Indian UGS typology.
\r\n\tAbout 25 percent of all foods produced globally are lost due to microbial growth. L. monocytogenes is a microorganism ubiquitously present in the environment and affects animals and humans. L. monocytogenes can enter a factory and is able to survive in biofilms in the food processing environment. The use of adequate sanitation procedures is a prerequisite in risk prevention. Moreover, effective control measures for L. monocytogenes are very important to food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tThe safety and shelf life maximizing of food products to meet the demand of retailers and consumers is a challenge and a concern of food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tTo obtain food systems more sustainable, several developments are ongoing to ensure safe food products with an extended shelf life and a reduction of food loss and waste. The problem of antimicrobial resistance is also a great issue that must be taken into consideration.
\r\n\r\n\tThe implementation of natural antimicrobials, using food cultures, ferments, or bacteriophages, is one approach to control L. monocytogenes in food products that meet the consumer preference for clean label solutions.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art about Listeria monocytogenes in terms of occurrence in humans, animals, and food-producing plants. Its control by more natural agents allows for more sustainable food systems and points future directions to transform challenges into opportunities.
Rehabilitation of edentulous sites with implant-supported restorations is a reliable technique with a predictable outcome. Alveolar ridge resorption after tooth loss is very common and may compromise the placement of implants. Trauma, oncologic diseases, oral infections, and congenitally missing teeth may also cause severe bone deficiency. A wide range of surgical procedures, such as guided bone regeneration (GBR) through the use of resorbable and non-resorbable membranes, intra- and extra-oral block grafting, and distraction osteogenesis, can be applied for reconstruction of alveolar ridge deficiencies [1–3].
\nDefect morphology plays an important role in the success of alveolar ridge augmentation techniques. Defects can basically be classified as intrabony or extrabony defects [4]. It is easier to maintain space, stabilize the augmented site, achieve primary soft tissue closure, and protect the grafting site in intrabony defects than in extrabony defects. Therefore, intrabony defects are much easier to augment through techniques such as socket augmentation and sinus floor elevation. Extrabony defects can be more challenging in cases such as lateral and vertical augmentations (Figure 1) [5].
\nIntrabony (a, b) and extrabony (c, d) alveolar ridge defects.
The amount of augmentation may also influence the risk assessment of the operation. Particularly for vertical augmentation, complications are more likely if a large amount of height is needed outside the natural bone after bone regeneration.
\nThis chapter is focused on GBR and extra-oral bone block techniques that are widely used for ridge augmentation.
\nGBR is a surgical technique that increases the amount of alveolar ridge for implant placement using barrier membranes with or without bone substitutes [4]. Regeneration at the deficient site depends on the exclusion of soft tissue (epithelial cells and fibroblasts) from osteogenic tissue (osteoblasts) during organization of the bone [6]. Osteoblasts are mainly responsible for increasing the amount of regenerated alveolar ridge. However, osteoblasts do not regenerate the alveolar ridge as quickly as epithelial and connective tissue cells grow. The success of the GBR approach mainly depends on the exclusion of soft tissue cells during bone remodeling by slowly working osteoblasts [6]. Aghaloo et al. evaluated the success of ridge augmentation techniques (GBR, onlay block grafting, distraction osteogenesis, ridge splitting, and mandibular interpositional grafting) based on implant survival in a systematic review [7]. They found that GBR may be the best way to augment the ridge according to implant survival.
\nThe GBR technique can be applied in two stages (delayed approach) or in one stage (simultaneous approach with implant placement). If the bone deficiency is low and implant stability can be achieved, the one-stage approach can be applied (Figure 2).
\nLabial bone deficiency.
However, if a greater amount of bone must be regenerated, then the two-stage approach is preferable and the complication risk will be reduced.
\nThe predictability of GBR is based on several principles, such as space maintenance, stability, nutrition, and primary closure [5]. In this section, these principles are introduced in detail according the morphology of the bone defects, the grafting material, and the chosen technique.
\nMaintenance of space at the augmented site is one of the fundamental principles of the GBR technique. A protected space is needed for hard-tissue cells to regenerate bone that excludes soft-tissue cells during healing and maturation.
\nBone substitutes, membranes, tenting screws, titanium, and bone plates are suggested for the maintenance of space. Jovanovic et al. evaluated the treatment groups in a pre-clinical study on GBR. They found that significant bone gain could be achieved when membrane and graft material were used than when no membrane was used [8]. Space maintenance can be challenging depending on the properties of the defect site. When significant bone augmentation is required in a severely resorbed alveolar ridge, creating space is more critical for the success of GBR.
