The protein families with their identity, length and PDB ID; this data retrieved from http://dsp.jpl.nasa.gov/.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"241",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fundamental Aspects of DNA Replication",title:"Fundamental Aspects of DNA Replication",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"DNA replication, the process of copying one double stranded DNA molecule to produce two identical copies, is at the heart of cell proliferation. 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Since the first identification in the 1970s, NK cells have become a hot spot in the field of immunology attributed to the unique manifestations of innate and adaptive immune responses. Differ from other conterparters (e.g., T cells, B cells), NK cells function via secretion (e.g., IFN-γ, granulase, and perforin), antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), and direct cytolytic effect, and in particular, dispense with the requirement of prior sensitization or recognition of peptide antigens. To date, numerous investigations have indicated the preferable outcomes with NK cell-based cytotherapy and immunotherapy against adventitious infection, diseases of aging, and multiple malignant tumors including hematologic malignancies and metastatic solid tumors. Simultaneously, state-of-the-art updates also indicated the involvement of NK cells in tumor escape, aging, and disease occurrence, which collectively highlight the indispensable role in physiological immunologic homeostasis and pathological immunologic dissonance. This book will intend to introduce the fundamental knowledge of NK cells and the concomitant challenges and foreground in the field, such as conception, biofunctions, preclinical and clinical explorations, standardization, and large-scale preparations for regenerative medicine. Overall, this book will provide overwhelming new references for the development of the "off-the-shelf" NK cell products for immunotherapy.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-481-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-480-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-482-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5576cda9d50adf4e4256e47427560510",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Leisheng Zhang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12387.jpg",keywords:"NK Cell Definition, NK Cell Classification, NK Cell Biofunction, Immune Regulatory Network, Hematologic Malignancies, Metastatic Solid Tumors, Molecule Mechanism, Infectious Diseases, Preclinical Practice, Clinical Trials, Cancer Immunotherapy, Industrial Production",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"23 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Zhang is an associate professor at Gansu Provincial Hospital and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Hefei Institutes of Physical Science. He received a Ph.D. degree from the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College and received postdoctoral research training at Nankai University and CAS. He is a CSCB and CSBE member, holder of over twenty registered patents, and co-author of over forty papers and ten books/book chapters.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"439674",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Leisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"leisheng-zhang",fullName:"Leisheng Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/439674/images/system/439674.jpg",biography:"Leisheng Zhang, is the associate professor in Gansu Provincial Hospital and Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Hefei Institutes of Physical Science. He received Ph.D degree in Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, and received postdoctoral research training in Nankai University and CAS. His research interests mainly focus on the biological function and molecular mechanism of stem cells and immune cells, and in particular, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and natural killer (NK) cells including cellular phenotype and genomic analysis, and applied transformation research. With the aid of small molecule library-based cell programming or gene-editing strategy, they have explored the feasibility for high-efficient of total or specific subpopulation of NK cell generation from hPSCs or peripartum tissues. Meanwhile, by utilizing the high-throughput sequencing (e.g., RNA-SEQ, WGS, Single cell sequencing) and bioinformatic analysis, Dr Zhang and the colleagues are aiming to systematically reveal the multifaceted characteristics of MSCs or NK cells derived from healthy donors and clinical patients both at the cellular and molecular levels. Dr Zhang and the colleagues have published over forty papers and over 10 books/book chapters. Representative studies of Dr Zhang are available such as Cell Research (2015), Journal of Hematology & Oncology (2017), Stem Cell Reports (2018), Stem Cell Research & Therapy (2018, 2019a, 2019b, 2020, 2021), Stem Cell Reviews and Reports (2020), Cell & Bioscience (2020), Cell Proliferation (2021), Stem Cells International (2020, 2021), American Journal of Cancer Research (2021, 2022), Biomarker Research (2022).",institutionString:"Hefei Institutes of Physical Science",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Hefei Institutes of Physical Science",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"478200",firstName:"Dominik",lastName:"Samardzija",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"dominik@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Associated optimization drawback either deals with increment or minimization in the true operation for simplest state of affairs while constantly screening the input elements at intervals associated with allowed set of accessible alternatives [2].
\nIn 1995, PSO was purposed by Dr. Russell Eberhart and Dr. James Kennedy after inspired by flocking and schooling patterns of birds and fish, respectively. Originally, PSO was established with an intent to design laptop codes based on simulations of bird flocking around food sources. However, developers later realized and established PSO algorithm utility in resolving optimization problems [3].
\nAlbeit, PSO sounds complicated and complex but it is very simple and straightforward algorithm. According to this algorithm, a set of variables will tend acquire a value close to the element with highest value of the target at any given interval or moment. For instance, imagine a flock of birds hovering over a region where they can sense hidden supply of food. The one close to food will chirp loudest while other birds will follow the path toward him. Additionally, even if one bird circling opposite approaches nearer to food than primary bird, then this bird chirp louder that makes other birds to follow him. Likewise, this process continues until all the birds landed on food. Hence, PSO was recommended as an easy and simple algorithm for implementation [4–6].
\nIn PSO algorithmic program, every individual is termed as “particle or element” and subjected to acceleration in an especially multidimensional space or region that represents the probability area. Also, particles possess the ability to store information as memory and thus, remember their respective previous position in that region. Moreover, no restrictions are applicable to the particles and they equally share the purpose in the postulated space while retaining their uniqueness conserved. So, every element displacement movement is consequences of associated primary random speed and arbitrary weighted effects that includes distinctiveness and nature of the particles, tendency of particles to come back on their respective most suitable previous position as well as particles trick toward the neighborhood’s best previous positions [7]. Basic PSO algorithmic program can be classified further into two versions as continuous PSO algorithm and binary PSO algorithm.
\nThis type of algorithmic program finds the feasible area for elements is a real-valued multidimensional region, and develops the location of each particle in such a way that search region can be victimization by use of subsequent Eqs. (1) and Eq. (2) [8]:
\nwhere \n
Herein, most suitable position for particle in the feasible region discovered by neighbor’s particle (Pg) is depend on the category of nominated neighborhood. However, in basic PSO algorithm, generally a global (gbest) or local (lbest) neighborhood is employed for finding a region for particle in the search region. For the implementation of global neighborhood, all neighbor particles in feasible region are considered for calculating Pg. But only certain or selected number of particles composing the neighborhood among the whole set of population in the search area are considered in case of local neighborhood. It is important to mentioned that a given particles does not change its local neighborhood during the iteration of algorithm.
\nAlso, during implementation of algorithmic program, a limit \n
A binary PSO algorithm program have been additionally developed. This version of PSO gained less attention compare to previous versions of the program. Although, particle position is not a true value in binary (0 or 1), but logistic function of element velocity is generally employed to calculate feasible region for the particle location. In other words, element location is arbitrary in the search region generated by victimization of distribution. Hence, Eq. (3) can be used to study the updated particle position in the feasible distribution region [10]:
\nwhere \n
In conclusion, binary PSO algorithm program still conduct the random search for the particle position in feasible region (place in each direction where there is a probability of finding 0.5 to become either 0 or 1) without the influence of individual and social influences. The selection of parameters on binary version of PSO algorithm has not been widely studied and hence, various problems are still demands to be solved. However, some modifications on the binary algorithmic equations have been proposed in the form of quantum approach. Additionally, recent studies have been focused on the classification issues. However, recently evolutionary programming (EP) have been successfully used to solve the various numerical and combinatorial optimization problems [11].
\nMultiple alignment of macromolecule sequences serves a critical role in various applications such as phylogenetic tree estimation and secondary structure prediction. Albeit, different approaches have been documented on the sequence comparison that differ from info searches to secondary structure prediction of the macromolecule. However, this approach involves comparison between two or more sequences by aligning them to predict the result of evolution across an entire macromolecule set. However, this process is not easy a task and under such conditions, a typical heuristic is followed for the alignment of multiple sequences in such a way to enhanced SP score. Hence, aspects of algorithms for alignment of multiple sequences have been an awfully dynamic analysis field [12].
\nIn bioinformatics, foremost vital information stored in the form of codes on biological sequences sets that include deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences and macromolecule sequences. For instance, a DNA sequence is composed of four string nucleotides represented by symbols, i.e., A, C, G, T while a macromolecule sequence such as protein may vary up to 20 amino acid symbols set. Interestingly during evolution, there may occurred insertion, deletion or changes in the segments of biological sequences. Hence, to spotlight the similarities among various selected sequences, generally suitable way is to add distance between the nucleotides to obtain better range of sequence similar regions. The similarity of aligned sequences can be calculated by using rating operator that relies on the matrix and allocates score to each type of codes (mutation based probability). For instance, foremost ordinarily employed matrices for proteins is percept accepted mutation (PAM) and blocks substitution matrix (BLOSUM) [34]. Herein, addition of small distances is required to circumvent the insertion of associated set of amino acids. The method of discovering an associate optimum match among different orders is commonly termed as sequence alignment [12].
\nThe sequence alignment drawback may be thought-about as associate optimization drawback within which target has to maximize the rating operate. Thus, PSO algorithmic was tailored to employ for biological sequences. Within tailored PSO algorithm, an element signifies a sequence alignment. Since, key protocol of PSO algorithm depends on particle movements toward lead particle, appropriate operators are projected to employ this mechanism. The overall algorithmic program is described as [12];
\nProduce a group of initial elements.
\nConfirm the lead element gbest.
\nReplication till conclusion condition is fulfilled, i.e.,
live displacement between gbest and each element.
movement each element toward gbest.
confirmation the leader particle.
The end conditions for algorithmic program is the maximum number of repetitions, or several repetitions after that most suitable score does not show any further improvement. Thus, contained thought of PSO algorithm is a set of elements arbitrarily distributed over a search region that are progressively moving to a location where swarm discovered a result that cannot be improved any longer [12].
\nThe projected algorithmic, termed as PSOMSA, was enforced to check its performance. The quantity of particles decided to take under consideration; length of sequences and number of sequences considered for alignment. Hence, to check algorithm program, different eight sets of macromolecules completely with different dimensions and identity percentages sequence were hand-picked from arrangements info predicted by BALiBASE. Finally, one macromolecule set was hand-picked from every length class (short, medium and large), and one from every of distinctiveness proportion (less than 25%, between 25% and 40% and greater that 35%) [12]. The protein families used in this program are shown in the Table 1.
\nS. No. | \nName | \nIdentity | \nLength | \nPDB ID | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nb-galactosidase | \n20–40 | \nLong | \n1AC5 | \n
2. | \nAldehyde dehydrogenase | \n>35 | \nLong | \n1AD3 | \n
3. | \nRepressor | \n<25 | \nShort | \n1R69 | \n
4. | \nElastase | \n>35 | \nMedium | \n1EZM | \n
5. | \nCytochrome p450 | \n<25 | \nLong | \n1CPT | \n
6. | \nHiv-1 protease | \n>35 | \nShort | \n1FMB | \n
7. | \nCardiotoxin | \n20–40 | \nShort | \n1TGX | \n
8. | \nAlpha-trichosanthin | \n20–40 | \nMedium | \n1MRJ | \n
The protein families with their identity, length and PDB ID; this data retrieved from http://dsp.jpl.nasa.gov/.
