Advantages and limitations for four oxygenated additives.
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-468-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-467-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-469-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",keywords:"Protein-Ligand Interaction, Lead Discovery, Molecular Recognition, Enzyme-Ligand Interaction, Mutant Enzymes, Alanine Screening, Proteasome Inhibitors, Signal Transducers, Transcription Activators (STATs), DNA Recognition Motifs, Neoplastic Cells, Amyloid-Beta Proteins",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A multidisciplinary researcher working in the fields of cytogenetics, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics-based molecular modeling (currently on the structural biology of COVID-19 and the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease). Dr. Istifli previously joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany where he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",middleName:null,surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179007/images/system/179007.JPG",biography:"Dr. Erman Salih İstifli received his Ph.D. from Biology Department of Cukurova University, Insitute of Science and Letter. In his doctoral study, Dr. İstifli focused on the elucidation of the genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of a commonly used anticancer agent (antifolate) on human lymphocytes. During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8068",title:"Cytotoxicity",subtitle:"Definition, Identification, and Cytotoxic Compounds",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20a09223d92829b5478b5f241f6a03ce",slug:"cytotoxicity-definition-identification-and-cytotoxic-compounds",bookSignature:"Erman Salih Istifli and Hasan Basri Ila",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8068.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6969",title:"Lymphocytes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1aa8ac01c934ebdeedd5d7813036beef",slug:"lymphocytes",bookSignature:"Erman Salih Istifli and Hasan Basri İla",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179007",title:"Dr.",name:"Erman Salih",surname:"Istifli",slug:"erman-salih-istifli",fullName:"Erman Salih Istifli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Of the alternative biofuels, the most widely investigated include biodiesel and ethanol [3–5]. These two fuels have clear emission advantages over diesel. However, some studies have raised the concern of “food versus fuel” arising from plant-based biodiesel and ethanol, which might be the main hurdle for commercialization [6]. In fact, the economic consequences of these biofuel expansions are mixed and there are still some issues that will influence the actual impacts on food costs that have not been accounted for. To counter the “food, energy, and environment trilemma”, the development of these biofuels from nonfood sources (i.e., biodiesel from waste cooking oil, ethanol from cellulosic nonfood crops, etc.) can show great promise in reducing food commodities being utilized for biofuel production [7].
\nFocus of many previous researches was placed on diesel-biodiesel blends on general diesel engine performance and emissions as the fundamental investigation due to the interest of biodiesel being low cost, less polluting, renewable nature, and high energy density against diesel [8]. The dominant trend could be found in most research cases [9–13] that diesel-biodiesel blends would decrease the full-load effective power, increase brake-specific fuel consumption, and maintain thermal efficiency. As for vehicular emissions, partial regulated air parameters (viz., smoke density, particulate mass concentration, CO, and aromatic hydrocarbon) and partial unregulated air toxics (viz., formaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene, toluene, and xylene) decreased. However, other partial regulated air parameters (viz., NO
Oxygenated additives | \nAdvantages | \nLimitations | \n
---|---|---|
Dimethyl ether (DME) | \nA slight decrease of NO with % DMC in blended fuel. Strong effect on smoke reduction. | \nMaximum blending concentration up to 25% into diesel fuel; otherwise significantly reduce the viscosity of final mixture. | \n
Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) | \nA slight decrease of NO with % DMC in blended fuel. Most effective at 5% DMC for reducing submicro and microsized particle emissions. | \nSlight increase of HC and CO, but can be resolved with DOC. Obvious increase in benzene, toluene, and emissions. Increase in fuel consumption or decrease in engine power due to lower calorific value of DMC. | \n
Ethanol | \nEffective in reducing particulate mass at high engine load. Effective in reducing unregulated emission of formaldehyde, ethane, ethene, 1,3-butadiene, and BTX. | \nLower cetane number. Increase in fuel consumption or decrease in engine power. Increase of NO2 (toxic and highly reactive gas) is associated with the use of ethanol- ULSD blends having adverse influence on human health. | \n
Methanol | \nEffective at a fumigation ratio of 0.1 for reducing NO concentration. Particle emitted under methanol fumigated engine are reduced under both low and medium engine loads. No increase in the number of nanosized particles and changes in geometrical mean diameter of emitted particles under low and medium engine loads. | \nMaximum fumigation ratio of 0.4 for avoiding engine knock. Marginal reduction in particle emission in high engine loads. Significant increase of HC and CO with increase of fumigation ratio of methanol, but can be resolved with DOC. Increase of NO2 (toxic and highly reactive gas) is associated with the use of methanol having adverse influence on human health. | \n
Advantages and limitations for four oxygenated additives.
Due to the increases in public concerns about the environmental and health impacts from diesel-biodiesel blends, further development of using additional oxygenated-type fuel additives (viz., ethanol) to improve engine and emission performance flaws from diesel-biodiesel blends is significant and viable [14]. In fact, there are very few literatures studying the effects of diesel-biodiesel-ethanol (DBE) blends in diesel engine experiments and the impacts from these new blends are still not fully understood till date. For long-term environmental and public health protection, new forms of clean and economical oxygenated diesel blends fuel must be explored to progressively replace conventional mineral diesel. Ethanol is the type of alcohol made from renewable resources such as biomass from locally grown crops and even waste products such as waste paper, grass, and tree trimmings. They are also an alternative transportation fuel since it has properties allowing its use in existing diesel engines with minor hardware. Despite this, they are only used on a limited basis to fuel diesel engines due to their respective problems in toxicity, corrosivity, miscibility with water, or immiscibility with diesel. However, they have higher octane number enduring higher compression ratios before engine starts knocking, thus giving diesel engine an ability to deliver more power efficiently and economically and to produce lesser CO, HC, and NO
Property | \nEuro V diesel | \nBiodiesel | \nEthanol | \nMethanol | \nDME | \nDMC | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cetane number | \n52 | \n51 | \n6 | \n<5 | \n55–60 | \n35–36 | \n
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | \n42.5 | \n37.5 | \n28.4 | \n19.7 | \n28.43 | \n15.78 | \n
Density (kg/m3) at 20°C | \n840 | \n871 | \n786 | \n792 | \n668 | \n1079 | \n
Viscosity (mPa S) at 40°C | \n2.4 | \n4.6 | \n1.2 | \n0.59 | \n– | \n0.63 | \n
Heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) | \n250–290 | \n300 | \n840 | \n1178 | \n410 | \n369 | \n
Carbon content (%mass) | \n86.6 | \n77.1 | \n52.2 | \n37.5 | \n52.2 | \n40 | \n
Hydrogen content (%mass) | \n13.4 | \n12.1 | \n13 | \n12.5 | \n13 | \n6.7 | \n
Oxygen content (%mass) | \n0 | \n10.8 | \n34.8 | \n50 | \n34.8 | \n53.3 | \n
Sulfur content (%mass) | \n<10 | \n<10 | \n0 | \n0 | \n<10 | \n<10 | \n
Properties of Euro V diesel, biodiesel, ethanol, methanol, DME, and DMC.
The use of ethanol on a limited basis in diesel-biodiesel blends can compensate the decreased octane caused by the presence of biodiesel in diesel fuel and produce lesser particulates and CO2 due to the lower carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of these alcohols. On the one hand, the presence of biodiesel can act as stabilizer to stabilize the phase stability of diesel-biodiesel-ethanol in blend fuels. Therefore, more understanding for the long-term stable diesel-biodiesel-ethanol (DBE) blends in diesel engine application with improved engine and emission performance can be achieved.
\nThis chapter provides the following contributions in filling the knowledge gaps on using DBE blends as potential transport biofuels that the current literatures do not cover or rarely study.
\nSimultaneous reduction in NO
Correlation equations formulated through curve-fitting process for predicting percentage change in NO
Correlation between combustion characteristic parameters and the particulate emissions for DBE blends over a range of ethanol contents. The soot reduction by DBE blends is associated with its lower cetane number and higher latent heat of evaporation thereby leading to longer ignition delays, shorter combustion duration, and lesser diffusion fuel mass.
Correlation between particle oxidation reactivity and internal nanostructure morphology from the DBE-derived soot by the results of thermogravimetric and transmission electronic microscopic analysis. It is generally found that test fuel with higher oxygen content, larger percentage of volatile organic fractions (VOFs), and lower soot burnout temperature (low activation energy) would have stronger oxidative reactivity with particle morphology of smaller primary particle size and curved, tortuous, and disorganized nanostructures.
Four sets of experimental investigations were adopted. First, a naturally, water-cooled, four-cylinder direct-injection diesel engine was tested at a steady speed of 1800 rev/min under five engine loads when fueled with diesel-biodiesel containing 15 vol% of waste-cooking-oil biodiesel while the ethanol volume varied from 0 to 20% at a step of 5%. The engine performance and gaseous emission analysis are summarized in Sections 3 and 4, respectively. Second, the correlations between combustion characteristic parameters and the particulate emissions for DBE blends are described in Section 5. Third, the combined effect of DBE blends and intake CO2 dilution of 1.5–4.5% (at 1.5% interval) is evaluated and tested under a high engine load in Section 6. Finally, the effect of DBE blends on particulate volatility, oxidation properties, and nanostructures is investigated in Sections 7 and 8. The specifications of test engine and test fuels are shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The test plan was based on the commonly accepted testing norms [2, 8, 11, 15–20] used in Europe, China, and Hong Kong for comparable results so as to investigate the influence of DBE blends and intake CO2 dilution under different fuel energy substitutions and engine loads, considering combustion characteristics and emission performance.