\nCurrently, the use of a bone substitute material in GBR applications is the standard of care. The primary types of bone substitutes are autogenous bone, xenografts, allografts, and alloplasts [4]. An ideal biomaterial for bone regeneration should have the ability to form new bone, and bone formation must be balanced with the speed of resorption [4, 6]. Autogenous bone is the gold standard for augmentation because of its osteogenic potential. It has the ability to regenerate bone through the mechanisms of osteogenesis, osteoinduction, and osteoconduction [4, 6]. Osteogenesis is the production and evolution of bone at every site, even in the absence of local undifferentiated mesenchymal stem cells. Osteoinduction is the transformation of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells into pre-osteoblasts and osteoblasts. Therefore, the graft material should be in contact with living bone. Osteoconduction provides a non-living scaffold for the regeneration of bone [9]. By using local bone harvesting techniques, morbidity can be lowered during autogenous bone collection. Scraping autogenous bone from a location near the recipient site may simplify bone harvesting, decrease morbidity, and reduce the treatment time (Figure 3).
\nBone harvesting from tuber site.
Peleg et al. found that the use of a bone scraper to harvest autogenous bone at the ramus resulted in no neurosensory injuries to the anatomical tissues and minimal morbidity in the patients [10]. There are also novel rotary tools to harvest bone easily from local sites (Figure 4).
\nBone harvesting rotary instrument.
These autogenous particulate grafts can be used alone or with biomaterials as a composite. Composite grafts greatly reduce the amount of autogenous bone required and therefore reduce morbidity.
\nBone graft substitutes have osteoconductive properties. However, the use of bone grafting material is very popular among clinicians because of benefits such as the unlimited availability, lack of a need to harvest bone (hence, reduced donor-site morbidity), reduced operation time, and reduced risk of postoperative complications [4, 6].
\nXenografts are bone grafts obtained from animals such as cows, horses, or species other than human [4, 6]. Deproteinized bovine bone (DBB) is a xenograft material that is frequently used in GBR applications. DBB is osteoconductive and has an interconnecting pore system that serves as a scaffold for the migration of osteogenic cells; the inorganic bone substance has a microscopic structure similar to that of natural cancellous bone [11, 12]. DBB particles are incorporated over time within the living bone, and DBB resorbs very slowly and has low-substitution rates. Therefore, it can provide space maintenance over a very long term [4, 6]. It was shown that DBB graft particles remain present even after 10 years postoperatively [13]. Chackartchi et al. reported that the mean percentage of new bone was 28 ± 6% using DBB alone 6–9 months after sinus augmentation [14]. Materials with low-substitution rates are good scaffolds for host bone growth during healing, and they inhibit resorption of the augmented site [4, 6]. However, increased amounts of residual graft particles may negatively impact the healing of the augmented site and decrease the rate at which the implant surface area is integrated with the newly formed bone [15]. In challenging cases that require a greater amount of bone augmentation, such as vertical, horizontal, or both, DBB can be mixed with autogenous particulate bone and applied as a composite [2]. The authors recommend allowing 6–9 months for healing of lateral/vertical augmentations before implant placement. During long-term healing, DBB particles prevent the shrinkage of the augmented site, and autogenous particles facilitate the incorporation of this scaffold with the living natural bone. The authors do not recommend implant placement during the early stages of bone healing (less than 4–5 months) for two-stage augmentations because implant stability may be compromised or severe marginal bone loss may occur before loading [4, 6].
\nAllografts are bone grafts obtained from the same species but are genetically dissimilar from the recipient [4, 6]. Allograft donors are meticulously screened, and specimens are carefully processed to reduce the possibility of disease transmission. Freeze drying is a commonly used process. Mineralized allografts (MAs) provide stability and space by maintaining their physical properties during the bone remodeling phase [4, 6]. Osteoconductive scaffolds provide volume enhancement and effective site management for successful dental implant placement after augmentation [16]. MAs can be composed of cortical and cancellous particles. Mineralized cortical particles with slow resorption rates offer a scaffold, whereas cancellous particles that have faster resorption rates and are prone to resorption may provide a space for the ingrowth of bone cells and angiogenesis. Therefore, if the amount of cortical graft particles is increased in the composite, less resorption can be expected [17]. Demineralized allograft (DA) contains bone morphogenic proteins and stimulates osteoinduction. However, DA is highly biodegradable and has less compressive strength than DBB and MA. Therefore, it is often mixed with other slowly resorbed graft materials to maintain space [18]. The authors recommend using MAs in challenging cases, and demineralized grafts are recommended in well-protected defects such as socket augmentation. Implants can be placed safely after 4 months of healing in well-protected defects [17, 18]. The authors do not recommend using DA in challenging cases, such as vertical and lateral augmentation, because a great amount of bone loss can be expected after long-term healing [17, 18].