These macromolecule families were antecedent aligned victimization by the well-known algorithmic program Clustal X. It was observed that PSOMSA algorithm program have superior performance in comparison to Clustal X, particularly once the information has smaller sequences and shorter length. But once information features such as longer length results are comparable, still there are several enhancements that can be done in PSOMSA to obtained improved results. Besides, new fitness functions supported totally dissimilar rating strategies are feasible for easy developments [12].
\nIn present scenario, high-density DNA microarrays are the foremost advanced tools employed in genomic studies. The advancement in microarray technology permits to study simultaneous expression stages of many genes at the same time. Recent studies have documented the use of microarrays in tumor classification. Herein, factor choice played an important role in the factor expression-based tumor classification systems. Microarray experiments produce immense gene expression datasets, however, comparably in less time than conventional techniques. Also, most of genes monitored in microarray technology could also be orthogonal for study and probably constrain the forecast performance by classification rule through involvement of related genes. This drawback is factor choice and assortment of inequitable genes is crucial to raise the accuracy, and to reduce the process complexness and value. By choosing relevant genes, typical classification methods can be useful for microarray generated information. Moreover, factor choice could also highlight those relevant genes and might altered the biology to achieve vital perception into genetic nature of disorder, as well as possible mechanisms to solve it [13].
\nPSO at the server of Tabu Search (TS) have been operated to design a hybrid algorithmic program that aimed at factor based choice for tumor classification, termed as HPSOTS. The essential steps followed during the execution of this hybrid algorithmic program are as follow [13];
\nThe selection of factors that are extremely indicative of tissue classification may be included with key phase for emerging triple-crown gene expression-based information study program. A hybrid PSO and TS (HPSOTS) method for factor choice might be employed for tumor classification. The incorporation of TS as neighborhood enhancement practice allows HPSOTS algorithmic program to overleap with local optima and results into fitting performance.
\nIn prokaryotic organisms, they contained one or additional repeated genes, at equivalent DNA that are interlinked for biological function regulations are termed as Operons. These set of genes are encoded into a single-strand of RNA sequence. This concurrent transcription of more than one gene was concluded to contribute equally in biological roles and straight effect the regulation of one another. Hence, DNA prediction are employed to deduce function of theoretical proteins present encoded by different genes on the same sequence. A widely recognized example is lac operon in
Operons in microorganism genomes also comprise information for drug style and deciding macromolecule roles. For example, gram-positive staphylococci bacteria may be a human infective agent that is answerable for community-acquired and healthcare facility infections. Thus, DNA prediction on these bacteria will facilitate drug target identification and can be used for the designing a potential antibiotics. However, available data on operons is less and experimental approaches for envisaging the operons likely to be tough for implementation. In order to achieve higher insight, quantity and association of operons in microbial genome need to be examined in greater details. In this regard, well understanding of rules for transcription is crucial because it enable researchers to precisely envisage the operons association with genome of the microorganism.
\nMany scientists have anticipated properties that can be applied precisely to forecast the operons. These assets can be further divided into five subsequent groups as: intergenic distance, preserved factor clusters, sequence order and experimental proof. In each of same classes, it is crucial to discover the promoter and eradicator on DNA margins to spot biologically most characteristic properties. The only associated important forecast property is to watch whether gap between factor sets at intervals in DNA is smaller than gap among set of genes at edges of transcription units (TUB pairs). The gap stuff yields excellent DNA prediction results [15].
\nMany algorithms program are anticipated to suitably counter the sensitivity and specificity in DNA forecast. Jacob et al. projected associate algorithmic program target-hunting by symbolic logic. Symbolic logic does not trust advanced mathematical methods to compute fitness standards of a body. GA employed intergenic gaps, biochemical pathways, cluster of orthologous teams and microarray encoded information to envisage set of genes in the genome. Jacob et al. had also purposed support vector machine (SVM) algorithmic to envisage the operons. This technique employed biological assets as SVM input vectors while splits these factor gathered into operon pairs as well as non-operon pairs [16]. Also, a comparison analysis has been conducted on extra predictors genome-specific, DVDA, FGENESB, ODB, OFS, OPERON, JPOP, VIMSS, UNIPOP and genome-wide DNA forecast in
BPSO may be a rehabilitated algorithmic program for DNA prediction. To validate the practicability of tactic, index chance on individual assets of
In BPSO, every element epitomizes a contender resolution to matter while swarm comprises “N” number of elements moving in D-dimension for exploration region till conditions for restrictions are fulfilled. The associated inertia weight with score of one is employed at every generation. The gbest value will be attained when most range of 100 repetitions have been deceased and then allowed us to discuss the steps of algorithm program one by one as follow;
\nBPSO was employed to forecast operons supported by intergenic gaps, biochemical pathway and factor dimension magnitude relation assets. The experimental data showed that purposed technique not only solely increases the accurateness for DNA forecast by 3 order information on tested sets but it also further reduces execution time required for calculation process [15].
\nThe principle reason to improve the work, that allowed practicing suitable resolution for underneath set, is modern-day constraints supplied to us. Present days, scientist with emblem in new modern days offered several answers to non-linear and linear improvement troubles without any doubt. Affiliation with arithmetic in nursing improvement downside includes a fitness perform representation. This depend on group with cutting-edge constraints that represents the answer to this relied extensive varied area. Typically, normal development strategies hold square degree focused over evaluation of modern day for primary derivatives. So, we can find out superior solution on some well-equipped grounds in nature.
\nPreliminary goal is to find out optima for several unusual and tough development surfaces. Presently, many amended algorithms which are free from spin country-of-the-art have been purposed and applied. The improvement in algorithms is associated with nursing smart and searching for disadvantage; wherever one or a whole set of modern-day seller’s rectangular diploma used to train session targets on a study of landscape and representing unnatural ground for development of drawback.
\nLater in cutting-edge of twentieth century, Netherlands pioneered an opportunity insight on natural method for trying to find algorithms, and originated a method to this point open-ended disadvantage to non-linear development issues. Stimulated through herbal variations in modern-day organic species, Netherlands resonated Darwinian idea by his maximum up to date and popular gadget, currently termed as genetic algorithms (GA) [17]. Netherlands and his co-workers together with Goldberg and DeJong, generalized GA concept. In this technique, organic crossovers and modern chromosomal mutations may be realized to elaborate the identical antique modern day, the answers over consecutive iterations. In the middle 1990s, Eberhart and Kennedy postulated a change preference to the advanced non-linear improvement downside with useful resource of latest modern manner emulating the collective behavior of present day chicken flocks and particles. The birds approach, cutting-edge craig painter and socio-cognition known as their product of PSO. While, Worth and Storn took perilous decision to replace the critically overlapping and mutation in GA through unique operators. Thus, they purposed the precise differential operator to address the problem. They projected an opportunity system supported this operator, and referred to as it differential evolution.
\nEvery algorithm does not need any gradient info while extremely-modern-day carry out the optimization through certainly primitive mathematical operators and square degree methods. They may be enforced in any programming language rather truly and minimization of parameters for standardization. Approach normal performance does no longer visit pot severely with growth cutting-edge search location dimensions. Those problems possibly have cutting-edge-day algorithms inside the region holding contemporary tool intelligence and informatics [17].
\nThe use of drastically studied thermodynamic version, a detailed research on modern-day several requirements for designing sequences that intended to adopt a goal as secondary form [18]. The format contemporary DNA and RNA sequences are crucial for loads endeavors, from DNA nanotechnology, to PCR-based totally simply software as well as DNA hybridization arrays. Outcomes inside literature rely upon modern day layout standards tailored specific to the necessities of modern-day software. Generally, strategies used are from extremely-present day collections of symmetry minimization and minimum free-strength pride usually positioned into effect awful format, and may be bolstered by introducing a powerful layout trouble [18]. The superior layout techniques need to explicitly place into effect of each format paradigm (optimize affinity for the purpose shape) and a horrific format paradigm (optimize speciality for the aim form). Also, it has been observed that designing of thermodynamic balance does not determine folding kinetics, emphasizing the opportunity for extending layout requirements to goal kinetic in modern-day power landscape [18].
\nWe began out our evaluation via exploring the IEEE Xplore record for credentials similar to the hunt word “particle swarm optimization.” Besides, dividing PSO programs into regions is hard. So, as we stated inside the preceding phase, element mechanized approach. This comes to be completed through latest programs. After manually aside from determiners, adjectives, etc., this process generated over 4000 exclusive terms. Following, we used vital detail phrases to describe similarity relationship among the used articles to state a similarity among main terms. The collected information has been manually examined for importance of problem in modern-day packages. A total of 928 main phrases remained after the filtering method. Each paper has grown to be assigned a vector with 928 factors. Every detail showed, how regularly modern key time seemed to choose out and summaries the ultra-modern corresponding paper. Each detail represented how ultra-current corresponding key time seemed to call abstract and modern-day papers. Further, each key time period emerges as assigned a vector with 1100 factors. Further, we stated that similarity among key terms because of reality of scalar results produced are the equivalent vectors. We can hire graphical illustrating applications to gather graphic depictions of present day PSO software papers, PSO software regions and their associations. Those similarities relationships result into respective graph structures in the paper and main term “areas,” in which every articles links to a node and nodes are connected via ends, likeness among the corresponding papers/terms in above a few prefixed thresholds. For that reason, we used modern open-deliver sketch software application Neato (http://www.Graphviz.Org). On this application software, weigh the ultra-modern rims in a graph and results are interpreted as attractive forces among nodes. Starting from a random placement, this tool iteratively adjusts the present-day nodes in and try to minimize the energy in the device. Attractive forces are balanced thru an essential repulsive pressure among nodes to prevent the graph from collapsing to a single detail. Also, zooming on regions in which excessive density ultra-present-day hyperlinks are present, it is easy to gather semi quantitative evidence from ultra-modern which can be critical for software regions in PSO [19].
\nOptimization is geared inside the path contemporary to identifying viable method for problems underneath a given set of current situations. PSO is computational approach for optimizing a problem by use of iterative development present day candidate that answer nearly approximately a given set contemporary constraints. Candidate solutions featured with particles and PSO used to optimize a problem by aid contemporary-day transferring them to search for regular place with an easy mathematical relation, primarily based on their pace and function. Every particle is guided in a direction by cutting-edge day stated feature for searching out vicinity. However, motion is usually recommended with useful resource current of said features by the community. The regarded functions that seeking out vicinity gets up to date as higher positions are decided with beneficial and useful resource from present day numerous particles.