\nModel | \nIsuzu 4HF1 | \n|
---|---|---|
Engine type/combustion chamber shape | \nInline four-cylinder DI/Omega | \n|
Max. power | \n88 kW/3200 RPM | \n|
Max. torque | \n285 Nm/1800 RPM | \n|
Bore × stroke | \n112 mm × 110 mm | \n|
Displacement | \n4334/cc or 4.334 l | \n\n |
Compression ratio | \n19.0:1 | \n|
Fuel injection timing | \n8° BTDC | \n|
Injection pump type | \nBosch inline type | \n|
Injection nozzle | \nHole type (with five orifices) | \n|
Injection nozzle diameter | \n0.3 mm | \n|
Injection nozzle opening pressure | \n18.1 MPa | \n
Specifications of test diesel engine.
Properties | \nULSD | \nBiodiesel | \nEthanol | \n\n |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cetane number | \n52 | \n51 | \n6 | \n|
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | \n42.5 | \n37.5 | \n28.4 | \n|
Density (kg/m3) at 20°C | \n840 | \n871 | \n786 | \n|
Viscosity (mPa S) at 40°C | \n2.4 | \n4.6 | \n1.2 | \n|
Heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) | \n250–290 | \n300 | \n840 | \n|
Carbon content (%mass) | \n86.6 | \n77.1 | \n52.2 | \n|
Hydrogen content (%mass) | \n13.4 | \n12.1 | \n13 | \n|
Oxygen content (%mass) | \n0 | \n10.8 | \n34.8 | \n|
Sulfur content (%mass) | \n<10 | \n<10 | \n0 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n |
Cetane number | \n51.9 | \n49.6 | \n47.3 | \n42.7 | \n
Density (kg/m3) at 20°C | \n845 | \n842 | \n839 | \n833 | \n
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | \n41.7 | \n41.0 | \n40.3 | \n38.9 | \n
Oxygen content (%mass) | \n1.7 | \n3.3 | \n5.0 | \n8.2 | \n
Properties of blending stocks and test fuels.
The schematic and photographs of the experimental system are shown in Figures 1–3. The gaseous species including hydrocarbon (HC), nitrogen oxides (NO
Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
Photograph of the experimental setup.
Photographs of (a) engine dynamometer, (b) HFID/HCLA/NDIR gas analyzers, (c) TEOM PM mass analyzer, (d) Dekati minidiluter, and (e) SMPS PM number-size distribution analyzers.
Gas species | \nUnit | \nMake/type | \n
---|---|---|
HC | \nppm | \nCAI model 300 | \n
NO | \nppm | \nCAI model 400 | \n
CO2/CO | \nppm/% | \nCAI model 300 | \n
PM mass | \nμg/m3 | \nR&P TEOM 1105 | \n
PM number and size distribution | \n#/cm3 | \nTSI 3934 | \n
Exhaust emissions measuring instruments.
A Kistler type 6056A piezoelectric pressure transducer was used to measure the in-cylinder pressure at 0.5 crank-angle interval. Crankshaft position was measured by a Kistler crank-angle encoder. The cylinder pressure was averaged over 400 cycles to smooth any combustion cyclic irregularity that may appear in diesel engines fueled with low-ignition-quality biofuels [21] and was then analyzed with a commercial combustion analyzer (DEWETRON, DEWE-ORION-0816-100X) to obtain the heat release rate due to fuel combustion, which is developed under the first law of thermodynamics to obtain the heat released arising from the fuel burned per crank angle.
\nPhotograph of thermogravimetric analyzer.
Particulate samples used for particulate oxidation property and morphology were collected on the 47 mm quartz filter paper inside a particulate collector with the same diluted condition as TEOM. The transfer line from the exhaust to the dilutor was insulated and heated at around 170°C to avoid volatile HC condensation loss. The investigation of the particulate composition and oxidation property was conducted through the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) on the particulate sample in an Al2O3 crucible. TGA was conducted using the Netzsch STA 449 TGA/DSC (thermogravimetric analysis/differential scanning calorimetry) with a measurement resolution of 25 ng as shown in Figure 4. The heating program is listed in Table 6. When the TGA temperature was below 400°C, the particulate samples were heated in argon to remove the volatile substance. The samples were then oxidized in air for the investigation of particle oxidation. The total mass loss versus TGA furnace temperature is used to determine the fraction of volatile substances (VS) and nonvolatile substances (non-VS) in the diesel particulate. The volatile substances can be divided into two parts: low- and high-volatility fractions. The volatility fraction versus temperature range is defined below:
\n\nSteps | \nTGA heating program | \n
---|---|
1 | \nInitial atmosphere under argon | \n
2 | \nIsothermal for 10 min | \n
3 | \nRamp 3°C/min to 45°C | \n
4 | \nRamp 10°C/min to 400°C | \n
5 | \nChange atmosphere with air | \n
6 | \nRamp 10°C/min to 800°C | \n
7 | \nIsothermal for 10 min | \n
TGA heating program.
High-volatile substances (H-VS): 50°C ≤
Low-volatile substance (L-VS): 250°C ≤
Nonvolatile substances (non-VS): 400°C ≤
The investigation of particle morphology was conducted through high-resolution transmission electronic microscopy (STEM, JEOL JEM-2100F) as shown in Figure 5. The maximum magnification is up to 910,000× with a measurement resolution of about 0.2 nm. The soot samples were first collected in the 47 mm diameter quartz filter paper and the paper was cut into tiny pieces and mixed with ethanol in cylinder. The particulate sample in the filter paper was extracted ultrasonically in ethanol for 15 min. Droplets of the colloidal solution were dropped on a TEM grid by tweezer and left for drying in atmosphere before arranging image processing. The above procedures shown in Figure 6 for preparing the TEM samples follow the method suggested by Vander Wal [22].
\nPhotograph of high-resolution transmission electronic microscopy.
TEM images were taken from four locations with several aggregates surveyed at the same locations to maintain the consistency of examination. The commercial image processing software Image-Pro Plus 6.0 (Media Cybernetics) was used for analyzing the HRTEM images. From the images, the diameter and width of soot aggregates and primary fine particle with clear boundaries would be measured with the software. The nanostructure of primary fine particles is exhibited in the form of parallel or twisted carbon lamellae. Three parameters including fringe length, fringe separation distance, and tortuosity of the carbon lamellae could be measured and used to describe the nanostructure of particle.
\nProcedures for preparing TEM samples. (a) Colloidal solution is ultrasoniced for 15 min; (b) droplets are dropped on a TEM grid by tweezer; (c) details of the specimen chamber; (d) the TEM grid is fixed on the specimen chamber; (e) the specimen chamber is inserted into the TEM machine for imaging.
Successive testing fuels will be filled in both a fuel tank and a 5 l measuring cylinder. There is a manual switch for selecting the fuel source either fed from the fuel tank or the measuring cylinder to the engine. In order to ensure that the residual fuel from the previous test inside engine is fully consumed, a portion of around 1000 ml successive testing fuel filled in the measuring cylinder would be consumed first by the test engine running for around 5 min at each testing condition after the cooling water reached 80°C and the exhaust gas temperature become stable (±1°C). Upon consuming all the fuels in the measuring cylinder, the fuel source will then switched manually to the fuel tank for formal record of each testing case. The gaseous emissions were converted from volumetric concentrations to brake-specific emissions by employing the SAE J1088 method [23]. The steady-state tests were repeated three times to ensure that the data are repeatable within the experimental uncertainties of the measurements. The experimental uncertainty and standard errors in the measurements have been determined based on the method proposed by Moffat [24]. The measurement results obtained from different fuels were compared with baseline fuel of ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) using the two-sided Student’s
This section reports the effects of DBE blends on brake-specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency, in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, combustion duration, and diffusion fuel mass when diesel-biodiesel is blended with different ethanol contents that were tested in a diesel engine at a steady-state speed of 1800 rev/min under five engine loads of 30, 60, 120, 200, and 240 Nm corresponding to the brake mean effective pressure of 0.09, 0.17, 0.35, 0.58, and 0.70 MPa, respectively.
\nComparison of BSFC.
Figure 7 indicates that the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of all test fuels decreases with an increase in the engine load from 0.09 to 0.70 MPa with decreasing slope due to an increase in the brake thermal efficiency at higher engine loads. The results are similar to those reported in early works [15, 16, 25]. At each engine load, fuels having lower heating values (LHVs) require a higher fuel mass consumption rate to compensate their low-energy content for generating the same engine power. The maximum LHV (42.5 MJ/kg) belongs to neat diesel, followed by DBE5 (41.04 MJ/kg), DBE10 (40.34 MJ/kg), DBE20 (38.93 MJ/kg), and neat biodiesel (37.5 MJ/kg). At the highest test engine load of 0.70 MPa, the minimum BSFC is 225.3 g/kWh for diesel, followed by 234.8 g/kWh for DBE5, 239.1 g/kWh for DBE10, 240.5 g/kWh for DBE20, and 249.2 g/kWh for neat biodiesel. Therefore, the BSFC for neat biodiesel is the highest due to its lowest energy content while that for diesel is the least among the test fuels. The higher the proportion of ethanol in the DBE blends, the higher the BSFC is.