\nThe possibility of disease transmission from xenografts and allografts to humans has drawn attention to synthetic bone graft substitutes [19]. Alloplasts are synthetic and also have osteoconductive properties that provide a scaffold for bone regeneration [20]. Various synthetic graft materials have been developed for crestal ridge augmentations, such as synthetic hydroxyapatite (HA), beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP), and calcium sulfate (CS) [4]. HA has a low or very limited resorption rate [4]. β-TCP and CS are highly biodegradable and have less compressive strength than synthetic HA and DBB [21, 22]. CS can be completely resorbed within 1 month [23]. Therefore, according to the defect properties, these materials can be mixed with slow resorbable materials in different ratios to maintain space during healing [21, 22]. By increasing the amount of resorbable material in the composite, the rate of new bone formation can also be increased. However, the space maintenance capacity will be reduced, even in sinus augmentation applications [24].
\nThe particle size in the graft may also affect the resorption time and the success of the procedure. There are conflicting articles in the literature regarding graft particle usage [14, 25]. Particles that are too small may be resorbed too rapidly, and advanced shrinkage of the augmented site can be observed. Particles that are too large may prevent angiogenesis and delay and/or reduce new bone formation [25]. Chackartchi et al. compared the use of small and large particles in grafts during two-stage sinus floor augmentation with regard to new bone formation and vertical bone height stability. The authors could not detect any statistically significant differences between the small and large graft particles [14].
\nSeveral factors, such as the graft properties, membrane choice, surgical technique, use of compression during packing of the graft material, availability of natural bone, composition of the graft, and activity of the host bone, may influence the resorption rate at the augmented site and may therefore affect space maintenance [26].
\nBarrier membranes are routinely used to maintain space. There are two kinds of barrier membranes: resorbable and non-resorbable [4, 6].
\nThe most important advantages of resorbable membranes are the elimination of membrane removal after healing, resulting in decreased morbidity, easy manipulation, and lower rate of complications. However, resorbable membranes are not very successful in comparison with non-resorbable membranes with regard to space maintenance. These membranes must be used with bone graft substitutes and additional tools, such as tenting screws or plates for space maintenance.
\nResorbable membranes that are made of native collagen (non-cross-linking) show high biocompatibility resulting in good tissue integration and rapid vascularization (Figure 5) [27].
\nNative collagen resorbable membrane.
However, these membranes may lose their barrier function early due to rapid biodegradation [28]. The resorption time depends on the membrane’s properties, the cellular activity of the native bone, and exposure [29]. One of the most important benefits of non-cross-linked collagen membranes is the spontaneous closure of membrane exposure during the healing period [30]. Epithelization of the exposed membrane occurs within weeks after mucosal dehiscence. Although spontaneous healing of the exposure occurs, the grafting volume may be negatively affected during healing, and some bone loss may be expected [4, 6]. Simion et al. compared the effects of exposed and non-exposed membranes on bone regeneration at the site of implant insertion [31]. Bone regeneration was 99.6% with non-exposed membranes and 48.6% with exposed membranes [31]. There are also studies showing predictable results with late membrane exposures up to 6 months [5]. Therefore, every effort should be made to ensure primary closure of the grafted site during healing. Some clinicians recommend using double non-cross-linked membrane over the grafted site to extend the resorption time for better barrier function [6].
\nCross-linking resorbable collagen membranes were produced to extend the degradation time in GBR applications. In a preclinical study, different collagen membranes were compared to evaluate the resorption time [32]. It was found that if the amount of cross-linking collagen fibrils was increased, the resorption time was also extended. However, tissue biocompatibility was decreased. There are also studies showing good results regarding tissue integration and bone regeneration using these membranes [33, 34]. Various types of cross-linked membranes may affect biocompatibility and tissue integration differently [6].
\nMembranes made of polylactic acid/polyglycolic acid copolymer (PGLA) are also available. These synthetic membranes simplify the clinical manipulation and reduce the application time [6]. Although studies have shown that this material is highly biocompatible and degrades without acidic products, concerns about the healing mechanism remain (Figure 6) [35, 36].