\nThis expectedly actions of swarm in the direction modern can be used for possible answer. The inter- and intra-base pairing interactions between molecules that result into secondary forms of nucleic acids. Modern-day, truth of pattern today’s base-pairing determines the overall form of molecules and secondary form influences the layout state-of-the-art by employing nucleotide structures. Moreover, stem-loop also referred as hairpin or hairpin loop is an intra-molecular base pairing sample taking place in the single-stranded DNA or in the RNA. Such base pairing occurred at the identical time of regions identical to the strand base-pair to form a double helix and terminating in an unpaired loop. This serves as a template for hundreds RNA secondary systems. The stem loops have a function in law extremely-contemporary replication, translation and transcription in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.
\nRecently it was documented that in bacterial macromolecules such as RNA stem loop complements with fantastic expression of non-expressible genes in its genome. Whereas, RNA stem-loop is perception to overwhelm prolonged variety of communications at the initiation site for translation and gene transcription for the specific mRNA sets. Initiation sites for translational process holds attraction toward the ribosome binding sites and has prolonged-installation one after the other. Recently, HIV type 1 virus was observed with duplex establishment because of nucleotides in stem loop that play a critical role in viral contamination and macromolecular complex of the entire genome. In addition,
This state-of-the-art channelized the law that present day stem loop areas may be useful in blunting the virulence of modern-day that includes many sickness inflicting microorganisms. Accurate prediction of modern-day DNA/RNA stems will contribute to channelize the regulation. The palindromic sequences shape in backbone of current-day bacterial interspersed mosaic elements (bimes). Typically, in prokaryotic genomes, non-coding areas are brief while characteristic gene expression regulating elements referred to ultra-modern reality and precept elements. However, presence of trendy several household’s modern repetitive factors in one’s intergenic areas; which can be shorter than insertion sequences (IS) and normally lack protein coding functionality as well as their functionality, stays eluding the researchers. Bacterial interspersed mosaic elements (BIMES) are new operons or among the co-transcribed areas. Approximately, 500 BIMES are identified to be scattered over the genome modern-day
The BIMES are composed of mosaic aggregate with numerous preserved motifs: palindromic unit (pu) that is also termed as repetitive extragenic palindromic sequences. It contains seven pu adjoining sequences, and additional sectioned into 3 variations divergent set. Numerous combos have concluded 2 households in the BIMES ‘of bacteria
PSO best suited resolution to a haul underneath a given set of biological constraints such as analysis of the tremor in human for Parkinson’s diagnosis, logical thinking of factor restrictive networks, biological pathway designing, identification of cancer category, detection of DNA motif, factor agglomeration, selection of biomarker, medicine style, irradiation designing, brain magnetoencephalography analysis, polymer secondary structure prediction, EEG study, biometry.
\nThis work is supported by the Key Research Area Grant 2016YFA0501703 from the Ministry of Science and Technology of China, State Key Lab on Microbial Metabolism, and Joint Research Funds for Medical and Engineering & Scientific Research at Shanghai Jiao Tong University. The simulations in this work were supported by the Center for High Performance Computing, Shanghai Jiao Tong University.
\nFood has served multitude of functions for humans since ages, such as satiating hunger, quenching the palate with different savory food products, promoting well-being and socializing on one side of the equation, and providing the basis of energy production for regulating physiological needs, acting as a source of health promoting bioactive components, and antioxidants, on other. Among the foods, animal based products like bovine milk and beef are by far the most commonly consumed ones in the world. Apart from reasons of health and wellbeing, consumers nowadays are interested in reducing their intake of animal products because of moral and environmental reasons. Different issues underlying the negative attitude towards the manufacture of animal based products include environmental pressures from the vast amounts of agricultural produce and water essential for feeding animals, habitat loss deforestation, animal exploitation, species extinction, and pollution in production and transportation of the food until it reaches the consumer. Since in recent years the animal based diet is being negatively associated with the individual’s health and the environment, people have started looking for other food options [1]. Consequently, the plant based diet has become a favorite among people because of its potential to promote health, to improve food security, and to decrease pollution, land use, and water use [2].
Because of the increase in the global urban population, and with the consumers having more purchasing power and health awareness nowadays, the demand for healthier, tastier, and newer food products has risen tremendously. Furthermore, research for various innovative and novel food product developments in the last decade has been focused on meeting the emerging needs and adapting to existing market demands by providing newer food choices and alternatives. Therefore, the plant based diets like non-dairy milk alternatives, in particular, seem to have experienced a surge in the market. Besides, there is increasing negative perception related to the consumption of bovine milk among consumers as it has been linked adversely to many diseases such as bovine milk allergy, lactose intolerance, anemia, and coronary heart diseases for the past many years [3, 4, 5] and also due to issues that have raised concern in recent years, like the presence of toxic chemicals, antibiotics, contaminants, and greenhouse gas emissions. Nondairy milk alternatives possess health beneficial components, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, dietary fibers, unsaturated fatty acids; and hence, are desirable among consumers [6, 7, 8]. Nonetheless, the market for non-dairy milk alternatives is still emerging and currently, the range of products available in the market include hazelnut, peanut, sesame, soy, almond, oat, rice, hemp, and walnut milk; issues regarding the stability and nutritional value is still a concern among consumers. For successful commercialization of non-dairy milk alternatives, processors are often interested in the technological interventions and ingredients that can help maintain the physical stability of the final product. Physical stability refers to the maintenance of inherent attributes of suspension in relation to its viscosity, appearance, consistency, color, and resistance to destabilization mechanisms like sedimentation, phase separation, flocculation, creaming, etc. The general manufacturing process involves soaking the raw material (nut, legume, cereals, pseudocereal) in water, disintegrating moist material, separating oil bodies, adding different additives, heating for killing the harmful microorganisms, homogenization, and aseptic packaging [9]. Technological interventions are required to manufacture milk substitutes equivalent to bovine milk in their appearance, flavor, stability, and nutritional components. Most of these milks are unstable during manufacturing and storage; they tend to undergo phase separation and spoilage on long term storage. For these reasons, various methods have been employed to achieve stability in these non-dairy milks, for instance, by incorporation of different types of additives, such as gums, thickeners, emulsifiers, and by application of new technologies, like ultra-high-pressure homogenization, ultrasound, and pulsed electric fields. Therefore, while formulating non-dairy milk alternatives, it is necessary to endeavor towards utilizing the beneficial properties of plant materials and employing appropriate technologies for manufacturing non-dairy milks such that they are stable, display functional characteristics and sensory attributes similar to those of bovine milk. The aim of this chapter is to discuss the processing steps, mechanisms underlying the physical instability and to explore possible solutions with regard to use of different additives and advanced technological interventions in manufacture of non-dairy milks.
Bovine milk is nature’s most complete food [10] with different components present in heterogeneous mixture like carbohydrates, whey proteins and minerals in solution; fat globules in emulsion while casein micelles and some minerals are distributed in colloidal phase, giving the bovine milk its typical composition and structure [11]. Being a rich source of nutrients, bovine milk is a perishable food item and is often subjected to heat treatments, like pasteurization to extend shelf life for a week on refrigeration; UHT for shelf life extension to several months at ambient temperature [12]. In general, different processing operations, like heat treatment and homogenization are greatly influenced by the structural design of bovine milk components conferring it suitability for use in different food systems [13]. However, in case of the plant-based milk alternatives, sales trend suggest that the customers are hesitant to buy them because they display undesirable behavior when served hot or on blending with the hot drinks.
Therefore, the beneficial qualities of the bovine milk must be closely reproduced by plant based milks, if they are to be perceived better than or equal to them. During the formulation of plant-based milk substitutes, it is essential to adopt effective technologies and suitable ingredients to achieve the stability to overcome the problems of unacceptable flavor and phase separation on storage, commonly associated with the beverages. Different novel technologies that have been applied for achieving stabilization involve reduction in particle size, decrease in viscosity, and decrease in microbial count [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].
It has been demonstrated that size of dispersed phase particles in plant-based milks is one of the important factors governing their stability [15, 20, 21]. Plant-based milks are colloidal dispersions consisting of wide range of components such as fat globules, ground raw material, proteins and carbohydrates etc. They often contribute to unstable product on storage as they tend to exhibit phenomena like creaming, sedimentation and phase separation. Besides, non-dairy milks are often associated with sandy, gritty or chalky mouthfeel and tend to develop off flavors during storage [22, 23]. Also, during formulation of non-dairy milk substitutes, bovine milk fat globule is an ideal candidate that needs to be simulated due to its significant contribution to the creaminess, texture and flavor of dairy products. To develop non-dairy milk alternatives, fat phase is incorporated either through addition of oil bodies [24] or fabrication of fat globules from plant sources [25].
It is essential to take different aspects in account, such as kind of raw material, shelf stability, processing operations and various electrostatic interactions underlying phase destabilization (creaming, flocculation, sedimentation, coalescence) while manufacturing non-dairy milks. With regard to stability of non-dairy milk alternatives, one fundamental attribute that is relevant to most of the products is their colloidal nature since other features like composition, and structure often vary markedly among different brands. Therefore, different characteristics that need to be monitored accurately in non-dairy milks, include properties of colloidal particles such as their size, charge density, surface charge, and surface properties, the nature of the continuous aqueous phase (the pH, ionic concentration, components, density, and viscosity), and the extent of exposure to external environment during its shelf life (storage temperature and time). Plant based milks not only undergo objectionable changes in physicochemical properties but also show signs of microbial spoilage on long term storage. Some of the necessary ingredients, processing techniques, and phenomena governing the physical stability of plant-based milks during manufacture and storage have been discussed below.
During the manufacture of non-dairy milk alternatives, they are often subjected to various preprocessing treatments like dehulling, soaking, sprouting, blanching etc., to assist in subsequent processing. In general, the processing of milk from plants involves two main methods, namely, wet and dry. Otherwise, product is formulated by reconstitution using protein isolates or concentrates, water and other ingredients like oils, sugars, salts and stabilizers [26]. In the wet process, plant based raw material is soaked and ground with the water into a slurry, while in the dry method, the plant based material is ground into flour and then extracted with water. Such material is then subjected to filtration to remove insoluble or coarse particles to obtain aqueous phase. Afterwards, the processing steps followed include the addition of ingredients like oil, sugar, salts, colors, flavors, and stabilizers; homogenization and thermal processing treatments to yield non-dairy milk alternatives with desirable attributes.
Dehulling operation involves the mechanical breaking of thick and hard seed coats of plant based raw materials before soaking to facilitate hydration. The strength of binding of the hull to endosperm governs the time required for dehulling procedure. Since the hull has a hydrophobic nature due to its association with hemicellulose and pentosans, it tends to lower down the hydration capacity of plant material. The polysaccharides present in the hull often lead to off-flavor, and foaming during processing, hence, their removal improves the processing operation and organoleptic properties of product. Also, microorganisms and enzymic activity associated with hulls reduces on dehulling. The traditional method includes initially exposing the raw material to the sun for drying and then dehulling with mortar and pestle. Alternatively, they are dehulled using the mills, and may also be milled using splitting machine, which employs both splitting and dehulling simultaneously. The milk prepared from dehulled raw material allows for production of a shelf stable and appealing final product.