\n\nFigure 8 indicates that the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) increases as a function of oxygen contents in the test fuels and increases with an increase in engine loads. For each engine load, the more the oxygenates are added in the fuels, the lower the heating value of the fuel blends and the higher the BSFC. However, the increase of oxygenates could provide additional lubricity, reduce fuel viscosity, improve atomization, and provide more oxygen contents for improving the combustion process in converting fuel chemical energy into useful engine work. Consequently, BTE is elevated. At the highest test engine load of 0.70 MPa, the maximum BTEs attained for biodiesel, DBE20, DBE10, DBE5, and diesel are 38.53, 37.95, 37.82, 37.36, and 37.10%, respectively. Therefore, there is no obvious variation of BTE among diesel, biodiesel, and the DBE fuels at the high engine load, which is similar to observations reported in the literature [16].
\nComparison of BTE.
The variations in the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate are shown in Figure 9 for different fuels at the low, medium, and high engine loads of 0.09, 0.35, and 0.70 MPa, respectively. The peak in-cylinder pressure occurs further away from the top dead center (TDC) in the expansion stroke with the increase in the engine load, which is similar to the results of Qi et al. [26]. The peak heat release rate increases with an increase in the engine load from low to the medium, but decreases at the high engine load for all test fuels, which is similar to the results of Zhu et al. [27]. The in-cylinder pressure and the peak heat release rate of DBE blends are comparatively higher than that of ULSD and biodiesel. With the increase of ethanol in the blended fuels, the ignition delay becomes longer. The in-cylinder pressure and peak heat release become higher and retarded due to more fuel burned in the premixed burning phase.
\nVariation of the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate.
The start and duration of combustion for different fuels under different engine loads are shown in Figure 10. It can be found that with the increase in the engine load, the start of combustion of all test fuels advances while combustion duration increases. Thus, the ignition delay decreases with the increase in the engine load. For the different fuels, the ignition delay increases in the order of biodiesel, ULSD, DBE0, DBE5, DBE10, and DBE20. The shorter ignition delay of biodiesel compared with ULSD is attributed to its higher bulk modulus of compressibility [28, 29]. Moreover, Sivalakshmi et al. [30] explained that gaseous compounds of low molecular weight, broken down from biodiesel during injection into the engine cylinder at high temperature, could ignite earlier thus reducing the ignition delay and advancing the start of combustion for biodiesel. As for the DBE blends, the increase of ethanol fractions from 0 to 20% increases the ignition delay thereby retarding the start of combustion.
\nVariation of start of combustion and combustion duration with engine load.
The combustion duration in general increases in the order of DBE20, DBE10, DBE5, biodiesel, DBE0, and diesel. For a specific engine load, the volume of fuel consumed increases in the order of ULSD, DBE0, DBE5, DBE10, DBE20, and biodiesel due to the lower calorific values of biodiesel and ethanol compared with ULSD. DBE blends generally have longer ignition delay, larger amount of fuel burned in premixed mode, and less burned in diffusion mode, resulting in shorter combustion period when compared with biodiesel and diesel fuel for all engine loads. At high engine load, the difference in combustion duration among different fuels decreases as the ignition delay period decreases at a high engine load.
\nDiesel particles are composed of soot, volatile organic fraction, and sulfate, while soot is mainly formed in the diffusion combustion mode. In order to understand the effects of combustion characteristics of different fuels on particulate emission, it is essential to examine their respective mass of fuel burnt in the diffusion mode. The variations of the total fuel mass consumption and diffusion fuel mass consumptions for different fuels with engine load are shown in Figure 11.
\nVariation of the total fuel mass and diffusion fuel mass with engine load.
The DBE blends retard the start of combustion and shorten the combustion duration resulting in longer premixed and shorter diffusive combustion duration when compared with biodiesel and ULSD. The higher the ethanol fraction in the blended fuel, the shorter the diffusion combustion duration and the lesser mass of fuel burned in the diffusion mode.
\nThis section presents the experimental results on exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbon (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NO
The variations of BSCO and BSCO2 emissions with engine loads are shown in Figures 12 and 13, respectively. BSCO decreases with the increase in the engine load. BSCO2 decreases with the increase in the engine load at low engine loads and does not change much with further increase in the engine load from 0.35 to 0.70 MPa. Biodiesel has the lowest BSCO and the highest BSCO2 among all the test fuels in low and medium engine loads, but at similar level with the other fuels at high loads. The BSCO emission increases with the ethanol content in the blended fuel at light and medium engine loads but at similar level at high engine loads. Compared with ULSD, BSCO emissions are increased by 2.97, 2.05, and 37.80% on arithmetic mean under the five different engine loads for DBE5, DBE10, and DBE20, respectively. The BSCO2 emissions generally increase when the ethanol content is increased but the increment becomes less with increasing engine load. Compared with ULSD, BSCO2 emissions are decreased by 4.41, 9.53, and 4.07% on arithmetic mean under the five different engine loads for DBE5, DBE10, and DBE20, respectively, due to a lower carbon-to-hydrogen ratio when increasing the ethanol fractions in fuels.
\nVariation of BSCO with engine loads.
Variation of BSCO2 with engine loads.
The variation in the brake-specific hydrocarbon (BSHC) emissions with engine load is shown in Figure 14. Biodiesel has the lowest BSHC emissions among the test fuels in all engine loads. The BSHC emissions of DBE blends are higher than that of ULSD in all engine loads. BSHC emission decreases with engine load but increases when the ethanol content is increased in the DBE blends at light and medium engine loads but at similar level at high engine loads. Compared with ULSD, BSHC emission decreases with engine load but increases by 45.98, 90.46, and 116.79 on arithmetic mean of the five engine loads for DBE5, DBE10, and DBE20, respectively.
\nVariation of BSHC with engine loads.
Figure 15 shows the variation of brake-specific NO
Variation of BSNO
Statistical regression correlation is used as a method to determine how diesel engine emissions are affected by the use of DBE blends. The analysis is not intended to predict the absolute regulated emission levels, but rather the percentage change in emissions resulting from the use of DBE. The correlations are obtained by modifying the models proposed by USEPA for diesel-biodiesel blended fuels [8]. Based on the experimental data, the numerical values of the coefficients for the emission correlations obtained through statistical curve fitting are shown in Table 7. While for test of significance for the combination of vol% of biodiesel and ethanol, the results are shown in Table 8. It can be noted that the combined use of biodiesel and ethanol in DBE blends shows a significant effect in reducing the brake-specific NO
Brake-specific emission | \nCoefficient “a” for vol% biodiesel | \nCoefficient “b” for vol% ethanol | \n
---|---|---|
NO | \n−0.0145 | \n−0.0250 | \n
CO | \n−0.0010 | \n0.0331 | \n
HC | \n−0.0293 | \n0.0030 | \n
Coefficients for basic emission correlations.
Emission | \nNO | \nCO | \nHC | \n
---|---|---|---|
Mean square | \n0.0538 | \n0.3926 | \n1.271 | \n
Adjusted | \n0.9796 | \n0.9759 | \n0.9897 | \n
Standard error | \n0.0271 | \n0.0419 | \n0.0490 | \n
73.0558 | \n223.6300 | \n528.7205 | \n|
Significance | \n0.0824 | \n2.1264E−08 | \n4.6598E−10 | \n
Test for significance of combination of vol% biodiesel and vol% ethanol.
This section presents the experimental results on exhaust emissions of brake-specific PM emissions, combustion characteristics on PM, particle size distribution, particle number concentrations, and tradeoff relations among PM, PN, and NO
Figure 16 shows that the brake-specific particulate mass (BSPM) emission of each tested fuel decreases with engine load from 0.09 to 0.35 MPa while increases from 0.58 to 0.70 MPa. At low engine loads, the fuel is burned mainly in the premixed mode and more time is available for soot oxidation, resulting in lower particulate formation. When engine load is increased, more fuel is injected into the combustion chamber and hence more fuel is burnt in the diffusion mode while less time is available for soot oxidation, leading to higher particulate formation at high engine load [16]. However, the brake thermal efficiency increases with engine load, leading to the lowest BSPM emission at the engine load of 0.35 MPa.
\nVariation of BSPM with engine loads.
ULSD, which has no oxygen in the fuel, has the highest BSPM among the tested fuels at all loads. When compared with ULSD, the DBE blends could effectively reduce BSPM by 19–49% at 0.09 MPa, 5–42% at 0.17 MPa, 4–33% at 0.35 MPa, 25–61% at 0.58 MPa, and 14–57% at 0.70 MPa for ethanol fractions of 0–20%. The percentage reduction increases with increase of ethanol fractions in the blended fuels. Biodiesel has the highest oxygen contents in the fuel and BSPM is always lower than that of ULSD and DBE0, but its BSPM is close to that of DBE5 at 0.09 MPa, close to that of DBE20 at 0.17–0.58 MPa, and is the lowest among all fuels at 0.79 MPa. The reduction of BSPM is resulted from the reduction of soot and sulfate in particulate. The DBE blends have oxygen concentration ranging from 1.7 to 8.2%. They are also effective in reducing BSPM emissions, compared with ULSD, due to the increasing displacement of diesel fuel by ethanol which has higher oxygen content and lower fuel aromatics and fuel sulfur, all of which are favorable for reducing soot formation.
\nInfluence of particles to the environment and human health depends not only on their mass concentration, but also on their number concentration and size distribution. It has been hypothesized that particle toxicity increases with decreasing size due to the higher specific surface area of smaller particles [32]. It is generally believed that nanoparticles are more dangerous and hazardous to health. Therefore, the particles investigated by SMPS in this study are classified into three groups: (i) total number of particles, (ii) ultrafine particles with diameter less than 100 nm, and (iii) nanoparticles with diameter less than 50 nm. The results, including brake-specific particle number concentration (BSPN) and percentages of both ultrafine and nanoparticles evaluated based on the total particle numbers, are shown in Table 9.