\nPGLA resorbable membrane.
When a higher amount of bone augmentation is required, reinforced non-resorbable membranes are used. Reinforced membranes withstand the pressure from the surrounding tissues, resulting in the prevention of membrane collapse and allowing the bone to be regenerated during healing. Titanium mesh, titanium-reinforced expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (e-PTFE), and dense polytetrafluoroethylene (d-PTFE) membranes are most commonly used, and their benefits have been demonstrated in published studies [2, 4, 6]. Urban et al. augmented alveolar ridges vertically using e-PTFE membranes [37]. The mean vertical augmentation was 5.5 mm after 6–9 months of healing. They concluded that vertical augmentation with e-PTFE membranes and particulate autografts are a reliable method for the reconstruction of deficient alveolar ridges.
\nCurrently, e-PTFE membranes are not used in oral surgery due to high rates of complications related to membrane exposure. d-PTFE membranes are novel titanium-reinforced non-resorbable membranes that have replaced e-PTFE membranes and are used for the reconstruction of critical-sized defects, such as sites requiring vertical augmentation. The highly porous structure of e-PTFE membranes allows ingrowth of the oral microflora when the membrane is exposed. Exposure results in high rates of infection, regardless of whether it occurs early or late during healing. Due to the high porosity of the membrane, it is almost impossible to mechanically or chemically clean the exposed site of the membrane; therefore, early removal of the membrane is required. After removal, it is generally discovered that GBR has failed due to infection, and re-augmentation is needed. e-PTFE membranes must be completely healed in primary closure, and they have no tolerance for exposure [4, 6].
\nNovel d-PTFE membranes are manufactured in a dense micro-porous form that prevents oral bacteria from entering the grafted site when exposed. These membranes are also easy to mechanically and chemically clean. The removal of a d-PTFE membrane after healing is also easy to perform and takes less time than the removal of titanium-mesh membranes (Figure 7).
\nTitanium reinforced non-resorbable membrane.
Ronda et al. reported a mean defect fill of 5.49 mm after 6 months of healing at vertically augmented sites using d-PTFE membranes [38]. Urban et al. observed an average bone gain of 5.45 mm using d-PTFE membrane with a mixture of bovine bone and autogenous particulate bone [2]. They also found a high rate of new bone formation (36.6%) on core biopsies that were taken at the time of implant placement. They concluded that treatment of vertically deficient alveolar ridges with GBR using a mixture of particulate autogenous bone and bovine grafts with d-PTFE membrane is a reliable method.
\nAlthough a high level of success with non-resorbable titanium-reinforced d-PTFE membranes has been reported in the literature, these membranes must be applied cautiously in selected patients. Non-resorbable membranes have higher complication rates than resorbable membranes [39]. If a d-PTFE membrane begins to be exposed, the amount of exposure can increase incrementally during healing [5]. Therefore, if early exposure of this membrane occurs, the prognosis may not be predictable. However, late exposures may be better tolerated with meticulous mechanical cleaning. If an infection does not occur 3–4 months after grafting, removal of the membrane may preserve the regenerated bone [5]. Complications regarding membrane exposure are less likely with resorbable membranes. The cost of GBR with titanium-reinforced membranes may also be higher than with resorbable membranes. Jensen et al. reported comparable amounts of bone gain between resorbable and non-resorbable membranes used for horizontal augmentation [40]. If minor augmentation is planned at a deficient site, resorbable collagen membranes should be considered first due to their low risk of complications. If the natural bone is not too thin, lateral augmentation can be successfully performed using collagen membranes with mixed autogenous particulate grafts and low-substitute graft materials such as DBB.
\nTitanium mesh is another alternative to non-resorbable membranes, and this type of mesh has a good space maintenance advantage [41]. It can be easily trimmed and bent according to the defect site. Another advantage, and also a disadvantage, of mesh over a PTFE membrane is that the holes within the membrane allow vascularization and nutrition from the periosteum to the grafting site [4–6]. However, bone can also grow from inside these holes over the mesh. After healing, the mesh can integrate with newly formed bone and complicate removal during surgery at the second stage [42, 43].
\nThe stability of the augmented site in GBR applications during healing is an important factor for achieving success. The initial blood clot formation and stabilization of graft particles will result in predictable bone formation [5]. Although barrier membranes will cover the augmented site and exclude epithelial and connective tissue cells from the regenerating bone, additional tools are needed to provide stability and also to increase the resistance of the augmented site from the flap, lip, and mastication force pressure [5].