Roasting is a thermal process encompassing dehydration of raw material [27] for its improved flavor, aroma, and milling properties. Decrease in protein, starch content and improved extraction yield of roasted pulses and grains have been reported by many authors [28, 29]. Studies have shown that roasting leads to improved protein digestibility, and reduction in antinutritional compounds found in raw pulses and nuts. The decrease in protein content has been ascribed to the partial loss of amino acids, as well as of some nitrogenous compounds, and the reduction in starch to the solubilization of starch during the thermal process. Also, roasting has been shown to increase the water absorption capacity and water absorption index. An increase in WAC and WAI is related to the denaturation of proteins and starch gelatinization, which contribute to enhanced water imbibition [30]. Therefore, the flours with higher WAC are likely to result in the more viscous non-dairy alternative compared to untreated ones. Thermal processing during roasting results in partial disruption of the raw material [31, 32], thereby facilitating efficient particle size reduction required for stable suspension of non-dairy milk alternatives. For manufacturing milk from nuts and seeds, which contain high levels of unsaturated fatty acids, roasting should be carried out in controlled conditions of time and temperature to improve their nutritional properties and for prevention of off flavor development due to oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Inactivation of lipoxygenase during the process improves the flavor of non-dairy alternatives like soy milk, peanut milk, melon milk, sesame milk [33, 34, 35, 36, 37]. Roasted plant material becomes drier and brittle, and the non-dairy alternatives obtained from them are likely less-creamy [36]. In the study for manufacture of sesame milk, it was studied that the roasting process decreased acidity, total solids content and improved sensory profile by decreasing bitterness and a chalky taste associated with the milk [37]. The product obtained upon roasting has improved nutritional and sensory properties.
Sprouting refers to the soaking of seeds in water for specified time (1–14 hours) depending on the kind (variety, size, shape) of food grains in order to hydrate them for breaking their dormancy. The soaked grains are subsequently drained and rinsed at regular intervals to enable sprouting. Sprouting results in the initiation of series of metabolic changes in seeds (legumes, cereals, nuts & oilseeds) that improves the nutritional quality by inactivating the anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitor and phytic acid [38]. The improvement in nutritional value occurs due to enhanced activities of hydrolytic enzymes, which cause the conversion of stored chemical compounds, such as protein, starch and lipids into simple compounds; thereby, increasing the levels of total proteins, fat, certain essential amino acids, total sugars, B-group vitamins and decreasing the levels of starch. Therefore, the sprouting of raw material assists in the development of non-dairy milk alternatives, which are generally prepared using the heat treatment to decrease anti nutrient factors. Because sprouting is a natural biochemical process involving enzymatic activity, the treatment yields the improved quality of final product in terms of the nutrient and sensory value. Such a treatment decreases the intensity of heat treatment required for the manufacture of the product. Sprouting ensues improved protein solubility and reduced fat content for raw materials, which decreases the viscosity of non-dairy milk alternatives [38, 39]. Also, improvement in sensory properties takes place due to absence of beany flavor.
Blanching with hot water is employed to inactivate enzymes like lipoxygenase and trypsin inhibitors for improvement of the flavor and nutritional value of the non-dairy milk alternatives [40]. Such a treatment has been reported to be effective in diminishing the beany, grassy, bitter, and rancid flavor; it also prevents suspension instability and chalkiness in non-dairy milks prepared from peanuts, soybean, almonds etc. [41, 42, 43, 44, 45]. Blanching with hot water (85–100 °C for 2–5 min) is commonly used for skin removal of raw materials and overcoming off flavors in non-dairy milk alternatives. Like roasting, blanching inactivates enzymes, reduces possible microbial contamination, and aids in deskinning in processing by wet or dry methods [46]. Pressure blanching (at 121 °C, 15 psi for 3 min) has been found to be effective for developing peanut milk with desirable sensory and physicochemical properties [47]. The treatment yields the milk with pleasing sensory attributes because blanching treatment for suitable time decreases the total solids and nutty flavor associated with peanut milk. The treated milk has improved consistency as well as decreased soaking time.
The process for manufacturing of non-dairy milk alternatives involves the soaking of raw material in the proper volume of water contained in large stainless steel containers. Soaking is done to hydrate the raw material (cereals, legumes, nuts, or seeds) for grinding and further processing. Time required for soaking depends on the nature of raw material and temperature of the soaking water. At an ambient temperature, soaking requires longer time, and souring may take place due to bacterial growth, whereas if the temperature is raised up to 50–80 °C, soaking time is decreased, and hydration is accelerated. It has been demonstrated that during the soaking of lentils at different temperatures (20, 50, and 80 °C), rate of hydration at 50 and 80 °C was four to six fold higher than at 20 °C [48]. Softening due to soaking at higher temperatures could be related to the heat-induced modification in biomolecules, including starch, pectin, and protein, and the moisture for making the biomolecules susceptible to the changes. Different processes for preparation of non-dairy milks like peanut, soy, almond milk include soaking the raw material for 12 to 18 h before grinding it either in the mixer grinder or in colloidal mill [45]. Soaking facilitates the inactivation of enzyme inhibitors, improves digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients [49]. In case of pulses and grains, soaking step reduces the polyphenols and eliminates the alkaloids (e.g., in lupin) present in some of them; decreases the cooking time; improves the protein bioavailability and assists in peeling or dehulling [50, 51]. Soaking in acidic or basic solution is done to facilitate peeling of walnuts, almonds, tiger nuts, Brazilian nuts etc. Studies have shown that basic solution (1–2% NaOH) is suitable for peeling of walnuts and Brazil nuts [52, 53] while citric acid is effective for peeling tiger nuts [54].
The procedure involves the grinding or milling of the plant material with the use of water for the split opening of the exterior hull. Wet grinding consists of grinding of fresh raw materials with the water to result in a suspension. The wet grinding method tends to produce finer particle size of the ground material [55] that results in more stability of non-dairy milk alternatives, and therefore, is more commonly used for their manufacture. In general, a colloid mill is used for reducing the particle size of raw material in suspension. Initially, the coarse grinding of raw material is done, which is followed by fine grinding. During the wet milling with the colloid mill, the rotor generates a substantial amount of stress by the rotation of the rotary stirrer, which can effectively accomplish the creation of submicron particles. In addition to disintegration, the colloid milling performs broad spectrum of functions like mixing, blending, and homogenizing effects [56]. In the manufacturing of the non-dairy milk alternative, this technique is mostly used for homogenization and emulsification [57]. The optimization of colloidal milling process parameters improves the physical stability of non-dairy milk alternatives by efficiently reducing the size of dispersed particles [58]. Different studies have shown that the amount of water added for wet milling depends on the kind of raw material, for instance, almond milk (1:9; almond& water), Sesame (1:5; sesame & water), Peanut (1:9; Peanut: water), soybean (1:5; soy: water) [15, 36, 37, 59].Wet milling contributes the formulation of stable product where different factors like rotor speed, temperature, ratio of raw material and water can be fine-tuned to achieve any kind of non-dairy milk alternative.
The dry process comprises drying the raw materials and milling them into flours. For improving the efficiency of dry grinding, the raw material should be dried to minimum water content. The flour may be subsequently treated to yield different fractions: the protein, the starch and fiber. The protein concentrate or isolate, afterwards, is often utilized in formulation of non-dairy beverage. Therefore, dry processing mostly leads to development of product with higher protein contents.
The dry milling is mostly employed to reduce the particle size of the dried raw materials into their respective powder forms. The ground material is then mixed with water to form paste. However, during the manufacturing of the non-dairy alternative from pastes, solids tend to settle out down in the container, thereby resulting in the incomplete transfer of the content to the homogenizer and its wastage as well. For ensuring the efficient fuctioning of the dry grinding process, the important factors to be considered are the particle stiffness and feed size. Although the dry grinding decreases water wastage and energy consumption, yields a product with higher quality of protein, carbohydrates, fat, and minerals, it is less popular due to handling problems, like dust and wastage of raw material.
For manufacturing the non-dairy milk alternative, the raw material, once it has been subjected to preliminary processing treatments, is extracted with water. The extraction efficiency can be improved by variation of pH or enzymatic treatment.
The pH during extraction dictates the efficiency of protein extraction and stability of emulsion in non-dairy milk. Globulins comprise a major fraction of plant proteins, while albumins represent a minor fraction [60, 61, 62]. The pI for globulins is near pH 4.5, whereas the pI of albumins is around pH 6. The pI for different plant proteins lies between these values. Different studies have also demonstrated that plant proteins like pea, lentil, chickpea, soy etc. have a low net charge around pH 5 [63]. The plant proteins are mostly stable to pH changes at all pH values except at pH 5, which is around the pI where the droplets carry no charge and tend to display phase destabilization phenomena like aggregation and flocculation. During extraction, proteins should a have a high net charge at pH values well above or below their isoelectric point, which solubilizes them to increase the yield. Extraction in alkaline pH exhibits improved protein extraction yield, which may then be followed by neutralization step. For achieving the higher yield of the process, the efficiency of this step may be improved by alkalization of the medium using bicarbonate or NaOH.
Enzymatic treatment for hydrolysis of proteins and polysaccharides is mostly employed to improve the extraction yields. Disruption of plant cell wall components like cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectin is facilitated by enzymes to improve the yield. The efficiency of protein and oil extraction is closely related with cell wall disruption of plant based material [64]. Studies have shown that cell wall degrading enzymes with pectinolytic activity like polygalacturonase, pectate lyaese, or pectin methyl esterase enhance the extractability of protein, fat, and antioxidant activity [65, 66, 67]. Also, upon application of cell wall degrading enzymes (cellulase, hemicellulase, pectinase) after homogenization step helps reduce the particle size, thereby facilitating suspension stability [68]. Because of the reduced particle size of suspended material, the enzyme treated non-dairy milks exhibit improved physical stability and flavor. Rosenthal et al. [68] reported that enzymatic treatment (1.2% of Celluclast) decreased the tendency of soymilk to undergo sedimentation on storage and improved sensorial attributes in terms of improved viscosity and lack of chalkiness. Proteolytic enzymes tend to improve the extraction yield and suspension stability [69]. A high solubility is required for the proteins because it governs their functional properties, for instance, emulsification, which subsequently affects the colloidal stability of the emulsion. The extraction of protein also increases due to improved solubility of proteins. Other enzymatic treatments involving the use of carbohydrate degrading enzymes like amyloglucosidase, amylases etc. have been demonstrated to improve the carbohydrate recovery and stability of non-dairy milk alternatives. Depending upon the plant based material containing appreciable amount of starch, for instance, in case of cereals & pseudocereals, liquefaction with α-and β-amylases is done for starch hydrolysis [70, 71, 72]. Upon heating, starch gelatinizes to set as thick gel during heating, and hence enzymatic treatment is required to maintain the non-dairy milk in the liquid state. The liquefaction treatment increases the yield due to hydrolysis of starch into maltodextrin, thereby improving the viscosity for the non-dairy milk alternative. Since it facilitates the filtration, the enzyme treatment is often employed during or before filtration; however, it might also be used after filtration, subject to the conditions. Studies have shown that starch liquefaction using amylases generally improves the viscosity and overall acceptability in non-dairy milk alternatives like oat milk, quinoa milk, rice milk, [72, 73, 74].