\n1800 rev/min | \nParameters | \nULSD | \nBiodiesel | \nDBE0 | \nDBE5 | \nDBE10 | \nDBE20 | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.09 MPa | \nBSPN (#/kWh) | \n1.61E+15 | \n1.96E+15 | \n8.07E+14 | \n1.62E+13 | \n1.38E+13 | \n9.84E+12 | \n||||||
\n | Total number (#/cm3) | \n3.05E+07 | \n\n | 3.48E+07 | \n\n | 1.54E+07 | \n\n | 3.22E+05 | \n\n | 2.65E+05 | \n\n | 2.59E+05 | \n\n |
\n | Ultrafine particle (#/cm3) | \n2.74E+07 | \n89.8% | \n3.35E+07 | \n96.3% | \n1.35E+07 | \n90.3% | \n3.02E+05 | \n93.7% | \n2.51E+05 | \n94.7% | \n2.46E+05 | \n95.3% | \n
\n | Nanoparticle (#/cm3) | \n1.54E+07 | \n50.5% | \n2.33E+07 | \n67.0% | \n7.48E+06 | \n55.2% | \n1.90E+05 | \n59.0% | \n1.65E+05 | \n62.3% | \n1.69E+05 | \n65.2% | \n
0.35 MPa | \nBSPN (#/kWh) | \n9.21E+14 | \n9.96E+14 | \n4.64E+14 | \n8.86E+12 | \n7.90E+12 | \n6.46E+12 | \n||||||
\n | Total number (#/cm3) | \n5.15E+07 | \n5.40E+07 | \n2.60E+07 | \n5.18E+05 | \n4.67E+05 | \n3.77E+05 | \n||||||
\n | Ultrafine particle (#/cm3) | \n4.39E+07 | \n85.3% | \n4.97E+07 | \n92.0% | \n1.96E+07 | \n75.5% | \n4.09E+05 | \n78.9% | \n4.16E+05 | \n89.1% | \n3.43E+05 | \n90.9% | \n
\n | Nanoparticle (#/cm3) | \n2.17E+07 | \n42.1% | \n2.90E+07 | \n53.7% | \n8.87E+06 | \n45.2% | \n2.52E+05 | \n48.6% | \n2.27E+05 | \n48.6% | \n1.95E+05 | \n51.7% | \n
0.70 MPa | \nBSPN (#/kWh) | \n1.53E+15 | \n1.49E+15 | \n7.88E+14 | \n1.27E+13 | \n1.22E+13 | \n1.33E+13 | \n||||||
\n | Total number (#/cm3) | \n1.25E+08 | \n1.27E+08 | \n6.30E+07 | \n1.05E+06 | \n1.03E+06 | \n1.16E+06 | \n||||||
\n | Ultrafine particle (#/cm3) | \n7.99E+07 | \n63.9% | \n1.16E+08 | \n91.2% | \n4.36E+07 | \n69.2% | \n7.39E+05 | \n70.3% | \n7.47E+05 | \n72.5% | \n8.46E+05 | \n72.9% | \n
\n | Nanoparticle (#/cm3) | \n2.74E+07 | \n21.9% | \n6.84E+07 | \n53.8% | \n1.24E+07 | \n28.5% | \n3.82E+05 | \n36.3% | \n4.58E+05 | \n44.5% | \n5.85E+05 | \n50.4% | \n
Particulate emissions for different test fuels.
For each fuel, the total particle numbers, ultrafine particles, and nanoparticles increase with engine load, while BSPN is the highest at 0.09 MPa and lowest at 0.35 MPa. The increase in the aforesaid three number concentration is associated with the increasing amount of fuel with engine load and hence carbon mass with engine load. Labecki et al. [33] reported that the number concentration of nuclei mode particles (i.e., particle size < 100 nm) increased as the fuel injection pressure increased at higher engine load while the number concentration of accumulation mode (i.e., 100 nm < particle size < 2500 nm) decreased with an increase in the injection pressure.
\nAt each engine load, biodiesel is generally observed to achieve the highest in BSPN, total number, ultrafine, and nanoparticle emissions among the tested fuels although it has the lowest BSPM in most cases. Various reasons have been provided in the literature for increased particulate number concentration associated with biodiesel. Some researchers explained that biodiesel reduced soot emission due to the reduced soot surface growth rate weakening the ability of condensation and adsorption of volatile organic fractions on soot particle such that high supersaturation may lead to form more nuclei mode particles [34–36]. Tsolakis [37] reported that the higher production of smaller particles from biodiesel was due to its higher viscosity thereby increasing the fuel injection pressure for better fuel atomization and air fuel mixing. Pang [38] also found that the increased fuel injection pressure could affect particle size distribution and increase the number of nuclei mode particles during his study with a heavy-duty diesel engine.
\n\nDBE blends with ethanol could reduce BSPN, total particle numbers, ultrafine particles, and nanoparticles by 99% on average for all engine loads as compared with both biodiesel and ULSD. It is due to the combined effects of the presence of fuel-bound oxygen, reduced aromatics and sulfur compound, and the alcohol structure in ethanol which are effective on reduction of soot precursors than methyl-ester structure [39] and the subsequent reduction in particle numbers. Di et al. [17] also reported that diesel-ethanol blends gave lower total number concentrations, ultrafine particles, and nanoparticles than ULSD while diesel-biodiesel blends showed the opposite trends. Thus, besides the particulate mass reduction, DBE also plays an important role in particle number reduction.
\nFor each fuel, the percentages of both ultrafine and nanoparticles in the total particle numbers decrease with increasing engine load, implying that the emitted particles become larger in size. Biodiesel has the highest percentage of ultrafine and nanoparticles because of its higher fuel viscosity that favors higher production of smaller particles. ULSD has the lowest percentage of ultrafine and nanoparticles, implying that larger particles are emitted than biodiesel and DBE blends.
\nThere is tradeoff between PM and NO
PM-NO
PN-NO
This chapter presents the experimental studies on using CO2 to dilute the intake air of the test diesel engine to reduce NO
At the engine load of 0.58 MPa with no intake dilution, the brake-specific fuel consumption, from the lowest to the highest, is 216.5 g/kWh for ULSD, 237.5 g/kWh for DBE5, 238.2 g/kWh for DBE10, 241.5 g/kWh for DBE20, and 255.9 g/kWh for biodiesel. The brake thermal efficiency attained for ULSD, DBE5, DBE10, DBE20, and biodiesel is 35.9, 34.2, 34.1, 33.6, and 31.6%, respectively. Increasing the ethanol fractions in DBE blends will increase the BSFC and reduce the BTE. Figure 19 shows the effect of intake CO2 concentration on BSFC and BTE of DBE blends at the engine load of 0.58 MPa. Increasing the intake CO2 dilution ratio from 1.5 to 4.5% resulted in a drop in BSFCs by 0.82–1.89% for DBE5, 1.06–1.99% for DBE10, and 0.85–1.52% for DBE20, correspondingly there is an increase in BTE of 0.86–2.01% for DBE5, 1.12–2.12% for DBE10, and 0.89–2.64% for DBE20. In this particular case, CO2 dilution leads to longer delay, resulting in higher peak pressure, higher peak heat release rate, and hence a slight improvement in BSFC and BTE.
\nEffect of intake CO2 on BSFC and BTE of DBE blends at load of 0.58 MPa.
At the engine load of 0.58 MPa, the exhaust gas temperature of DBE5, DBE10, and DBE20 decreased from 477–467, 471–461, and 481–464°C, respectively, when CO2 dilution was changed from 0 to 4.5%, indicating less loss in the engine exhaust. The combustion temperature reduced when CO2 was added due to the higher specific heats of CO2 than air. Increasing ethanol fractions in DBE blends gives higher and later peak combustion pressure and heat release rate [40]. Figure 20 shows the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate (averaged over 400 cycles) of DBE20 at different percentage of CO2 dilution. Similar results are obtained for DBE5 and DBE10. In general, when intake CO2 is applied, the maximum in-cylinder pressure increased and occurs further away from the top dead center in the expansion stroke while the peak heat release rate increased and occurs later. Increasing the CO2 ratio from 0 to 4.5% has attained peak heat release rate of 70.7–113.3 J/°CA for DBE5, 100.1–116.8 J/°CA for DBE10, and 110.0–124.5 J/°CA for DBE20. The peak in-cylinder pressure attained for DBE5 is from 61.8 to 67.9 bar, for DBE10 is from 63.8 to 68.4 bar, and for DBE20 is from 67.6 to 68.9 bar. The in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate increased with more intake CO2 due to the changes in thermodynamic properties of intake mixture. When intake CO2 is applied, the ignition delay of DBE blends is further enhanced due to the reduction of oxygen and increase of specific heats of the intake charge. Therefore, a larger amount of fuel is injected into the cylinder and more fuel is prepared for combustion during the ignition delay period. When combustion starts, a greater amount of fuel is quickly consumed thereby increasing the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate.
\nEffect of intake CO2 on in-cylinder pressure and HRR of DBE20 at the engine load of 0.58 MPa.
