissociation curve to shift to the left and to further keep respiratory ventilation high. However, hypocapnia will also counteract the central respiratory center activation and thus limit further ventilatory increases [40, 42]. On the other hand, to reduce respiratory alkalosis, more bicarbonate will be produced from the kidneys to decrease the pH toward normal levels. This means that pulmonary ventilation is driven by low arterial PO2 and limited due to hypocapnia-induced alkalosis at the same time. This becomes clear when looking into Eq. (3), defining the alveolar ventilation as follows:
VA is the alveolar ventilation, 0.863 is a constant, VCO2 is the CO2 output and PACO2 is the alveolar CO2. The ability to maintain oxygen homeostasis is essential and the physiological systems compete against each other to provide enough tissue O2 but also to maintain pH-homeostasis.
To compensate for tissue hypoxaemia, the cardiovascular system must respond to maintain body functions. This is accomplished by increasing cardiac output, which is the product of stroke volume and heart rate [43]. Consequently, an increase in one of these variables will also lead to an increased volumetric flow rate. Upon ascent to hypoxic environments, the sympathetic nervous system activation leads to an initial increase in heart rate, cardiac output and blood pressure via the release of stress hormones [40, 44]. Stroke volume remains low in the first hours which is a consequence of reduced blood plasma volume because of bicarbonate diuresis. This occurs as a result of the fluid shift from the intravascular space and the suppression of aldosterone [40]. Interestingly, the sympathetic nervous system activation remains increased even if one is well acclimatized to altitude [45]. In contrast to sympathetic activation, cardiac output decrease once a certain level of hypoxia is reached after several days [46]. After a few days, e.g., muscle tissue adapts and extracts more O2 from the circulating blood by increasing the arterial–venous oxygen difference. This reduces the demand for higher cardiac output. Reductions in stroke volume can be attributed due to decreased plasma volume as well as the above-mentioned increased pulmonary vascular resistance. From the systemic circulation perspective, the endothelial autocoids nitric oxide and prostaglandins have received more attention as they are potentially mediating hypoxic vasodilation in the vessels [47]. Hypoxic-induced vasodilation will therefor quickly increase the blood flow to O2-deprived tissues. Low PaO2 levels will increase Ca2+ concentration inside the endothelial wall which might lead to increased synthetization of vasodilating endothelial factors [48]. The smooth muscle cells of the blood vessels also have K+ ATP-channels, that are activated once the ATP/ADP quotient drops due to hypoxia. As a result of the increased conductivity of K+, the cell membrane is hyperpolarized, followed by relaxation of the vascular muscle cells and vasodilation. This is especially well evoked in coronary and vertebral vessels [49].
PAO2 is, as mentioned earlier, at sea level around 100 mmHg and will decrease at altitude. At sea level, around 96% of haemoglobin is bound to O2 which can be seen in Figure 2. The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve plays a crucial role in O2 transport and demonstrates the interaction between the oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin and changes in partial pressure of oxygen [50]. When PAO2 drops to 50 mmHg at altitude, only about 80% of haemoglobin sites are bound to O2. The sigmoidal shape of the curve minimizes an abrupt decline in oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Another crucial adaptive process is, that the dissociation curve will shift to the left [51]. This is mediated by respiratory alkalosis and therefore rise in blood pH. This left shift causes that at a PAO2 of 50 mmHg, instead of 80%, around 90% of haemoglobin is bound to O2. As a result, more oxygen is bound on haemoglobin and more oxygen can be unloaded to the tissues [52].
S-shaped oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve at sea level (solid black line). The curve is shifted left due to respiratory alkalosis under acute hypoxic exposure (broken gray line).
The brain consumes around 20% of the available oxygen at rest and is very sensitive to insufficient O2 supply [53]. The ability to process large amounts of oxygen (over a relatively small tissue mass) is necessary to support the high rate of ATP production to maintain an electrically active for the continual transmission of neuronal signals [54]. From this perspective, it is clear that hypoxia can have negative effects on cognitive function [55]. From the literature, it is well known that various factors have an important influence on cognitive impairment during hypoxia, in case they occur. These include the grade of hypoxia (e.g. altitude height), ambient temperatures, performing exercise tasks, individual physiological responses and the influence of PB [56].