Following the extraction step, removal of okara (the water-insoluble portion) from the slurry is done to obtain aqueous portion for manufacturing non-dairy milk alternative. The separation step is achieved by employing either batch process using filter cloth or continuous process like centrifugation [75, 76]. In general, two stage centrifugation is carried out to improve the efficiency of separation. In two stage clarification, separation of okara is carried out in first stage while fine particles are separated in second stage. Efficient filtration enables the retention of fine particles in the aqueous phase which assists in achieving the suspension stability. Different studies have shown that filtration treatment through a decanter or continuous filtration system (20–80 μm) during the manufacturing process of non-dairy milks improves the physical stability of milk because of removal of suspended particles [68, 77]. These days membrane separation is becoming popular as it allows for efficient separation of aqueous portion from okara. In case of manufacturing milk from fat rich raw material, the surplus fat is separated using a separator as is done in dairy processing with cream separator.
Once aqueous phase or base material is obtained upon extraction and filtration, other ingredients are blended in the aqueous phase in optimum levels for successful manufacturing of non-dairy milk alternatives. These ingredients include fat, vitamins, sugar, flavorings, salt, oils and stabilizers etc. Since physical poses a challenge for the successful development of any non-dairy milk alternative, different range of additives (emulsifiers and stabilizers) have been explored for their use in the milks. Various emulsifying agents such as alginates, gelatin, xanthan gum, gum Arabic, locust bean gum, and gellan gum in a range of 0.5 to 1% by weight demonstrate improved emulsion stability. The destabilization due to settling of solid particles in the emulsion may be overcome by addition of alkalizing agents, such as disodium phosphate or sodium bicarbonate. Maghsoudlou et al. [16] achieved stability of almond milk by using lecithin, modified starch and agar at 0.09%, 1.31% and 0.15% levels respectively. Nor (2012) suggested that addition of lecithin (0.03% w/w) at the time of the milling during manufacture of almond milk was beneficial for its stability. Hinds et al. [78] reported good results with the use of 0.02–0.04% carrageenan as stabilizer in peanut milk. Bernat et al. [20] established that addition of 0.05 g/100 mL xanthan gum before the heat processing was suitable for developing hazelnut milk substitute as it causes thickening of the hazelnut milk substitute and enhances the colloidal stability of the final product. Processing operations should be performed carefully, since non-dairy milk alternatives are fortified with minerals and vitamins which may compromise the stability of emulsion. This is because vitamins are known to exhibit instability in relation to environmental conditions like high temperature, light and exposure to oxygen. In addition, mineral fortification might result in destabilization of emulsion; therefore, their fortification is accompanied with the addition of chelators like citric and EDTA. Based on the dispersibility and solubility of mineral sources, the salts that are commonly used for the mineral fortification include ferric gluconate, ferric ammonium citrate and ferric pyrophosphate as iron sources and calcium citrate, tricalcium phosphate and calcium carbonate as calcium sources [79, 80].
Homogenization is employed for size reduction of the dispersed phase components in the range of 0.5–30 μm by application of shear forces. The particles of the dispersed phase like protein, starch, fiber, and other cellular materials tend to sediment at the bottom when allowed to stand for some time; however, with the contribution of size reduction due to homogenization and addition of emulsifying agents or hydrocolloids, the stabilization of suspension is achieved during manufacturing of non-dairy milk alternatives. For carrying out homogenization, a pressure range of 20–60 MPa has been employed to improve the suspension stability during manufacture of non-dairy milk alternatives like rice, hemp, coconut milk [81, 82, 83]. The process assists in subdivision of fat globules to prevent phase separation and facilitates development of creamier and homogenized product.
High temperature treatments like pasteurization, sterilization or UHT are employed to increase the shelf life of non-dairy milks by destruction of microorganisms. Several studies have reported application of sterilization treatments at 121 °C for 15–30 min in various non- dairy milks like almond, soy and peanut milks [20, 81, 84, 85]. Also, UHT treatment in range of 134–140 °C for 2 to 20 seconds has been applied in different non-dairy milks like peanut, coconut and almond milk [69, 86]. However, high temperature treatments have been reported to destabilize non-dairy milk alternative by resulting in coagulation of proteins. This is because proteins at high temperatures unfold to expose nonpolar amino acid residues, which participate in protein–protein interactions and consequently, exhibit aggregation, sedimentation, or gelling phenomena. Homogenization treatment after heat processing improves suspension stability by disruption of aggregates and reduction of particle size distribution [87]. The gelling and thickening of non-dairy milks due to presence of starch is addressed by enzymatic treatment for hydrolyzing the carbohydrate. Apart from enhancing physical stability, these heat treatments cause simultaneous destruction of pathogenic microbes in plant based milk alternatives resulting in increased storage stability of these beverages. Maria
Aseptic packaging of non-dairy milk alternative into sterile packaging material is done to increase the shelf life of the product.
In formulation of nondairy milks, fats are standardized in products either as oil bodies obtained from plants or are fabricated synthetically through homogenization. Oil bodies consist of a fatty acid core made up of triacylglycerol and a surrounding monolayer of phospholipids and unique proteins (oleosins), thus which imparts a structure composition similar to that of milk fat globule [91]. Extraction of oil bodies from plant seeds is generally achieved by employing physical processes, like soaking and crushing to enable their separation from adjacent tissues [9]. Oleosins play important role in stabilization of oil bodies by preventing their coalescence [92], preventing their hydrolysis by phospholipases [20] and by balancing of PUFA to MUFA ratio [93]. Even though plant based milks are similar to bovine milk, they may exhibit a distinct flavor, perceptible as nutty or beany, and may not be as desirable compared to flavor of milk [24] which is mild and unique owing to its typical aroma and taste profile [94].
Owing to differences between the dispersed and continuous phases in colloidal dispersions, there is a net movement of particles between two phases under the influence of gravitational force; creaming occurs if density of particles in dispersed phase is lower compared to dispersion medium whereas sedimentation is evident, if the case is otherwise. Both these phenomena tend to destabilize a colloidal dispersion. With respect to non-dairy milks, oil bodies tend to exhibit upward movement, while raw material fractions and being heavier, tend to settle down at bottom resulting in sedimentation, and is usually overcome by homogenization. Besides, simulated fat may also be stabilized by use of emulsifiers and homogenization, thereby imparting to non-dairy milk alternatives the characteristics similar to those of bovine milk in terms of consistency, appearance, flavor, and mouthfeel [95]. Fat phase in plant based milks is derived from different oil sources like coconut, palm, sesame, flaxseed, sunflower, olive, and soybean which contribute to different attributes like solid fat index, melting/crystallization pattern, viscosity, sensory and physicochemical properties. These features have important implications on processing of non-dairy milk alternatives such as presence of molten state of fat prior to homogenization and subsequently size of oil droplets created. However, presence of unsaturated fatty acids in lipid phase of these milks renders them more prone to lipid oxidation and rancidity. In case the ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids is high, it contributes positively to human health. Numerous studies over the years have associated the consumption of plant-based oils with beneficial health effects, such as anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-dyslipidemia, antioxidant and in particular, improved cardiac health status has been attributed to intake of unsaturated fatty acids [96, 97].
Because of the density difference that exists between the dispersed phase and continuous phase, gravitational separation is a phenomenon commonly observed in non-dairy milk alternatives. In order to overcome phase separation, the density difference may be diminished either by incorporating in the milk alternatives the fat with the higher solid fat index or by adding some weighting agents, surfactants, and biopolymers that can hold onto the oil bodies by completely surrounding them. Creaming is controlled either by formation of tenacious films by proteins on oil droplets or by increase of viscosity of the medium, for instance by addition of thickening agents like hydrocolloids and polysaccharides to the dispersion medium. It is because when there is incomplete coverage of the oil body, partial coalescence may take place, and aggregation occurs in the fat bodies in such cases. In general, the difference between the density of the aqueous and fat phase may be adjusted by the use of weighting agent like brominated vegetable oil. However, brominated oil is not commonly used in food emulsions since it has been shown to negatively affect the fat metabolism in rats [98]. Addition of brominated vegetable oil to regular vegetable oil at 25 wt% level diminishes the density difference between oil phase and aqueous phase [99]. Therefore, in order to achieve stability in milk alternatives, it is essential that lipid bodies may be designed either using fats with proper solid proportion to increase the density of dispersed phase or using suitable biopolymers for ensuring efficient coverage.
Flocculation is a phenomenon that involves the weak association of oil droplets due to net attractive forces resulting in formation of flocks. The characteristics of the flocks vary with the extent of the net force of attraction between the droplets and the oil volume fraction. In the cases when the net attractive forces are not strong, weak flocculation occurs, while large aggregates formation takes place due to strong attractive forces in the non-dairy milk alternatives. Flocculation of oil droplets leading to instability of the milk substitutes is governed by non-covalent interactions which may be either attractive (van der Waals forces) or repulsive (electrostatic forces and steric forces) and can be manipulated by using appropriate surfactant or biopolymer. The additive should present the properties capable of generating stronger repulsive forces compared to attractive forces to overcome aggregation. Surfactants, cationic or anionic in nature, upon formation of films, generate electrostatic forces, which stabilize the oil droplets against aggregation due to net repulsive forces. However, proteins are quite effective in stabilization against aggregation owing to strong steric repulsive forces associated with them. Adsorption of fat droplets by proteins, causes overlap of the outer portion, which entails an osmotic pressure gradient; thereby, generating the repulsive forces which prevent droplet aggregation. This leads to decrease in entropy and overall stabilization of non-dairy milk.
Since non-dairy milk alternatives are typically oil in water emulsions present in complex multi-component systems entailing fats, proteins and polysaccharides, additives, water, sugars, flavors, other small molecular-weight compounds, and are inherently unstable exhibiting phenomena like aggregation, creaming, coalescence, sedimentation. Therefore, it is essential to select relevant emulsion stabilizer (surfactants, emulsifiers and hydrocolloids) for improvising the stability of milk substitutes.