At the engine load of 0.58 MPa with no CO2 dilution, the BSNO
Effect of intake CO2 on BSNO
At the engine load of 0.58 MPa with no intake dilution, the maximum brake-specific particulate mass emissions (BSPM) is 469 mg/kWh for ULSD, followed by 273 mg/kWh for DBE5, 227 mg/kWh for DBE10, 207 mg/kWh for DBE20, and 184 mg/kWh for biodiesel. Increasing the ethanol fractions in DBE blends lowers the BSPM. DBE blends in general perform better than ULSD for BSPM reduction by 49.76% on average while biodiesel has attained the least BSPM emissions among the test fuels. When introducing intake CO2 from 1.5 to 4.5%, BSPMs for the blended fuels increased but are still lower than that of ULSD but with BSPM reduction dropping from 49.76 to 36.62% on average for the three DBE blends. For individual DBE blends, the BSPM increased by 6.3–40.5% for DBE5, 2.1–29.8% for DBE10 and 0.4–47.2% for DBE20 with intake CO2 of 1.5–4.5%. The dilution effect from CO2 is dominant for reducing oxygen in combustion thereby increasing particulate emissions. This is because when intake air is replaced with CO2, oxygen concentration is reduced. Besides, CO2 would absorb some of the released heat. Less heat will then be released during combustion to oxidize the carbon molecules [18]. With increasing CO2 concentration, such dilution effect is greater than the chemical effect resulted from the dissociation reaction of CO2 to nullify its soot suppression. Ladommatos et al. [41] reported that the chemical effect from CO2 to form free radicals for soot suppression was only moderate.
\nThe use of DBE blends, compared with ULSD and biodiesel, could produce less total number of particle concentration of all sizes from low to high engine loads [40]. Increasing the ethanol fractions from DBE5 to DBE10, the carbon content of the blended fuel decreased and oxygen content increased leading to reduction of nuclei particles and total number concentration as shown in Table 9. Figure 22 shows that when adding 1.5% intake CO2 to DBE blends, there is a decrease in the brake-specific particle number concentration (BSPN). The BSPN however increased with increase of intake CO2. This effect can also be observed from Figure 23 which shows the size distributions for DBE20 against CO2 intake at the engine load of 0.58 MPa. The initial decrease in BSPN with 1.5% CO2 intake may be a consequence of the dissociation of intake CO2 which has moderate effects on soot suppression. However, when CO2 intake increases from 1.5 to 4.5% in the blended fuels, the size distribution curves move upward indicating an increase in the particle number concentration with larger diameter particles. The BSPNs at 4.5% CO2 intake are higher than those obtained without CO2 dilution. This is because the dilution effect of CO2 becomes dominant nullifying the effect of CO2 dissociation [41]. The reduction of oxygen concentration from the dilution effect therefore increases the particulate mass and particle number concentrations.
\nEffect of intake CO2 on BSPN of DBE blends at the engine load of 0.58 MPa.
Effect of intake CO2 on size distribution of DBE20 at the engine load of 0.58 MPa.
This section presents the experimental TGA analysis to compare the particle volatility and oxidative reactivity from DBE-derived soot under different blending compositions with those from ULSD and neat biodiesel. The reactivity of particulate samples can be related to the differences in fuel oxygen contents, percentage of VOCs, and soot burnout temperature. Hence, the evaluations would cover brake-specific VOF emissions, soot ignition temperature, activation energy, and oxidative reactivity for DBE blends tested at a steady speed of 1800 rev/min under a high engine load of 0.58 MPa.
\nFigure 24 shows particulate mass reduction curves for different fuels at the engine load of 0.58 MPa. For each fuel, obvious carbon mass losses were found at two different temperature segments: (i) below 300°C and (ii) 550–700°C, representing loss of the volatile organic fraction and oxidation of the nonvolatile fraction, respectively. Figure 25 shows the effect of fuel type and engine load on the volatile organic fractions (%VOF) in PM emissions. It can be seen that no matter what kind of fuel is used, %VOF decreases remarkably from 27.8 to 11.2% for ULSD, 36.6 to 14.6% for DBE0, 41.5 to 15.0% for DBE5, 46.0 to 17.7 % for DBE10, 48.7 to 19.5% for DBE20, and 73.8 to 29.5% for biodiesel with an increase in the engine load from 0.17 to 0.58 MPa. It is because VOF consisting of unburned HC is removed significantly under high combustion temperature at high load. For different fuels under each engine load, %VOF is affected and increased with increasing oxygen contents in the fuels, being the lowest for ULSD; increasing with ethanol additions in the blended fuels; and up to the highest for biodiesel, as shown in Figure 25. The higher %VOF in soot particles originating from oxygenated fuels like biodiesel is associated with the higher surface/volume ratio of these particles, implying more pores for condensation and adsorption of unburned HC. Figure 26 shows the brake-specific VOF emission (BSVOF). At 0.17 MPa, comparing the different fuels, the BSVOF increases with increasing oxygen content in the fuel despite there is a decrease in BSPM with increasing oxygen content in the fuel. However, at 0.58 MPa, it decreases from ULSD to DBE20 but biodiesel has the highest BSVOF. Thus, at light load, due to the higher %VOF in the PM, the blended fuel leads to a higher VOF emission, while at high load the blended fuel leads to a reduction in both PM and VOF. The effect of high combustion temperature overrides the evaporation latent heat of ethanol and the oxygen conditions surrounding the blended fuel benefit of the combustion such that the VOF component tends to decrease when the % ethanol in fuel increases up to 20%. Especially, BSVOF for biodiesel is the highest and ULSD is the second highest than that for other fuels. This is because biodiesel having more active surface pores and ULSD having higher concentrations of nucleated sulfur acid particles [42] for the condensation of VOF.
\nParticulate mass reduction curve for different fuels at a high engine load of 0.58 MPa.
Mass fraction % of VOF with different fuels at two different engine loads.
Variation of BSVOF with different fuels at two different engine loads.
The oxidation reactivity of combustion particles can be quantified by their soot ignition temperatures [43]. Figure 27 shows the ignition temperature, at which the maximum heat flow rate occurs, of each fuel at the engine load of 0.58 MPa. It is the highest for ULSD (721.1°C) and the lowest for biodiesel (627.0°C), while for the blended fuels it decreases from 695.2 to 680.0°C with increased ethanol content from 0 to 20% in the fuel. In general, the ignition temperature decreases with the increase in the oxygen content in the fuel.
\nBased on the TGA data, a kinetic analysis was conducted on the oxidation of the nonvolatile fraction by using the Arrhenius plot of oxidation rates. Table 10 shows the calculated kinetic parameters for particulate samples obtained from different fuels at the engine load of 0.58 MPa. The activation energy is the highest for diesel fuel and the lowest for biodiesel, while for the blended fuels it decreases with the increase in the ethanol content in the fuel. Thus, it decreases with increase in the oxygen content in the fuel. The lower the activation energy is, the higher the oxidative reactivity of the particulate sample will be [42]. Stanmore et al. [44] also reported that lower activation energy and higher reactivity could lead to lower ignition temperature. The above results indicate that the oxidative reactivity of particulates decreases in the order of biodiesel, DBE20, DBE10, DBE5, DBE0, and ULSD.
\nHeat flow rate (derivative of DSC signal) curves for different fuels at a high engine load of 0.58 MPa.
Fuels | \nBMEP (MPa) | \nOxygen content (%) | \nIgnition temperature (°C) | \nCalculated activation energy (kJ/mol) | \nCalculated frequency factor (Sec−1) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ULSD | \n0.58 | \n0.0 | \n721.10 | \n166.30 | \n2.39E+08 | \n
DBE0 | \n0.58 | \n1.7 | \n695.20 | \n137.13 | \n3.12E+07 | \n
DBE5 | \n0.58 | \n3.3 | \n689.41 | \n116.90 | \n1.33E+07 | \n
DBE10 | \n0.58 | \n5.0 | \n683.54 | \n109.10 | \n9.42E+06 | \n
DBE20 | \n0.58 | \n8.2 | \n680.04 | \n81.43 | \n1.12E+06 | \n
Biodiesel | \n0.58 | \n10.8 | \n627.02 | \n65.20 | \n4.44E+05 | \n
Calculated kinetic parameters of particulate samples of different fuels.
Particle volatility also affects the oxidation process. During the initial TGA thermal treatment from room temperature to 380°C, volatile fractions of test fuels filled inside the micropores of soot aggregates are removed under the argon environment. More internal particle surface areas are therefore available for subsequent soot oxidation. As such, higher %VOF would contribute higher reactivity and oxidation rate of particulates.
\nThis section is to investigate the particulate volatility and oxidation by a thermogravimetric analysis and morphology by transmission electron microscope analysis on a four-cylinder DI diesel engine using DBE blends with ethanol addition of 0, 5, 10, and 20% tested at a steady speed of 1800 rev/min under low and high engine loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa, respectively.
\nThe measurement of agglomerates includes maximum projected length (L) and maximum projected width normal to length (W) and projected primary particle diameter (D) and primary particle area (A). \nFigures 28–33 shows the soot agglomerates produced from ULSD, biodiesel and DBE blends at the engine loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa, respectively. Agglomerates from different fuels at different loads were found to be composed of fine primary particles forming a mixture of chain-like structures and clusters of spherules. Table 11 summarizes the above measurements of the soot agglomerates and their respective primary particles. For each fuel, the projected diameter and area of primary particles increase with engine load because more fuel is burned at higher load resulting in the growth of soot nuclei. The projected primary particle diameter increases in the order of DBE20 (15–18 nm), DBE10 (17–20 nm), DBE5 (19–23 nm), DBE0 (20–24 nm), biodiesel (24–31 nm), and ULSD (34–41 nm). The DBE blends, compared with biodiesel and diesel, produced smaller primary particles. Increasing the proportion of ethanol from DBE5 to DBE20, the carbon content of the blend fuels decreases and the oxygen content increases leading to the reduction of soot nuclei. The possibility of agglomeration and condensation of smaller particles to form larger ones is then reduced, leading to smaller agglomerates and primary particles. In this study, increasing ethanol from 5 to 20%, the projected length of agglomerates from DBE blends decreases from 448 to 419 nm at 0.17 MPa and 508 to 449 nm at 0.58 MPa while the projected width decreases from 562 to 387 nm at 0.17 MPa and 625 to 415 nm at 0.58 MPa.