\nMembrane fixation systems can be used to secure resorbable membranes effectively. By using manual or automatic handles, tacks stabilize the membrane to the natural bone and prevent migration of the graft and soft tissue invasion (Figure 8).
\nBone tacks.
Another advantage is that tacking membranes simplify suturing because the membrane does not move during suturing. If lingual or palatal tacking is needed, the angled neck of the handle can be used to simplify the application. Generally, the tacks are made of titanium, and they do not need to be removed at the second-stage surgery. The authors recommend removing tacks that are placed coronally and leaving apically positioned ones to reduce morbidity from excessive flap elevation at the time of implant placement. If tacks are left, they may disturb the patient in the future, and they can be easily removed using a small circular incision around the tack.
\nTacks may not be strong enough to secure non-resorbable membranes. Generally, membrane fixation screws are used for stabilization. The aggressive tip and thread design engage the membrane and bone and allow for precise placement in soft and dense bone (Figure 9).
\nBone screws.
The authors recommend using short screws in the mandible and longer screws in the maxilla due to its low density; it is easier to engage longer screws in soft bone. If lingual or palatal screwing is needed, surgical hand pieces can be used to simplify the application. At the second surgery, the non-resorbable membrane and all screws must be removed. If any screw is left, the membrane may not be removed easily.
\nTenting screws can also be used under resorbable or non-resorbable membrane to prevent pressure from the environment and also to stabilize the augmented site. The treaded part of these screws engages the natural bone, and the smooth part remains at the augmented site (Figure 10).
\nTenting screws.
Another advantage of using tenting screw is that the clinician may estimate the amount of future bone gain at the time of the operation based on the length of the smooth part. For example, if 5 mm of bone gain is needed, an 8-mm tenting screw can be used and 3 mm of bone will stabilize the screw.
\nMetal plates that are generally used for orthognathic or trauma surgery can be used for space maintenance [4, 6]. The plate is fixed to the natural bone with screws, and the space between the bone and plate is filled with graft material. A resorbable membrane covers the augmented site. The authors recommend avoiding the use of overly thick plates to prevent soft tissue exposure during healing. Thin cortical strut allografts can also be used for space maintenance in a method known as the Shell technique. Space is created between the cortical strut and the host bone as with metal plates, but there is no need to remove the cortical struts during the second-stage surgery. However, these bone struts are very vulnerable during screwing, and they can be easily broken into pieces [4, 6].
\nThe osteogenic potential of the defect site is also very important for the success of GBR. At the augmented site, the formation of a blood clot begins and granulation tissue invades over the following days and weeks [44]. Blood vessels that are in the granulation tissue serve in osteoid formation and subsequently bone formation. Therefore, the remaining bone walls are an important source of vessels and native cell transformation. When there are fewer walls around the defect, the regenerative capacity is reduced and the total treatment time is increased [5]. Hammerle et al. observed that grafted sites were regenerated with new bone at least 6–9 months after surgery [45].
\nBuser at al. recommend perforating the cortical bone before bone grafting for better migration of vessels to the augmented site [46]. There are also conflicting studies suggesting that decortication is not needed for better augmentation [47, 48]. Decortication of both the buccal and lingual aspects of the recipient site has been shown to increase the bone healing capacity by 2–10 times when compared to non-decorticated sites [49]. Several benefits of decortication of recipient site have been demonstrated [50]. First, revascularization is increased after decortication, particularly in the mandible. Second, the release of growth factors can improve healing. Finally, the roughed surface of the recipient site may integrate with the graft materials and increase the stability [50]. If the osseous defect is in the mandible, the authors recommend decortication of the recipient site with a drill under copious cold sterile irrigation (Figure 11).
\nDecorticated bone.
Generally, decortication does not take a considerable amount of time or prolong the operation.
\nProtection of the grafted site during is an important factor. Wound healing in soft tissue can be achieved by primary or secondary intention. In primary intention, the edges of the flap are brought close and are in the same position as before the incision (Figure 12).
\nPrimary closure.
In secondary intention, the edges of the flap are not closely approximated, and the membrane or grafting material can be seen visually [5]. Secondary intention prolongs the healing and increases the risk of infection at the grafted site [4–6]. Protection of the augmented site begins from a primary tension-free flap closure. If secondary intention healing occurs inadvertently, a series of complications may be encountered, and re-augmentation may be required [5].