Emulsifiers are usually surface active molecules that act by adsorbing to the surfaces of the droplets of dispersed phase by creating a protective coating around them to prevent their aggregation. They may be categorized in different forms like, low molecular weight compounds: synthetic (monoglycerides, polyglycerol esters) or natural (phospholipids) and high molecular weight biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides) [100, 101, 102]. As to the stability of emulsions imparted by emulsifiers, it is mainly related to formation of viscoelastic films around dispersed droplets. Several studies have suggested that the main cause of stabilization of emulsions is related to the capacity of emulsifiers to efficiently adsorb on dispersed droplets, size of the droplets, concentration of emulsifier, and generation of repulsive forces as well as considerable reduction of surface tension [95, 103, 104].
Food industry has always shown interest in use of suitable emulsifiers in different formulations as various features of food are influenced like stability, mouthfeel, color, flavor, appearance, texture and shelf life of food. Low molecular weight surfactants (phospholipids, monoacylglycerol) are more efficient than proteins in reducing the interfacial tension between two phases of an emulsion because of their property of quick diffusion and adsorption to interface [105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114]. Proteins on account of being bulky are slow to diffuse to interface and hence, exhibit lower surface activity [105]. This might be attributed to the complex structure of a protein consisting of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups present variably throughout its primary structure, and as separate patches in tertiary structures with no clearly defined head and tail region, which, are essentially distinct in case of small surfactants. Moreover, due to the absence of conformational constraints for rearrangement at the interface, low molecular weight surfactants, at sufficiently high concentrations, are more successful than proteins prevent adsorption to oil droplets. In the case of emulsions, when the protein to surfactant ratio is low, protein displacement into the continuous phase takes place due to the surfactant molecule, based on the orogenic mechanism [102]. The mechanism suggests that the protein molecules are unable to pack completely, and adsorb homogeneously on the interface because of steric hindrance, thereby creating a void space. The void spaces are primarily occupied by the surfactant domains, which enlarge gradually creating pressures, that compress the nearby protein film, and finally resulting in its desorption in the continuous phase [113].
Proteins adsorb to oil droplets by undergoing partial denaturation to position themselves such that buried hydrophobic residues are exposed to the oil phase while hydrophilic residues align towards the aqueous phase [13]. On diffusing to the interface, proteins form tenacious viscoelastic films which are not apparent with the surfactants. The films are able to withstand mechanical stress and impart electrostatic as well as steric stabilization corresponding to type of protein and solvent conditions [115]. In these emulsions, stability may also be attributed to presence of “loops and trains” in protein chain conformation [116, 117, 118].
Among the natural class of emulsifiers, proteins represent very interesting emulsifiers due to their film forming ability and amphipathic nature [119]. Generally, animal proteins have been popular in food industry due to their excellent emulsifying abilities. These include bovine milk and egg proteins such as casein, whey protein isolate, bovine serum albumin, ovalbumin, ovotransferrin [120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128]. However, during recent years, plant proteins have experienced increasing popularity among manufacturers because of their association with several beneficial properties such as stability, sustainability non-allergenicity, non-toxicity, low-cost, biodegradability, functional properties, and consumer acceptance due to the clean label status ascribed to them [129, 130]. Different plant proteins that have gained acceptance as emulsifier in various emulsion based food systems include soy proteins, chickpea, lentil, cowpea, pea proteins wheat gluten, rice glutelin and flaxseed protein [131, 132, 133, 134]. In order to stabilize emulsions successfully, it is necessary that emulsifiers should not only prevent droplet aggregation but also be stable to exterior stresses like temperature, pH, salt concentrations, sugars, etc. Biopolymers such as proteins and polysaccharides vary in stability with respect to external conditions. Plant proteins (pea, legume, faba bean) lack stability at pH close to their pI, high temperature and high salt concentrations [135], whereas polysaccharides exhibit stability under similar conditions [136, 137].
Plant proteins are generally globular, like soy, pea, chickpea and cereal protein which undergo entropy changes on adsorption at interface through structural rearrangement in secondary and tertiary changes [138]. Likewise, in bovine milk, the whey proteins are globular in nature. β-lactoglobulin usually has much the unordered structure and α-lactalbumin helical structure. In contrast, the complex globular proteins from plant sources have ordered structure. For instance, the legume proteins such as glycinin and legumin have well-ordered and greatly conserved structure due to their rigid quaternary conformation. The quaternary structure undergoes conformational deformation at tertiary and secondary configuration on getting adsorbed at the interface. Proteins that have inherently disordered structures show better surface activity compared with ordered proteins. Unstructured proteins like casein, which have open random coil structure, exhibits conformational rearrangement as an emulsifier causing fast changes compared to globular proteins. Studies have shown that the competitive adsorption of proteins takes place at the oil–water interface in non-dairy milks, and among the mixture of proteins, some proteins adsorb more effectively compared to others based on their structure and the partitioning of hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues. Moreover, as plant proteins are globular, the exposed hydrophobic groups tend to adsorb to nonpolar groups of oil droplets in non-dairy alternatives, ensuing strong and long-range hydrophobic attractive forces, which overcome the repulsive forces, so that the net effect is particle aggregation. Therefore, the important aspect for control, in the viewpoint of the manufacturers to ensure the stability, is hydrophobicity, which is the inherent characteristic of the globular proteins, and besides, it becomes more pronounced due to thermal or surface denaturation. In order to prevent hydrophobic flocculation, it is necessary to select suitable proteins, which are less hydrophobic, and to avoid the processing procedures that encourage protein denaturation.
Therefore, to achieve stability in plant based milks, certain protein modification strategies may be applied. As discussed above, globular proteins are susceptible to denaturation, their surface activity and solubility may be altered during processing of non-dairy alternatives [139]. Physical, chemical and enzymatic modifications can be used to enhance the functional properties of proteins. In physical modification, proteins are subjected to controlled heating and shear conditions that lead to unfolding or partial denaturation of these macromolecules [140, 141]. Chemical modification involves acylation, sulfitolysis, phosphorylation and alkylation, which alters the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins alongwith their hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity balance [142, 143, 144]. Enzymatic modification is an effective approach to enhance the functionality of proteins by means of hydrolysis and polymerization reactions catalyzed by proteases (pepsin, chymotrypsin & trypsin) and transglutaminases. The controlled hydrolysis generates smaller oil droplets than intact proteins and also increases the emulsifying activity index [145, 146].
For achieving stability in the non-dairy milk alternatives, the addition of hydrocolloids like guar gum, locust bean gum, Gum Arabic, carrageenan, xanthan gum, and so on, is often carried out to prevent creaming and phase separation [147, 148, 149]. The charge on polysaccharides impacts their ability to inhibit the aggregation of oil bodies or fat droplets as well as of proteins by the formation of a protective coating around them. For instance, carrageenan, an anionic hydrocolloid, adsorbs to cationic regions on surfaces of aggregating proteins and hence, prevents aggregation near their isoelectric point by creating strong electrostatic or steric repulsive forces [150]. However, studies suggest that while hydrocolloids are capable of promoting stability at high concentrations, they tend to create instability in emulsions at low concentrations. Different mechanisms have been hypothesized to elucidate this phenomenon. When two droplets covered with a surfactant are in close vicinity, a link between the droplets develops which creates a connection between droplets [151, 152]. Development of numerous contacts of this type tend to encourage flocculation and increase the creaming rate. This is generally identified as “bridging flocculation,” and it is more common when the hydrocolloid is a weak emulsifier [153]. Therefore, the success of emulsion stabilization depends on the choice of proper biopolymers that lack the attraction to the dispersed phase droplets.
Other mechanism, proposed as “depletion flocculation,” was initially suggested by Asakura and Oosawa [154, 155] and was supported by many scientists later on [156, 157, 158]. According to mechanism, upon addition of any nonadsorbing hydrocolloid to a reasonably concentrated emulsion, elimination of the hydrocolloid might occur in the area between droplets, because of its hydrodynamic size, and thereby leads to development of local osmotic pressure gradient. The osmotic force results in the aggregation of oil droplets. The extent of the attractive force is related to the molecular weight and conformation of the hydrocolloid and varies proportionally with the concentration of the nonadsorbing hydrocolloid. Such kind of instability may be prevented by mixing the polysaccharide in less quantity so that aggregation does not occur.
Ultra high pressure homogenization is an emerging technology which can be utilized to enhance the stability of plant based milk alternatives by reducing the colloidal particles. UHPH produces more uniform sized particles and improves the physicochemical characteristics of food products without affecting their nutritional properties [159]. Apart from reducing the particle size, this technique can also be applied to improve the shelf life of plant based milk alternatives by means of simultaneous destruction of microorganism [160]. UHPH involves the use of high pressure in the range of 200–600 MPa and temperatures between 30 and 85 °C [161]. The use of UHPH also displays an important role in reduction of allergenic character of plant-based milk alternatives. Briviba
Pulsed electric field is another promising technology that involves the use of short electricity pulses to inactivate microorganisms in food products while causing minimal changes in color, flavor, taste and nutritional components [163]. In this technology, food is placed between two electrodes and electric fields (5–50 KV/Cm) are generated with the help of short high voltage pulses (microseconds) between the electrodes. The voltage range can be used for development of non-dairy milk alternatives according to the requirements of size reduction. The experiment carried out by Xiang [164] investigated the effect of pulsed electric field treatments with different electric field intensities and number of pulses on structural modification and rheological properties of soymilk. Pulse electric field treatments at electric field intensities (18, 20 and 22 kV/cm) and number of pulses (25, 59, 75 and 100) increased the apparent viscosity of soymilk (6.62 to 7.46) as compared to control (not treated). The changes were attributed to the PEF induced coagulation of the soy protein and reduction in size of fat globules and their distribution in soy milk. Similarly, Cortes
Ultrasound processing is an effective non-thermal technology applied for processing and preservation of foods. Ultrasound processing is based on the phenomenon of acoustic cavitation i.e. rapid expansion and contraction of bubbles of gas/vapors. This generates intense local heating and high pressures that causes disintegration of microbial cells and reduces the size of colloidal particles as well. In the study conducted by Iswarin and Permadi [166], the effect of ultrasound on droplet diameter of coconut milk was evaluated. The beverage was subjected to different combinations of power levels (2.5 to 7.0 W) and exposure times (5 to 25 minutes) and a reduction in particle size of coconut-based milk was observed as the US power and time increased. Similarly, Maghsoudlou et al. [19] studied the effect of ultrasonication treatment on physical stability of almond milk when applied at a power level of 300 W for the time periods of 0, 2.5 and 5 min. It was revealed that exposure time for 5 minutes was sufficient to manufacture a desirable product. The study demonstrated a decrease in sedimentation tendency of milk as well as decreased viscosity of almond milk. The improved stability has been attributed to cavitation induced fragmentation of colloidal polysaccharide molecules into smaller size particles. Size reduction of plant cellular material keeps them in suspension and hence, aids in improved stability.