\nULSD-derived primary particles at loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa: (1) TEM image, (2) high-magnified TEM image for ROIs, and (3) skeletonized ROI images.
Biodiesel-derived primary particles at loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa: (1) TEM image, (2) high-magnified TEM image for ROIs, and (3) skeletonized ROI images.
DBE0-derived primary particles at loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa: (1) TEM image, (2) high-magnified TEM image for ROIs, and (3) skeletonized ROI images.
DBE5-derived primary particles at loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa: (1) TEM image, (2) high-magnified TEM image for ROIs, and (3) skeletonized ROI images.
DBE10-derived primary particles at loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa: (1) TEM image, (2) high-magnified TEM image for ROIs, and (3) skeletonized ROI images.
DBE20-derived primary particles at loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa: (1) TEM image, (2) high-magnified TEM image for ROIs, and (3) skeletonized ROI images.
For individual primary particle, the examination of its structure and distribution of graphene layers provide information about its nanostructure morphology. The classic core-shell structure of a primary particle from diesel fuel has an outer shell composed of planar-shaped crystallites oriented perpendicular to the radius of the particle and an inner core constituted by several fine spherules at the central portion. Other authors found different internal structures of diesel particles subject to different thermal exposure including (a) fullerenoid or onion-like morphology, (b) turbostratic graphite structures formed by small plates of undefined orientation, (c) purely turbostratic layers, and (d) structures formed by multiple spherical nuclei surrounded by several graphitic layers [19, 45–47]. The nanostructure can be further characterized and quantified by the fringe length, fringe separation, and tortuosity [48]. Variation in these parameters indicates different carbon nanostructures such as graphitic, fullerenic, and amorphous. HRTEM images at a high-magnification level in Figure 28(A2) and (B2) to Figure 33(A2) and (B2) show different morphology for fine primary particles from ULSD and biodiesel and DBE blends at engine loads of 0.17 and 0.58 MPa, respectively. Selected region of interest (ROI) on each image was processed and the skeletonized ROI binary images converted from Figure 28(A1) and (B1) to Figure 33(A1) and (B1) are shown in Figure 28(A3) and (B3) to Figure 33(A3) and (B3), respectively. They are further used to evaluate the nanostructure characteristics such as fringe length, fringe separation and, tortuosity. Table 12 summarizes the measurements obtained by lattice fringe analysis, following the procedures in Vander Wal et al. [48] and Shim et al. [49].
\nFuels | \nLoad (MPa) | \nFigures | \n(nm) | \n(nm) | \n( | \nNumbers of particles | \n(nm) | \n(nm2) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ULSD | \n0.17 | \nFigure 28 (A1) | \n4 | \n241±23 | \n303±45 | \n0.8±0.3 | \n39 | \n34±4 | \n942±29 | \n
Biodiesel | \n0.17 | \nFigure 29 (A1) | \n4 | \n488±48 | \n424±56 | \n1.3±0.4 | \n35 | \n24±4 | \n485±32 | \n
DBE0 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 30 (A1) | \n4 | \n360±23 | \n363±20 | \n0.9±0.3 | \n43 | \n20±3 | \n332±29 | \n
DBE5 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 31 (A1) | \n4 | \n448±75 | \n562±52 | \n0.9±0.4 | \n52 | \n19±3 | \n300±24 | \n
DBE10 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 32 (A1) | \n4 | \n434±54 | \n417±23 | \n1.0±0.2 | \n47 | \n17±5 | \n224±15 | \n
DBE20 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 33 (A1) | \n4 | \n419±68 | \n387±41 | \n1.1±0.3 | \n46 | \n15±4 | \n172±17 | \n
ULSD | \n0.58 | \nFigure 28 (B1) | \n4 | \n275±50 | \n373±33 | \n1.0±0.4 | \n29 | \n41±7 | \n1332±12 | \n
Biodiesel | \n0.58 | \nFigure 29 (B1) | \n4 | \n735±57 | \n790±81 | \n0.9±0.3 | \n45 | \n31±3 | \n749±21 | \n
DBE0 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 30 (B1) | \n4 | \n459±74 | \n690±65 | \n0.7±0.2 | \n33 | \n24±3 | \n471±13 | \n
DBE5 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 31 (B1) | \n4 | \n508±76 | \n625±51 | \n0.8±0.2 | \n49 | \n23±3 | \n417±15 | \n
DBE10 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 32 (B1) | \n4 | \n506±61 | \n487±38 | \n1.1±0.1 | \n44 | \n20±4 | \n343±20 | \n
DBE20 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 33 (B1) | \n4 | \n449±98 | \n415±41 | \n1.2±0.4 | \n42 | \n18±2 | \n244±19 | \n
Measurement of the soot agglomerates and their respective primary particles.
In general, the high-engine-load particulate samples for each test fuel exhibit more ordered and clear graphitic structures when compared with low-engine-load samples. At low engine load, particulate samples examined under the TEM micrographs are more amorphous and disordered due to their high content of volatile organic substances in the samples, which is in line with the findings from Lu et al. [42]. While increasing engine load with higher exhaust temperature, volatile organic substances in the samples are burnt out and the particles are then distinct and graphitic in morphology. Zhu et al. [20] in their study reported similar results that crystallite dimension of diesel particulate increases with engine load and exhaust temperature on a light-duty diesel engine.
\nFor ULSD-derived soot, the primary particles possess typical shell-core structures and concentric ring patterns as shown in Figure 28. With an increase in the engine load from 0.17 to 0.58 MPa, the mean fringe length increases from 1.012 to 1.075 nm, the mean tortuosity is approximately in the range of 1.077–1.079 signifying that the fringes are not highly curved, and the mean fringe separation decreases from 0.414 to 0.336 nm. For biodiesel-derived soot, the primary particles possess long-range layers concentrically arranged along the outermost periphery and short layers amorphously inside the inner as shown in Figure 29. When the engine load is increased from 0.17 to 0.58 MPa, the mean fringe length increases from 0.658 to 0.859 nm, the mean tortuosity decreases significantly from 1.117 to 1.111, indicating that the curvature of fringes slightly weakens under high load condition and the mean fringe separation is approximately in the range of 0.182–0.191 nm.
\nFuels | \nLoad (MPa) | \nFigures | \nFringe length (nm) | \nFringe separation (nm) | \nTortuosity | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ULSD | \n0.17 | \nFigure 28 (A3) | \n1.012 ± 0.032 | \n0.414 ± 0.012 | \n1.079 ± 0.032 | \n
Biodiesel | \n0.17 | \nFigure 29 (A3) | \n0.658 ± 0.079 | \n0.191 ± 0.009 | \n1.117 ± 0.040 | \n
DBE0 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 30 (A3) | \n0.969 ± 0.029 | \n0.359 ± 0.023 | \n1.107 ± 0.039 | \n
DBE5 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 31 (A3) | \n0.950 ± 0.020 | \n0.350 ± 0.001 | \n1.109 ± 0.042 | \n
DBE10 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 32 (A3) | \n0.903 ± 0.049 | \n0.335 ± 0.022 | \n1.111 ± 0.027 | \n
DBE20 | \n0.17 | \nFigure 33 (A3) | \n0.836 ± 0.078 | \n0.320 ± 0.011 | \n1.114 ± 0.009 | \n
ULSD | \n0.58 | \nFigure 28 (B3) | \n1.075 ± 0.012 | \n0.336 ± 0.014 | \n1.077 ± 0.030 | \n
Biodiesel | \n0.58 | \nFigure 29 (B3) | \n0.859 ± 0.067 | \n0.182 ± 0.032 | \n1.111 ± 0.038 | \n
DBE0 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 30 (B3) | \n1.033 ± 0.061 | \n0.331 ± 0.019 | \n1.068 ± 0.041 | \n
DBE5 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 31 (B3) | \n0.999 ± 0.041 | \n0.345 ± 0.021 | \n1.105 ± 0.014 | \n
DBE10 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 32 (B3) | \n0.987 ± 0.051 | \n0.204 ± 0.031 | \n1.078 ± 0.033 | \n
DBE20 | \n0.58 | \nFigure 33 (B3) | \n0.947 ± 0.071 | \n0.289 ± 0.024 | \n1.108 ± 0.037 | \n
Measurement of the nanostructure characteristics.
For DBE-derived soot, fullerenic-like nanostructures are observed in Figures 30–33. The soot particles possess spherical buckyballs in center surrounded by the outer graphitic structures. For each blended fuel, increasing engine load increases the mean fringe length but decreases the tortuosity and fringe separation distance. With increasing ethanol contents in the blended fuels, the lamellae are more curved, tortuous, and disorganized. With ethanol addition from 0 to 20%, the mean fringe length reduces from 0.969 to 0.836 nm at 0.17 MPa and from 1.033 to 0.947 nm at 0.58 MPa. As compared with ULSD, DBE blends have lower mean fringe lengths reflecting more amorphous nanostructure while biodiesel has the least mean fringe lengths. The curvature of fringes for DBE blends increases with ethanol addition in particular under low load condition with mean tortuosity of 1.107–1.114 at 0.17 MPa. As for the mean fringe separation distance, ethanol addition has only mild effect and it decreases from 0.359 to 0.320 nm at low load and from 0.331 to 0.289 nm at high load.