One of the most sensitive regions of the central nervous system is the cerebral cortex. However, acute exposure to extreme hypoxia can also cause changes within wide regions of the brain. Subtle changes in the white and gray matter were already observed during ascending Mt. Everest and K2, reducing movement control and planning [57]. Motor speed and precision are also negatively affected in altitude compared to sea level performance [58, 59]. The complexity of central execution tasks seems to play an important role when cognitive impairment is evaluated. Cognitive impairment seems to be more prominent when complex tasks must be solved rather than simple tasks [60, 61]. Indeed, altitude accidents that occur under hypoxia might be more related to poor judgment of complex situations as a consequence of hypoxic depression of cerebral function. However, also small mistakes or even small increases in reaction time [62] can also have fatal consequences.
However, the underlying mechanisms, why cognitive performance can be impaired during hypoxia are not fully understood [61]. Cerebral circulation, which is the product of arterial oxygen content and cerebral blood flow, is dependent on the net balance between hypoxic vasodilation and hypocapnia-induced vasoconstriction. It is well documented, that cerebral blood flow is increased under acute hypoxia to maintain cerebral O2-supply [54]. Cerebral blood flow increases, despite the hypocapnia, when arterial PO2 is less than 60 mmHg (altitude greater than 2800 m). Although, interindividual varieties in cerebral blood are linked to individual variations in the ventilatory response to hypoxia [63], cerebral oxygen delivery and global cerebral metabolism are well maintained under moderate hypoxia. If cerebral oxygen consumption is constant, the question arises of what causes the cognitive impairment at altitude. Cognitive changes might be related to specific neurotransmitters that are affected by mild hypoxia (e.g., serotonin, dopamine). Furthermore, alterations in blood flow and sensory displeasure, hyperhomocysteinemia and potential neuronal damage, and a decrease in catecholamine availability combined with psychological factors appear to play a key role for reduction in cognitive function during hypoxia [61]. In case cerebral tissue oxygenation is not maintained, brain injury will occur with fatal consequences [35]. Compensatory hyperventilation, tachycardia and increased cerebral blood flow can partially maintain cerebral oxygen delivery, however, if these mechanisms work inadequately, the brain will be the first organ to be compromised.
This chapter aimed to give an overview of the main hypoxia types and the main physiological consequences. Hypoxia can occur due to occupational responsibilities, recreationally but also under pathological conditions. Ascend to altitude or exposure to environments that lower the PiO2 will have direct consequences to the entire body systems, however various modulators such as PB, the severity of hypoxia, interindividual variability, health condition and others determine the physiological consequences and adaption processes. Exposing the body specifically to hypoxic environments can be used as a therapeutic tool, to increase sports performance or to achieve other goals [64]. However, it is important to precisely understand the different types of hypoxia and what consequences they have on the human body. Clinical manifestations of hypoxia underly inter-individual variations of cardiorespiratory and other physiological responses as well as the origin of hypoxia. In general, there are two major causes of hypoxia at the tissue level which are reduced blood flow to the tissues or reduced O2 content in the blood itself [65, 66]. As a result, four main types of hypoxia arise. First, hypoxaemic hypoxia, where the O2 transport to or through the alveoli is impaired [6]. Second, anemic hypoxia where the oxygen-carrying capacity is reduced due to e.g., severe blood loss, iron and folate deficiency, haemoglobin pathologies or functional insufficiency to carry O2 [10, 12, 14]. Third, stagnant hypoxia where the transport of O2 to the tissue is impaired while the blood may be sufficiently oxygenated [6]. Finally, histotoxic hypoxia exists, where the O2 is delivered to the tissues but they are unable to utilize oxygen effectively [12].
It is important to understand, how these types influence oxygen delivery to the tissues. The product of O2 content and blood flow is considered to reflect the oxygen delivery for the whole body (or to the individual organ system). As oxygen content is the sum of dissolved oxygen and that bound to haemoglobin, total oxygen delivery can be calculated according to Eq. (4):
DO2 is the O2 delivery (ml min−1); PaO2 is the partial pressure of oxygen (kPa); SaO2 is the arterial oxygen saturation in percentage; Hb is the haemoglobin content (g dl−1); 0.023 is the solubility of oxygen (in ml dl−1 kPa−1); 1.34 is Hüfner’s constant, the oxygen-carrying capacity of saturated haemoglobin (ml g−1); and blood flow (i.e., cardiac output) in dl min−1 [67]. From this equation, it can be seen that hypoxaemic hypoxia (via reduced PaO2 and SaO2), stagnant hypoxia (via reduced blood flow) and anemic hypoxia (via reduced haemoglobin content) may cause tissue hypoxia, as these three types reduce oxygen delivery. In contrast, there is no oxygen delivery deficiency in histotoxic hypoxia but rather an impairment of the tissue to use O2 [35]. Reduced oxygen tension, hypoventilation, ventilation-perfusion mismatch, right to left shunt and impaired diffusion of oxygen can all lead to hypoxia in the body [12].