Being a fast-growing segment of food market, the plant-based milk substitutes need to be extensively explored by using advanced processing and innovative technologies to produce a nutritionally complete beverage with high overall acceptability. Plant-based milk substitutes lack cholesterol, milk allergens, lactose, antibiotics, and saturated fatty acids that make them convenient to be considered nutritious, economical, health promoting, palatable dairy-free beverage. To meet consumer’s needs, it is essential to produce high quality beverages having good physical stability and desirable sensory attributes. Addition of stabilizers and processing are crucial steps in determining the stability and shelf life of plant-based milk alternatives. Manufacturers and consumers are more interested in clean label options for use as additives. Since synthetic stabilizers are generally added for improving the stability of milk substitutes, the natural substitutes could present a plausible solution to consumers. Some advanced food processing techniques including ultra-high pressure homogenization, pulsed electric field processing, ultrasound processing and high pressure processing can be employed to overcome instability factors responsible for limiting success of these beverages. Progressive efforts are required for improving product quality through research and development activities.
IntechOpen has always supported new and evolving ideas in scholarly publishing. We understand the community we serve, but to provide an even better service for our IntechOpen Authors and Academic Editors, we have partnered with leading companies and associations in the scientific field and beyond.
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Aronow"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:6,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"43500",doi:"10.5772/54723",title:"Pharmacology of Arterial Grafts for Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery",slug:"pharmacology-of-arterial-grafts-for-coronary-artery-bypass-surgery",totalDownloads:2990,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"Oguzhan Yildiz, Melik Seyrek and Husamettin Gul",authors:[{id:"164299",title:"Prof.",name:"Oguzhan",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"oguzhan-yildiz",fullName:"Oguzhan Yıldız"},{id:"164968",title:"Dr.",name:"Melik",middleName:null,surname:"Seyrek",slug:"melik-seyrek",fullName:"Melik Seyrek"},{id:"164969",title:"Dr.",name:"Husamettin",middleName:null,surname:"Gul",slug:"husamettin-gul",fullName:"Husamettin Gul"}]},{id:"43514",doi:"10.5772/54418",title:"The Role of The Angiosome Model in Treatment of Critical Limb Ischemia",slug:"the-role-of-the-angiosome-model-in-treatment-of-critical-limb-ischemia",totalDownloads:3781,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"Kim Houlind and Johnny Christensen",authors:[{id:"165363",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kim",middleName:null,surname:"Houlind",slug:"kim-houlind",fullName:"Kim Houlind"},{id:"167383",title:"Dr.",name:"Johnny",middleName:null,surname:"Christensen",slug:"johnny-christensen",fullName:"Johnny Christensen"}]},{id:"43476",doi:"10.5772/54509",title:"Impact of Ischemia on Cellular Metabolism",slug:"impact-of-ischemia-on-cellular-metabolism",totalDownloads:2758,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"Maximilien Gourdin and Philippe Dubois",authors:[{id:"164978",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",middleName:"E",surname:"Dubois",slug:"philippe-dubois",fullName:"Philippe Dubois"},{id:"164982",title:"Dr.",name:"Maximilien",middleName:null,surname:"Gourdin",slug:"maximilien-gourdin",fullName:"Maximilien Gourdin"}]},{id:"43498",doi:"10.5772/54928",title:"Treatment of Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Failure",slug:"treatment-of-coronary-artery-bypass-graft-failure",totalDownloads:4793,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"3542",slug:"artery-bypass",title:"Artery Bypass",fullTitle:"Artery Bypass"},signatures:"M.A. Beijk and R.E. Harskamp",authors:[{id:"164896",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:"A.",surname:"Beijk",slug:"marcel-beijk",fullName:"Marcel Beijk"},{id:"165094",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Harskamp",slug:"ralf-harskamp",fullName:"Ralf Harskamp"}]},{id:"61397",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76844",title:"The Ethics in Repeat Heart Valve Replacement Surgery",slug:"the-ethics-in-repeat-heart-valve-replacement-surgery",totalDownloads:1167,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The treatment of patients with intravenous drug use (IVDU) has evolved to include a wide range of medications, psychiatric rehabilitation, and surgical interventions, especially for life-threatening complications such as infective endocarditis (IE). These interventions remain at the discretion of physicians, particularly surgeons, whose treatment decisions are influenced by several medical factors, unfortunately not without bias. The stigma associated with substance use disorder is prevalent, which leads to significant biases, even in the healthcare system. This bias is heightened when IVDU patients require repeat valve replacement surgeries for IE due to continued drug use. Patients who receive a valve replacement and continue to use illicit drugs intravenously often return to their medical providers, months to a few years later, with a reinfection of their bioprosthetic valve; such patients require additional surgeries which are at the center of many ethical discussions due to high mortality rates, for many complex medical and social reasons, associated with continuous chemical dependency after surgical interventions. This chapter examines the ethics of repeat heart valve replacement surgery for patients who are struggling with addiction. Considerations of justice, the fiduciary therapeutic relationship, and guiding ethical principles justify medically beneficial repeat heart valve replacement surgeries for IVDU patient populations.",book:{id:"6556",slug:"advanced-concepts-in-endocarditis",title:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis"},signatures:"Julie M. Aultman, Emanuela Peshel, Cyril Harfouche and Michael S.\nFirstenberg",authors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",middleName:null,surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"},{id:"227150",title:"Ms.",name:"Emanuela",middleName:null,surname:"Peshel",slug:"emanuela-peshel",fullName:"Emanuela Peshel"},{id:"229719",title:"Dr.",name:"Julie",middleName:"M.",surname:"Aultman",slug:"julie-aultman",fullName:"Julie Aultman"},{id:"232060",title:"Mr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Harfouche",slug:"cyril-harfouche",fullName:"Cyril Harfouche"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"80213",title:"Evolution of Heart Transplantation Surgical Techniques",slug:"evolution-of-heart-transplantation-surgical-techniques",totalDownloads:240,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Organ transplantation has kindled the human imagination since the beginning of time. Prehistorically, transplantation appeared as mythological stories: from creatures with body parts from different species, the heart transplant between two Chinese soldiers by Pien Ch’iao, to the leg transplant by physician Saints Cosmas and Damian. By 19th century, the transplantation concept become possible by extensive contributions from scientists and clinicians whose works had taken generations. Although Alexis Carrel is known as the founding father of experimental organ transplantation, many legendary names had contributed to the experimental works of heart transplantation, including Guthrie, Mann, and Demikhov. The major contribution to experimental heart transplantation before the clinical era were made by a team lead by Richard Lower and Norman Shumway at Stanford University in the early 1960s. They played the vital role in developing experimental and clinical heart transplantation as it is known today. Using Shumway biatrial technique Christiaan Barnard started a new era of clinical heart transplantation, by performing the first in man human-to-human heart transplantation in 1967. The techniques of heart transplant have evolved since the first heart transplant. This chapter will summarize the techniques that have been used in clinical heart transplantation.",book:{id:"11236",slug:null,title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies"},signatures:"Samuel Jacob, Anthony N. Pham and Si M. Pham",authors:null},{id:"70032",title:"Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: Surgical Anastomosis: Tips and Tricks",slug:"coronary-artery-bypass-grafting-surgical-anastomosis-tips-and-tricks",totalDownloads:1361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The definite feature of coronary artery disease is the focal narrowing in the vascular endothelium, and this leads to the decrease in the flow of blood to the myocardium. Atherosclerotic plaque is the main lesion. These patients can present with chest pain (angina or myocardial infarction) and need further workup noninvasively and invasively for the management. The main reasons for myocardial revascularization can be: (1) relief from symptoms of myocardial ischemia; (2) reduce the risks of future mortality; (3) to treat or prevent morbidities such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, or heart failure. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is the surgical technique of cardiac revascularization. In 1910, Dr. Alexis Carrel described a series of canine experiments in which he devised means to treat CAD by creating a “complementary circulation” for the diseased native coronary arteries. No clinical translation occurred at the time, but he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Experimental refinements of coronary arterial revascularization, including the use of internal thoracic artery (ITA) grafts, were later reported by Murray and colleagues, Demikhov, and Goetz and colleagues in the 1950s and early 1960s. Dr. Rene Favaloro performed his first coronary bypass operation in May 1967 with an interposed saphenous vein graft (SVG) and shortly thereafter used aortocoronary bypasses sutured proximally to the ascending aorta. The stenosed segment is bypassed using an arterial or venous graft. Left internal thoracic artery is the most commonly used artery, and long saphenous vein is the most commonly used vein for the coronary artery grafting to reestablish the blood flow to the compromised myocardium. This can be performed with or without the help of cardiopulmonary bypass machine and also with or without arresting the heart. These techniques are called as on-pump beating or on-pump arrested and off-pump beating coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Distal and proximal anastomoses are usually performed in an end-to-side manner, but in the case of doing sequential grafting, side-to-side anastomosis is also performed proximal to the end-to-side anastomosis. In this chapter we are going to discuss the coronary artery bypass grafting tips and tricks in details.",book:{id:"9060",slug:"the-current-perspectives-on-coronary-artery-bypass-grafting",title:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",fullTitle:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting"},signatures:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan",authors:[{id:"278633",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd. Shahbaaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohd.-shahbaaz-khan",fullName:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan"}]},{id:"65984",title:"Low Flow Low Gradient Severe Aortic Stenosis: Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"low-flow-low-gradient-severe-aortic-stenosis-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:2213,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Approximately 40% of patients with aortic stenosis (AS) show discordant Doppler-echocardiographic parameters with aortic valve area (AVA) <1 cm2 and/or index iAVA <0.6 cm2/m2 (consistent with severe AS) and the mean gradient (MG) <40 mmHg, consistent with mild/moderate AS. Accurate diagnosis of true severe low flow low gradient AS versus pseudo-severe aortic stenosis is important for prognosis and optimal timing for intervention. Doppler echocardiography using intravenous low dose dobutamine challenge is widely used for differentiating pseudo-severe from true severe aortic stenosis. However, relying on echocardiography alone may have limitations in accurate diagnosis. Reliable diagnosis using echocardiography is dependent on multiple factors like the angle of interrogation of the aortic jet, the assumption that the LVOT area is circular in cross section, optimal echo windows, the presence of underlying subclinical coronary artery disease prior to dobutamine challenge etc. In this chapter, we describe non-invasive and invasive strategies to assess the aortic valve using dobutamine stress. Direct measurement of gradients across the aortic valve while estimating the change in cardiac output and aortic valve area with increments of dobutamine infusion dose is complementary, safe and useful when conventional echocardiography techniques are inconclusive. Finally, the chapter describes effective strategies of treatment for low gradient severe aortic stenosis, including the role for diagnostic balloon valvuloplasty, in the era of transcatheter valve replacement (TAVR).",book:{id:"8218",slug:"aortic-stenosis-current-perspectives",title:"Aortic Stenosis",fullTitle:"Aortic Stenosis - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Faeez Mohamad Ali, Vindhya Wilson and Rajesh Nair",authors:[{id:"280651",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Nair",slug:"rajesh-nair",fullName:"Rajesh Nair"},{id:"280829",title:"Dr.",name:"Faeez",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamad Ali",slug:"faeez-mohamad-ali",fullName:"Faeez Mohamad