\n\nVander Wal et al. [22] reported that amorphous or fullerenic structured soots produced from oxygenated fuels would oxidize faster than graphitic structured soot from conventional diesel fuel thus producing less soot from tailpipe. The increase of tortuosity reflects the more amorphous structures produced from the soot. Tortuosity increases fringe separation such that adjacent carbon layer planes are more separated and more oxygen can access to the highly reactive edge-site carbon for oxidation. Song et al. [50] reported that the more amorphous arrangement within the particles reflected the more edge-site carbon density.
\nBy combining the particulate emissions, and TGA and TEM results, the effects of engine load and fuel oxygenation on particle characteristics can be summarized. For the effect of engine load, it is found from all tested fuels that increasing load can lead to higher BSPM and BSPN emissions with larger primary particles formed but with lower BSVOF emissions. Under high combustion temperature at high load, the primary particles of all fuels exhibit more distinct structures as a consequence of the burnout VOFs. For all fuels, the mean fringe length decreases, and the mean fringe separation and tortuosity increase with the increase in the engine load except for the fringe length of DBE20 and tortuosity of ULSD which are not significantly influenced. Therefore, the engine load affects not only particulate mass-number emissions but also the graphitization of primary particles. For the effect of fuel oxygenation, it is generally found that with higher oxygen content in the fuel, the particulates would have larger percentage of VOF, lower soot burnout temperature (low activation energy), stronger oxidative reactivity, smaller primary particles, and more curved, tortuous, and disorganized nanostructures.
\nIn general, the oxidative reactivity of particulates decreases in the order of biodiesel, DBE20, DBE10, DBE5, DBE0, and ULSD. Therefore, fuel oxygenation has more significant effect on reducing soot burnout temperature, lowering resistance to oxidation, and shifting toward more amorphous structures, thereby affecting particle volatility, oxidation, and morphology.
\nThe performance of current available engine technologies is almost close to the statutory emission limits. In recent years, there has been an increase in fuel-change researches worldwide on use of transport biofuels such as biodiesel and alcohol to reduce engine emissions and fuel consumption as supplement measures without any engine modification works. In this study, engine experiments are performed with diesel-biodiesel blended with 0, 5, 10, and 20% ethanol with intake CO2 ranging from 0 to 4.5%, at 1.5% interval, in a four-cylinder naturally aspirated DI engine tested at 1800 rev/min under different engine loads.
\nEngine performance, combustion characteristics, gaseous emissions, and particulate morphology are evaluated for assessing diesel-biodiesel-ethanol (DBE) blends as future fuel-change technology for using these three fuels efficiently, reducing engine emissions and minimizing reliance on diesel fuel. Each experimental test is repeated three times to ensure that the results are repeatable within the experimental uncertainties. Student’s
DBE blends can effectively reduce the emissions of NO
DBE blends have comparatively higher oxygen content, lower carbon content, and lower diffusion fuel mass than ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD). Increasing ethanol fractions in DBE blends, cetane number decrease leading to longer ignition delay and shorter combustion duration. The improved combustion with more oxygen contents and lower diffusion fuel mass from DBE blends enhance the reductions of brake-specific particulate mass (BSPM) and particle number (BSPN) emissions. The application of DBE blends can attain lower BSPM and BSPN emissions in particular with lesser ultrafine and nanoparticle concentrations than ULSD. On the contrary, biodiesel led to increase of total particle, ultrafine, and nanoparticle concentrations.
CO2 is used to dilute the intake air of a four-cylinder DI diesel engine fueled by DBE blends to reduce NO
The test of thermogravimetric analysis shows that higher percentage of volatile organic fractions (VOF) in fuel will lead to higher reactivity and oxidation rate of particles due to more internal particle surface areas left from the lost VOF for soot oxidation. DBE blends are found oxidized faster with lower activation energy at lower ignition temperature than ULSD while oxidized slower than biodiesel. The oxidative reactivity of particles increases in order of ULSD, DBE0, DBE5, DBE10, DBE20, and biodiesel.
Internal nanostructure morphology of soot governs the particle oxidative reactivity. Agglomerates from different fuels are found to be composed of fine primary particles forming a mixture of chain-like structures and clusters of spherules. Increasing the fuel oxygenation leads to the increase of amorphous nanostructure characterized by smaller particle size, shorter and curved fringe-length distribution, shorter fringe separation, and higher tortuosity. Increasing the ethanol contents in DBE blends, the lamella becomes more curved, tortuous, and disorganized. The reactivity of DBE blends is generally higher than ULSD. However, the high oxygen and VOF contents in biodiesel are the major reasons for its highest reactivity among the test fuels though its fringe length and tortuosity are longer and lower respectively than DBE blends.
Overall, it is concluded that the use of DBE blends can effectively reduce the NO
The experimental results in this study could be applied directly in those countries with diesel engines and diesel fuel sulfur levels similar to the test Euro 2 engine and 50 ppm containing ULSD used in this study. While for those countries with newer technology-based diesel engines or lower sulfur-containing diesel fuels, the experimental results could be served as the reference data, but mapping work with revalidation test on engine performance, combustion characteristics, and emission performance is required when using DBE blends as transport biofuels.
\nThe liver contributes significantly to the metabolism and removal of drugs from the human body [1]. Metabolization of drugs and xenobiotics to nontoxic substances in the liver by enzymes is important for the proper function of the body, alteration in these statuses leads to a shift of metabolism toward the production of oxidants, which coheres to lipids or nuclear proteins which results in mutations, membrane damage, and alteration of enzyme activity respectively which further leads to organ malfunction. The production of oxidants is the most common action in the pathogenesis of liver damage by pharmaceutical drugs and herbal products [2]. Liver damage may occur due to environmental toxicants, drugs, and microbial metabolites. There are two sets of enzymes, phase I and phase II enzymes which play a very important role in the metabolism and detoxification of various drugs and other toxins. Paracetamol is one of the most commonly used drugs as an analgesic and antipyretic, it is a structural analog of phenacetin, which was withdrawn due to concerns for nephrotoxicity. Paracetamol is relatively safe compared with other NSAIDS; however, overdose can cause a spectrum of liver injuries from mild elevation in liver enzymes to acute liver failure and encephalopathy [3]. A lot of research has been conducted to know the pathogenesis of paracetamol-induced liver toxicity. N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) is used as an antidote for paracetamol-overdosed patients; however, it should be administered as early as possible [4]. It has now been recognized that paracetamol toxicity consists of multiple pathways, including paracetamol metabolism, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, sterile inflammation, microcirculatory dysfunction, and compensatory liver repair and regeneration. Some patients with liver failure require liver transplantation for survival [5]. In this chapter, we have discussed the paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity, pathophysiology, and factors that increase the risk of its toxicity, prevention, treatment, and patient outcome.
Paracetamol overdose is among one of the commonest causes of acute liver failure in some countries. The common settings for paracetamol-induced liver injury are suicidal overdose, unintentionally or accidentally in alcoholics, and with therapeutic use [6]. Studies done in the adult population have shown the most common etiology of acute liver failure (40%) was paracetamol overdose, more with unintentional intake rather than taken for suicide [7, 8]. However, a multicenter prospective study of pediatric patients reported that only 14% of acute liver failure is attributed to paracetamol overdose [9]. In a study on patients with an unintentional overdose of narcotic users, around 30% of patients were also taking over-the-counter paracetamol along with narcotic drugs. Patients sometimes are not knowing that their pain-reliving medicines advised by a physician are in combination with paracetamol and thus may take these medications along with oral over-the-counter paracetamol resulting in overdose. Due to delayed presentation and treatment, risk of mortality is comparatively more with unintentional overdose rather than intentional overdosage [10]. In 19% and 12.5% of indeterminate ALF, paracetamol-protein adducts were identified [11, 12]. In chronic alcoholics, paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity has been well recognized and reported to occur at lower doses compared with non-alcoholics [13, 14]. In a study on chronic alcoholics with paracetamol hepatotoxicity, the average toxic dose of paracetamol was 7 g per day; however, a lower dose of 2.5 g per day has also found to cause toxicity [15]. Paracetamol hepatotoxicity had been found with ingestion of therapeutic doses in individuals with malnutrition, advanced age, chronic pulmonary diseases, cardiac dysfunction, and chronic liver disease [16]. Drug interactions of paracetamol with other drugs (e.g., anticonvulsants, antitubercular) also result in hepatotoxicity at lower doses [17, 18].
In single oral ingestion, the toxic dose for children is more than 200 mg/kg of body weight, whereas in adults and adolescents, it is more than 7.5 g. In children younger than 6 years of age, toxicity occurs after ingestion of more than 75 mg/kg body weight per day. Acute toxic dose is in a single dose in repeated dosing [19], However, toxic dose also varies in different ethical groups like in Japanese lower doses may cause intoxication [20]. Children are found to be less sensitive to acute intoxication than adults, and this may be due to larger glutathione stores and comparatively larger liver [21].
Paracetamol enters the enterohepatic circulation after absorption in the gut and the liver by glucuronidation and sulfation 95% of its metabolized, and only a small amount of the drug is removed by the kidneys. In therapeutic doses, 2.7 hours is the mean elimination half-life of paracetamol ingestion [22]. N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) is formed by oxidation reaction in approximately 5% fraction of the drug, and this further binds to cysteine, DNA, and lipids. Antioxidant glutathione (GSH) detoxifies NAPQI by forming a mercapturic metabolite, which is removed by the kidneys
Metabolism of paracetamol.