The primary measurement to evaluate the hypoxic disease state is the analysis of arterial blood gas. Using this measurement, important parameters such as partial pressure of oxygen, partial pressure of carbon dioxide, acidity (pH), oxyhaemoglobin saturation and bicarbonate concentration in arterial blood can be assessed [68]. Management and treatment of persons under hypoxia should be started as soon as the evaluation has been successfully finished, and follows three categories: maintaining patent airways, increasing the oxygen content of the inspired air and improving the diffusion capacity [69, 70, 71]. Without adequate adaption processes and management, an imbalance between oxygen demand and oxygen delivery will occur leading to impaired homeostasis within the body. Therefore, healthcare practitioners (e.g., physiotherapists, sports scientists, exercise physiologists and others) should be able to understand the causes, types and consequences of hypoxia.
In this chapter, an overview is presented on the main types of hypoxia and the physiological consequences of the main systems. Hypoxaemic, anemic, stagnant and histotoxic hypoxia originate from different etiologies. Hypoxia to the tissues can be caused by any obstacle in the oxygen cascade, beginning from the O2 molecule in the atmosphere, until being the final electron acceptor within the mitochondria to generate ATP. However, the adult compensatory mechanisms to counteract the acute hypoxic state are mainly based on our ability to hyperventilate, adequately adapt the cardiovascular response and to increase oxygen uptake to provide enough tissue O2. This chapter might contribute to improving the understanding of the different types of hypoxia and to understand the physiological responses.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
",metaTitle:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaDescription:"Retraction and Correction Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/retraction-and-correction-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\\n\\n1. RETRACTIONS
\\n\\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\\n\\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\\n\\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\\n\\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\\n\\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\\n\\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\\n\\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\\n\\n3. CORRECTIONS
\\n\\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\\n\\n3.1. ERRATUM
\\n\\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\\n\\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\\n\\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\\n\\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\\n\\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\\n\\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen’s Retraction and Correction Policy has been developed in accordance with the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) publication guidelines relating to scientific misconduct and research ethics:
\n\n1. RETRACTIONS
\n\nA Retraction of a Chapter will be issued by the Academic Editor, either following an Author’s request to do so or when there is a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct. Upon receipt of a report by a 3rd party, the Academic Editor will investigate any allegations of scientific misconduct, working in cooperation with the Author(s) and their institution(s).
\n\nA formal Retraction will be issued when there is clear and conclusive evidence of any of the following:
\n\nPublishing of a Retraction Notice will adhere to the following guidelines:
\n\n1.2. REMOVALS AND CANCELLATIONS
\n\n2. STATEMENTS OF CONCERN
\n\nA Statement of Concern detailing alleged misconduct will be issued by the Academic Editor or publisher following a 3rd party report of scientific misconduct when:
\n\nIntechOpen believes that the number of occasions on which a Statement of Concern is issued will be very few in number. In all cases when such a decision has been taken by the Academic Editor the decision will be reviewed by another editor to whom the author can make representations.
\n\n3. CORRECTIONS
\n\nA Correction will be issued by the Academic Editor when:
\n\n3.1. ERRATUM
\n\nAn Erratum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter originates from the production process handled by the publisher.
\n\nA published Erratum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n3.2. CORRIGENDUM
\n\nA Corrigendum will be issued by the Academic Editor when it is determined that a mistake in a Chapter is a result of an Author’s miscalculation or oversight. A published Corrigendum will adhere to the Retraction Notice publishing guidelines outlined above.
\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\n\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
\n\nThe general principles set out above apply to Retractions and Corrections issued in all IntechOpen publications.
\n\nAny suggestions or comments on this Policy are welcome and may be sent to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-09-11
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"