\nMany factors may affect the predictability of GBR outcomes upon primary closure, including the grafting volume of the deficient site. The rate of soft tissue complications may increase in direct proportion with the grafting volume [4, 6]. Therefore, in challenging cases such as vertical augmentation, failures due to soft tissue dehiscence are more frequently seen [6]. Another factor that may affect the clinical outcome is the usage of the appropriate materials and technique. Multifilament sutures, such as silk sutures, are not recommended to use in augmented sites due to the high incidence of infection. Monofilament sutures may help to reduce the infection rate [4–6]. Most importantly, the clinician should be familiar with different suturing techniques to reduce the pressure on the edges of the flap. The authors recommend removing sutures 2–3 weeks after the operation. For vertical augmentations, sutures are generally removed after 3 weeks.
\nIncision design is also a key factor for tension-free flap closure. In particular, if large deficient sites are planned to be grafted, a greater number of releasing incisions will be needed for tension-free flap closure. Therefore, soft tissue surgical interventions may be needed before or after the operation to increase the vestibular depth and keratinized mucosa [6]. Clinicians should not only focus on hard tissue grafting. For the achievement and maintenance of success, soft tissue conditions such as the gingival biotype, the amount of keratinized mucosa, the vestibular depth, and previous surgical interventions due to failures should be evaluated meticulously during treatment planning [6].
\nPostoperative care during the initial weeks of healing may affect the outcome of GBR [51]. Chlorhexidine and hyaluronic acid mouthwash after the operation are recommended to reduce infection and improve soft tissue healing [5].
\nPostsurgical medications should also be prescribed, including antibiotics starting on the day of surgery and lasting for 7 days (1000 mg amoxicillin and clavulanic acid, twice daily), analgesics (to be taken as needed every 6 h), and corticosteroid (e.g., dexamethasone 4 mg daily) for 2–3 days to minimize edema [4, 6, 52]. Patients should be informed in detail with written postoperative instructions after the operation. Solely verbal instructions are not recommended because patients are generally tired after the operation and may forget these instructions.
\nIliac crest block bone grafting is widely used in oral and maxillofacial surgery for the reconstruction of major deficient alveolar ridges. Although both the anterior and posterior ilium can be a source of extra-oral bone grafts, clinicians generally choose the anterior ilium as a donor site because it allows convenient access to the recipient site. Patients remain in a supine position during the operation, and this approach reduces the operation time. Generally, the patient remains in a prone jackknife position during harvesting of the posterior iliac bone, and the patient must be switched to a supine position during the procedure. This may increase the operation time by at least 1–2 h. The anterior ilium can provide both cortical and cancellous bone blocks. Uni-, bi-, or tri-corticocancellous blocks can be harvested under general anesthesia. A bone volume of 50 cc or less can be harvested from a single anterior ilium [53]. If large corticocancellous blocks are needed, harvesting from the posterior iliac bone is appropriate.
\nThe block is harvested according to the dimensions of the bone graft required for the reconstruction of the alveolar ridge. Under general or neuroaxial blockade anesthesia, a skin incision is made approximately 2 cm above the anterosuperior iliac spine, along the anterosuperior margin of the anterior iliac crest. The medial and lateral cortical surfaces of the iliac crest are exposed directly after the subperiosteal dissection. A micro-saw and chisel are used to harvest an autogenous bone block from the anterior iliac crest (Figure 13).
\nIliac bone block application.
The block bone grafts are recontoured with diamond burs for optimum adaptation to the recipient site as an onlay technique, and they are fixed to the residual ridge with multiple screws to inhibit micro-movement during the healing process. The corners of the graft are smoothed out to avoid any undesirable exposure during the healing process. Suction drains can be used after harvesting before closure. The periosteum, fascia, and subcutaneous tissues are closed with sutures.
\nNumerous studies report low-to-moderate morbidity at the time of grafting. Major and minor complications, such as seroma, hematoma, fracture, paresthesia, pain, and gait disturbances, may occur after the operation [54]. Patients should remain in the hospital for at least 1 day; therefore, the total treatment cost is higher than the cost for intra-oral harvesting applications. Iliac bone block grafting morbidity is higher than that of local bone harvesting techniques, such as ramus or chin intra-oral autogenous block harvesting [54]. The experience of the surgeon and technique used plays important roles in reducing morbidity.