Paracetamol overdose identification is of significant value as an early start of treatment can prevent morbidity and mortality significantly. Many a times, patients may not tell the information about paracetamol ingestion and exact dosage. The most common symptoms are malaise, nausea with/without vomiting, and abdominal pain, as these symptoms are not peculiar leading to difficulty in making the diagnosis in absence of a history of overdose. The clinical course of paracetamol hepatotoxicity has four established sequential phases [27]. Each phase usually occurs following a fixed time interval after the paracetamol over-ingestion; however, these may be modified by factors like the formulation (mixed with opiate preparations, sustained release, etc.), co-ingestion (alcohol, herbal supplements, or other pharmaceutical drugs), and presence of chronic liver disease. The first phase starts within the first 24 hours of intake of the drug and usually has symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, muscle aches, dullness, and perspiration. However, some patients may remain asymptomatic in this phase, which leads to a delay in the diagnosis in patients who are unaware of their overdose. Biochemically liver transaminase values are usually normal in this phase. In the second phase that occurs 24 hours to 72 hours after intake, transaminases and bilirubin begin to rise and prothrombin time may be prolonged [28, 29]. Liver transaminase [alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST)] may rise to several thousand IU [30]. There are lesser increases in alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin. In phase III that occurs 72 hours to 96 hours after ingestion, liver injury occurs maximally in this phase and is characterized by continued progression of hepatotoxicity, possibly fulminant hepatic failure, and the onset of multiorgan system failure and hypoglycemia, jaundice, oliguria, acute tubular necrosis, encephalopathy, coagulopathy and lactic acidosis, central nervous system symptoms including confusion, somnolence, or coma. The risk of mortality is maximum in the third phase, mostly due to multi-organ dysfunction. There is a “two-hit” mechanism in the development of lactic acidosis one is that NAPQI in excess causes mitochondrial dysregulation, which is further followed subsequently by tissue hypoxia and decreased hepatic metabolism and clearance of lactate [8, 31]. Phase IV occurs after approximately 96 hours after the recovery from the third phase, the patient may either die from liver failure and its complications or start to recover. Those who improve liver functions usually return to normal within three weeks, with the histological improvement of the liver within 3 months. Usually, the fourth phase lasts for 1 to 2 weeks, but its duration varies from patient to patient. Aminotransferase elevations usually resolve within two weeks duration. An early signal of severe toxicity is prolonged prothrombin time within 30-hour of paracetamol ingestion [32]. Usually, bilirubin levels do not go higher as compared with liver failure due to other etiology [33]. Acute renal failure may occur in association with hepatotoxicity and also can occur as the liver injury is improving and some may even need dialysis [34, 35, 36]. A distinguished feature of paracetamol overdose in chronic alcoholics is seen in which laboratory abnormalities may include extremely high serum aminotransferase levels (AST > ALT) and prolonged prothrombin time within a small time frame of ingestion [37].
King’s College criteria are used for mortality prediction in ALF caused by paracetamol. The criteria include the presence of metabolic acidosis (arterial pH < 7.30) alone OR the presence of these three: Grade III or IV hepatic encephalopathy (HE), prothrombin time (PT) > 100 sec, and creatinine level > 3.4 mg/dL [38].
On assessment of paracetamol overdose, a detailed history should be taken, which should include ingested dose, co-intake of other pharmaceutical drugs or herbal medications, alcohol intake (acute and chronic), presence of any liver disease or disorder, and any other co-morbidity. Biochemical parameters including serum AST, ALT, bilirubin, prothrombin time, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, electrolytes, complete blood count, and urinalysis should be done. The plasma paracetamol levels should be sent for measurement ideally 4 hours after ingestion or as early as 24 hours, but not before 4 hours because continuous absorption of paracetamol leads to falsely low levels. The test should be repeated after 4 hours of the first test and then at 16, 24, and 32 hours after ingestion. Management for paracetamol overdose includes prevention of absorption from the gut, elimination of absorbed paracetamol from the blood, inhibition of formation of toxic metabolite NAPQI, and detoxification of NAPQI. The timing of presentation and the degree of hepatic decompensation guide the choice of therapy. Gastric lavage, administration of activated charcoal, and ipecacuanha (induces emesis) can prevent or decrease gut absorption within the first few hours after ingestion [39, 40]. NAC is used as an antidote in paracetamol overdose, and if initiated within the first 8 hours from the time of ingestion or overdose, a good response is seen. Methionine and cysteamine also cause detoxification of NAPQI, but have shown severe adverse central nervous system effects so not used commonly [41]. It has been found that starting NAC therapy as late as 36 hours after overdose leads to a significantly better outcome in paracetamol hepatotoxicity [42]. NAC acts by restoring glutathione levels (hydrolyzed to cysteine, which restores glutathione), attaching to NAPQI and by increasing conjugation reaction in hepatocytes leading to the formation of non-toxic products [43]. Mortality from paracetamol overdose had declined from 5% without the use of antidote to 0.7% with the use of NAC. Cimetidine was used initially to prevent the formation of NAPQI as it inhibits cytochrome P450 but was not effective in many trials [44, 45]. Liver transplantation should be considered to prevent mortality in selected cases.
The standard dosage of oral NAC is a single dose of 140 mg per kg and after that 17 doses of 70 mg per kg over 72 hours. The total dose thus will be 1330 mg/kg. The standard dosage of intravenous NAC is typically three weight-based doses; the first dose is 150 mg per kg in the first 1 hour, the second dose is 50 mg per kg to be given over 4 hours, and lastly, third dose is 100 mg per kg to be given over 16 hours [46]. Higher hepatic concentrations can be achieved by oral NAC therapy, and the only issue is that it is unpalatable, also difficult for children to consume so many doses, and may cause vomiting. Intravenous N-acetylcysteine therapy results in higher plasma concentrations and is more convenient for those who are vomiting; side effects of parentally given NAC can be an allergic reaction, which is mostly mild and treated by antihistaminics and by temporarily stopping intravenous NAC [47].
The Rumack–Matthew nomogram is the semilogarithmic plot of plasma paracetamol levels with time and is used to assess potential hepatotoxicity. This nomogram was developed retrospectively based on data from patients who has single paracetamol overdose and acute ingestions of paracetamol and had not received treatment with the antidote. The nomogram forecasts potential toxicity from 4 hours to 24 hours following ingestion. The upper line of the nomogram is the “probable” line, also known as the Rumack–Matthew line
Rumack–Matthew nomogram: Serum paracetamol concentration vs. time post ingestion. Taken from Rumack and Matthew [
In a case of single ingestion of paracetamol overdose, obtain paracetamol concentration at as early as possible but not before 4 hours. If the paracetamol concentration on the Rumack–Matthew nomogram is above the “treatment line” (the line connecting 150 μg/mL [993 μmol/L] at 4 hours and 4.7 μg/mL [31 μmol/L] at 24 hours), administration of NAC is indicated. If time of ingestion is not known exactly, then it is less than 24 hours post-ingestion NAC should be started, if plotted above treatment line. In a case where patient has ingested extended-release formulations or co-ingested with other drugs like opioids, anticholinergics, or other medications that slows gut motility, if the initial 4-hour concentration plots above the treatment line, NAC should be initiated within 8 hours post-ingestion [52].
Acute liver failure is defined as severe acute liver injury for fewer than 26-week duration with encephalopathy and impaired synthetic function (INR >1.5 or higher) in a patient without pre-existing liver disease. ALF can lead to multiorgan dysfunction, which can present as hypotension, acute renal failure, coagulopathy, encephalopathy, sepsis, and cerebral edema. Intensive care is needed for patient with acute liver failure as they may deteriorate rapidly. A proper centra venous line and arterial line for hemodynamic monitoring and, as well as a urinary catheter for urine output monitoring. Coagulation parameters, blood counts, metabolic panels, blood sugar, and arterial blood gases are to be measured with proper time intervals. The neurological status should be evaluated regularly, for cerebral edema and intracranial pressure monitoring when intracranial hypertension is identified [53, 54]. Patient should be admitted in intensive care unit in presence of encephalopathy and coagulopathy. Due to risk of rapid deterioration, a proper communication with liver transplant centers should be done and transfer decisions should be considered for those who had rising INR, rising creatinine or decreasing urine output, metabolic acidosis, hypotension, or/and encephalopathy [55]. Retrospective study showed treatment after 10–36 hours with NAC was associated with a mortality of 37% when compared with 58% in patients given supportive treatment only, while prospective study with 50 patients with established liver failure showed mortality was 20% in the treated group versus 48%
The morbidity and mortality from paracetamol overdose vary from patient to patient, and also depend on underlying comorbidities, nutritional status, history of alcoholism and co ingestion of other drugs. Overdose nay result in mild liver injury, clinically significant hepatotoxicity, or death, and timely administration of antidote directs prognosis. Death from paracetamol overdose in developed countries has decreased to 1–2% after the use of N-Acetyl cysteine, which was previously much higher (6–25%).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\\n\\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\\n\\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\\n\\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\\n\\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\\n\\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\nTERMINATION
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\\n\\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nMISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\nAUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81321",title:"Velocity Planning via Model-Based Reinforcement Learning: Demonstrating Results on PILCO for One-Dimensional Linear Motion with Bounded Acceleration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103690",signatures:"Hsuan-Cheng Liao, Han-Jung Chou and Jing-Sin Liu",slug:"velocity-planning-via-model-based-reinforcement-learning-demonstrating-results-on-pilco-for-one-dime",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Applied Intelligence - 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