Ali"},{id:"290351",title:"Dr.",name:"Vindhya",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"vindhya-wilson",fullName:"Vindhya Wilson"}]},{id:"59547",title:"Left Ventricular Assist Device Infections",slug:"left-ventricular-assist-device-infections",totalDownloads:1466,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) infections are important causes of morbidity and mortality in patients who receive these mechanical circulatory supports as a bridge to transplantation (BTT) or as destination therapy (DT) (for individuals who are not candidates for cardiac transplant). Infections are more common among persons who received pulsatile flow LVADs as opposed to newer continuous flow (CF) devices. Other risk factors for infection include obesity, renal failure, depression and immunosuppression. An LVAD infection increases the risk of infections in persons who undergo cardiac transplantation. Infections include percutaneous site, driveline, pump pocket and pump/cannula infections; sepsis, bacteremia, mediastinitis and endocarditis. Diagnosis is achieved by monitoring LVAD flow parameters and observing typical clinical and laboratory manifestations of infection. Imaging such as PET-CT or SPECT-CT imaging can be helpful to establish a diagnosis of pump pocket infection. Echocardiography may aid in detecting native valve endocarditis and thrombus associated with the LVAD. The most common pathogens include Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas and Candida spp. Treatment requires targeted antimicrobials plus surgical debridement of infected tissue and device components. In cases of pump/cannula/LVAD endocarditis, especially if fungal pathogens or Mycobacterium chimaera are involved, LVAD removal/reimplantation vs. transplant is necessary, combined with extended antimicrobial therapy.",book:{id:"6556",slug:"advanced-concepts-in-endocarditis",title:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis"},signatures:"Marion J. Skalweit",authors:[{id:"186717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marion",middleName:null,surname:"Skalweit",slug:"marion-skalweit",fullName:"Marion Skalweit"}]},{id:"60658",title:"Humoral Rejection in Cardiac Transplantation: Management of Antibody-Mediated Rejection",slug:"humoral-rejection-in-cardiac-transplantation-management-of-antibody-mediated-rejection",totalDownloads:1083,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"After a successful heart transplantation, fundamental keys to achieve good results in the long term are to establish immunosuppressive therapy in the postoperative period in an appropriate manner and to ensure continuity of follow-ups. Despite the fact that these stages are maintained perfectly, patients may face one or more rejection episodes. T-cell-mediated acute cellular rejection of the cardiac allograft has well-established treatment algorithms, whereas antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) is challenging to diagnose, and its treatment varies between centers. Investigators reported that AMR is among the most important factors to improving long-term outcomes. Improved understanding of the roles of acute and chronic AMR has evolved in recent years following a major progress in the technical ability to detect and quantify recipient antihuman leukocyte antigen (HLA) antibody production. Recently, a study of the immunobiology of B cells and plasma cells that pertains to allograft rejection and tolerance has emerged. There are some questions regarding the classification of AMR, the diagnostic approaches, and the treatment strategies for managing. In this chapter, we are discuss the effector mechanisms that are used by antibodies to eliminate antigens and clinical experience about AMR and its treatment with a discussion about the latest articles.",book:{id:"6558",slug:"heart-transplantation",title:"Heart Transplantation",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation"},signatures:"Umit Kervan, Dogan Emre Sert and Nesrin Turan",authors:[{id:"227772",title:"Prof.",name:"Umit",middleName:null,surname:"Kervan",slug:"umit-kervan",fullName:"Umit Kervan"},{id:"243592",title:"Dr.",name:"Dogan Emre",middleName:null,surname:"Sert",slug:"dogan-emre-sert",fullName:"Dogan Emre Sert"},{id:"243593",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"nesrin-turan",fullName:"Nesrin Turan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"984",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81437",title:"Pediatric Heart Transplantation",slug:"pediatric-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104518",abstract:"Despite advances in medical management, patients submitted for heart transplantation procedures still are at risk to development of complications. This chapter will discuss some specific topics of pediatric heart transplantation, focusing on perioperative care: (i) recipient management, (ii) donor evaluation, (iii) immunosuppression, (iv) early postoperative management, (v) complications, and (vi) conclusions.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Estela Azeka"},{id:"81451",title:"Donor Assessment and Management for Heart Transplantation",slug:"donor-assessment-and-management-for-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104504",abstract:"For many years, heart transplantation has been an established procedure for patients with end-stage heart failure using the so-called “Standard Criteria” for an optimal heart donor. However, annually listed patients for heart transplantation greatly increased worldwide, and the use of extended criteria donor hearts has been utilized as many as possible in many countries. In this chapter, firstly, pathophysiology of brain death is explained. Secondly, donor assessment and issues of extended criteria donors are introduced. Then, donor management to maximize the heart graft availability, and the Japanese donor assessment and evaluation system and its outcome are reviewed.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Norihide Fukushima"},{id:"81057",title:"Induction Therapy in the Current Immunosuppressive Therapy",slug:"induction-therapy-in-the-current-immunosuppressive-therapy",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103746",abstract:"The current immunosuppressive therapy including calcineurin inhibitors, mycophenolate mofetil, and steroids, has substantially suppress rejections and improved clinical outcomes in heart transplant (HTx) recipients. Nevertheless, the management of drug-related nephrotoxicity, fatal acute cellular rejection (ACR), antibody-mediated rejection and infections remains challenging. Although previous some studies suggested that perioperative induction immunosuppressive therapy may be effective for the suppressing ACR and deterioration of renal function, increased incidence of infection and malignancy was concerned in recipients with induction immunosuppressive therapy. The international society of heart and lung transplantation (ISHLT) guidelines for the care of heart transplant recipients do not recommend routine use of induction immunosuppressive therapy, except for the patients with high risk of acute rejection or renal dysfunction, however, appropriate therapeutic regimen and indication of induction immunosuppressive therapy remains unclear in HTx recipients. We review current evidence of induction immunosuppressive therapy in HTx recipients, and discuss the appropriate therapeutic regimen and indication of induction therapy.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Takuya Watanabe, Yasumasa Tsukamoto, Hiroki Mochizuki, Masaya Shimojima, Tasuku Hada, Satsuki Fukushima, Tomoyuki Fujita and Osamu Seguchi"},{id:"80305",title:"Hepatic and Endocrine Aspects of Heart Transplantation",slug:"hepatic-and-endocrine-aspects-of-heart-transplantation",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102418",abstract:"End-organ dysfunction is a progression that can often develop in patients with end-stage heart failure. Hepatic abnormalities in advanced systolic heart failure may affect several aspects of the liver function. Hepatic function is dependent on age, nutrition, previous hepatic diseases, and drugs. The hepatic dysfunction can have metabolic, synthetic, and vascular consequences, which strongly influence the short- and long-term results of the transplantation. In this chapter, the diagnostic and treatment modalities of the transplanted patient will be discussed. On the other hand, endocrine abnormalities, particularly thyroid dysfunction, are also frequently detected in patients on the waiting list. Endocrine supplementation during donor management after brain death is crucial. Inappropriate management of central diabetes insipidus, hyperglycemia, or adrenal insufficiency can lead to circulatory failure and graft dysfunction during procurement. Thyroid dysfunction in donors and recipients is conversely discussed.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Andrea Székely, András Szabó and Balázs Szécsi"},{id:"79970",title:"The Role of Large Impella Devices in Temporary Mechanical Circulatory Support for Patients Undergoing Heart Transplantation",slug:"the-role-of-large-impella-devices-in-temporary-mechanical-circulatory-support-for-patients-undergoin",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101680",abstract:"Large microaxial pump systems (Impella 5.0, or Impella 5.5; i.e., Impella 5+) (Abiomed Inc., Danvers, MA, USA) have gained increasing levels of attendance as valuable tools of mechanical circulatory support (MCS). Patients undergoing heart transplantation (HTX) often need temporary MCS in the perioperative course, either as a preoperative bridge or occasionally in the early post-transplant period. Here we present our experience using Impella 5+ support for patients designated to undergo HTX, describe technical aspects of implantation and removal, and further analyze factors influencing the overall patient outcome. Significant factors are discussed in front of the background of contemporary international literature, and current scientific questions are highlighted.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Yukiharu Sugimura, Sebastian Bauer, Moritz Benjamin Immohr, Arash Mehdiani, Hug Aubin, Ralf Westenfeld, Udo Boeken, Artur Lichtenberg and Payam Akhyari"},{id:"80721",title:"Gene Therapy for Cardiac Transplantation",slug:"gene-therapy-for-cardiac-transplantation",totalDownloads:82,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102865",abstract:"Gene therapy is an advanced treatment approach that alters the genetic composition of cells to confer therapeutic protein or RNA expression to the target organ. It has been successfully introduced into clinical practice for the treatment of various diseases. Cardiac transplantation stands to benefit from applications of gene therapy to prevent the onset of post-transplantation complications, such as primary graft dysfunction, cardiac allograft vasculopathy, and rejection. Additionally, gene therapy can be used to minimize or potentially eliminate the need for immunosuppression post-transplantation. Several animal models and delivery strategies have been developed over the years with the goal of achieving robust gene expression in the heart. However, a method for doing this has yet to be successfully translated into clinical practice. The recent advances in ex vivo perfusion for organ preservation provide potential ways to overcome several barriers to achieving gene therapy for cardiac transplantation into clinical practice. Optimizing the selection of the gene-carrying vector for gene delivery and selection of the therapeutic gene to be conferred is also crucial for being able to implement gene therapy in cardiac transplantation. Here, we discuss the history and current state of research on gene therapy for cardiac transplantation.",book:{id:"11236",title:"Heart Transplantation - New Insights in Therapeutic Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11236.jpg"},signatures:"Michelle Mendiola Pla, Yuting Chiang, Jun-Neng Roan and Dawn E. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. 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She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. 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Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. 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He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",biography:"Dr. Emad Shalaby is a professor of biochemistry on the Biochemistry Department Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University. 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He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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He is simultaneously working as a Researcher with Department of Agrochemistry, Soil Science, Microbiology and Plant Nutrition (FA), Mendel University Brno and Institute of Environmental Studies, Charles University Prague, Czechia. \nHis research is focused on soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation mechanisms, plant-microbe interactions, biochar production, and utilization for agricultural crop production and environmental remediation. He is actively involved in bioremediation of contaminated soils using organic and inorganic amendments in addition to exploiting plant-microbe interactions. He has published over 50 refereed journal articles, many of which sought to explore the effectiveness of innovative soil amendments and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for improving crop performance and soil resilience under various abiotic stresses. He has been working for several renowned academic societies and enjoys early career in research.",institutionString:"Brno University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Brno University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/159991",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"159991"},fullPath:"/profiles/159991",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()