\nSbordone et al. evaluated the resorption rate in alveolar ridge augmentation after iliac bone block grafting using computerized tomographic scans [53]. The authors reported an average resorption rate of 87% for maxillary grafts after 6 years follow-up [53]. Vermeeren et al. observed a resorption rate ranging from 44% to 50% after 5 years using two-dimensional images [55]. Other studies found a resorption rate ranging from 42% to 87% for onlay grafted bone [56, 57]. The use of a bone block for the reconstruction of a deficient alveolar ridge may be easier than GBR with regard to space maintenance. However, the use of a collagen membrane is still recommended, even in block grafting, to reduce bone resorption [4, 6]. The use of a collagen membrane with block grafting may reduce resorption by almost 25% [4, 6].
\nJensen at al. compared GBR and block grafting techniques and found that in 11.1% of cases using GBR and in 2.8% of cases using block grafting, re-augmentation was needed [40]. Contour augmentation can be applied during the second-stage surgery, particularly during implant placement at an esthetically appropriate site. This second augmentation may not only limit bone resorption around implants in the future, but it may also support soft tissue and improve the esthetic appearance [4, 6]. The authors recommend using only slowly resorbable grafting materials such as DBB at the buccal site for re-augmentation with a collagen membrane. Tacked collagen membrane with grafting material will increase the bone thickness horizontally and facilitate anterior esthetic success.
\nMore bone can be regenerated using iliac blocks than GBR [40]. However, iliac bone blocks may be more prone to resorption during healing [53]. Therefore, clinicians should estimate the rate of resorption and increase the amount of harvested bone block. Caution should be taken during treatment planning, and it is preferable to increase the number of implants used in iliac block-augmented patients to decrease the detrimental effects of loading forces [58]. Implant designs that include platform switching may also help to reduce marginal bone loss [52]. One important advantage of block grafting over GBR is the healing time. Four to five months are sufficient for a bone block integrates with the host bone and allow for implant placement [53, 54, 56]. However, particularly for vertical augmentations, 7–9 months are needed for the GBR technique to achieve implant stability [2, 37]. Therefore, it is easier for patients to accept a two-stage GBR treatment if temporary prostheses are provided during long-term healing. A temporary prosthesis can be manufactured using a provisional implant with a fixed or removable prosthesis. If the available bone is appropriate for the stabilization of four provisional implants, fixed temporary restorations can be provided during long-term healing. Soft tissue-supported removable prostheses are not recommended because they may adversely influence the stability of the augmented site.
\nAccording to the literature, the survival rates of dental implants inserted at augmented sites are similar to the survival rates of implants placed in natural bone [59, 60]. Marginal bone loss was also similar between implants placed in augmented and pristine bone [61, 62].
\nThe field of biomaterials and tissue engineering is rapidly growing, and growth factors have great potential for promoting bone regeneration at the resorbed alveolar ridge. Among the various growth factors, recombinant human bone morphogenic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) and recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor (rhPDGF) have received a great deal of attention [63]. Although there are numerous graft materials available, such as xenograft, allograft, and alloplast, most have only osteoconductive properties and provide only a scaffold for bone regeneration during healing. Researchers are attempting to completely eliminate the use of autogenous bone at severe augmentation sites to decrease patient morbidity. Therefore, studies regarding growth factor use with graft materials are increasing [63, 64].
\nThe bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily. BMPs regulate differentiation, chemotaxis, growth, and apoptosis of osteogenic cells and induce significant bone regeneration [65, 66].
\nPlatelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is released from aggregated platelets during the early healing phase at the wound site and exerts chemotactic and mitogenic effects on inflammatory cells and undifferentiated mesenchymal cells [67]. PDGF-BB shows potential effects on cells that influence bone regeneration, and it stimulates type I collagen synthesis in osteoblasts, directs cell migration or chemotaxis of progenitor cells, and participates in the initiation angiogenesis [68, 69]. Of the five PDGF isoforms, PDGF-BB is the most biologically potent and has the greatest binding affinity for osteoblasts [69].
\nIn a preclinical study, Simion et al. found that a significant amount of new bone formation was achieved using DBB blocks and rhPDGF-BB in the rehabilitation of severe mandibular ridge defects [70]. Wallace et al. applied rhBMP-2-wetted absorbable collagen sponges in extraction sockets [71], and they found 49.6% vital bone in core biopsies taken after 4 months of healing. These authors suggested that rhBMP-2 and collagen sponges may replace the use of barrier membranes and graft materials to rehabilitate extraction sockets for future implant placement. In another study, Misch et al. used rhBMP-2/collagen sponges and a titanium mesh for augmentation of the atrophic mandible prior to implant placement [72]. All dental implants were placed after 6 months of healing, and healing of the augmented sites was uneventful.
\nThe Food and Drug Administration has approved the usage of rhBMP-2/collagen sponges (INFUSE Bone Graft kits; Medtronic, Minneapolis, MN, USA) in extraction socket and sinus floor augmentation (well-protected defects). The number of published pre-clinical and clinical articles regarding the use of growth factors in reconstruction of hard tissue defects is growing. The use of growth factor instead of autogenous bone offers several advantages, such as decreased patient morbidity, reduced operation time, increased amounts of vital bone at the augmented site in comparison with scaffold biomaterials, and simplification of the surgical technique [70–72]. Clinicians need to be familiar with properties, limitations, and techniques associated with these materials before application. In the future, there can be no doubt that growth factors will play an important role in hard and soft tissue engineering.
\nMany novel techniques, biomaterials, and tools have been described in the literature that clinicians may use to reconstruct bone deficiencies. However, most importantly, the success of alveolar ridge augmentation procedures mainly depends on clinician experience and skill. The surgical risks may be increased for challenging reconstructions. Therefore, the clinician and patient should carefully evaluate the benefits and risks of the operation and decide on the most ideal treatment option. Prosthetic-driven augmentation is recommended for a better outcome. If the clinician focuses only on ridge augmentation techniques to solve bone deficiency problems, he or she may overlook other treatment options that may have lower risks and less morbidity, such as using short, narrow, or tilted implants. After all, ridge augmentation is being performed for the ideal placement of dental implants.
\n“Greenspace” the word itself is so vast for the academicians that it has been used by researchers differently in different contexts. With the revolutions in the research of sustainability, the term “green” not only symbolizes trees and vegetation but is also used as an adjective for environment-friendly built environments and even technologies. In urban planning, the term “greenspace” is referred to as the vegetation cover of the spatial area. Greenspace is an urban space that fulfills various esthetics, air purification, conservation of ecology, etc. Urban green spaces (UGSs) in cities exist as natural or semi-natural, managed parks and gardens, supplemented by scattered vegetation pockets associated with roads and random green spaces [1].
Some traditional and cultural parameters, including health, ecological, social, and recreational, remain a major deterministic factor for the optimum usability of these spaces. These UGS can be accessible or inaccessible within city areas. Accessibility of green spaces is an important aspect to assess its impact. There are many UGS within the city area which are inaccessible to the public, and thus citizens are not able to avail themselves of its best benefits. In such cases, green space may not perform its function. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the context of green spaces in urban planning. To further elaborate the green space, ‘public open spaces’ is another term that can further help understand the concept, functionality, and psychological impact of the population affected by green spaces. UGS include natural elements like green belts, soil, water, parks, etc. have a positive effect on human wellbeing, as shown in Figure 1.
UGS in Chandigarh city, India (Chandigarh is the first the planned city of India by architect-planner Le Corbusier and is famous for its green spaces integration in the master plan). (Source: author).
The sustenance of human life on Earth is entirely due to a natural environment and large biodiversity functions. Fresh air, water, fruits, woodlands and minerals are all provisioned by various ecosystem services. Green spaces in cities serve as a natural gathering place for the community, fostering social interaction and integration. They also promote individuality and belongingness to urban areas. The effectiveness of UGS to attenuate air pollution is enhanced by vegetation density. Urban greenery provides a safe and healthy atmosphere for walking, jogging, and running and a conducive environment for social contact and physical and leisure activities. Consuming the maximum benefits of city greens requires them to remain unaltered by the urban infrastructure such as the buildings, highways, and other infrastructural components. The current times require greens to be planned as ecological functional spaces coexisting to support the human functions of recreation, esthetics, leisure activities and conserving environmental values.
Vacant built-up space remains as elapsed wasteland or gaps between buildings and other constructions. These spaces have a high potential for reconstruction and repurposing by integrating them into the public, and for creating stunning spaces by distinguishing their specific character. For example, the exact characteristic of a former railway track is that it connects two regions and can be renovated into a green corridor. Depending on their location, abandoned areas can be converted into different facilities. Every city has such vacant spaces that are waiting to be adapted to the current urban fabric so that they can be part of the total cityscape.
An environmental justice issue that affects so many communities is the lack of green space. Most cities have green areas throughout them for the health of the citizens. In areas that are predominantly lower income or a minority group tend to have less green space. Green spaces are very important to maintain good air quality and promote exercise [2]. There are many cases of this environmental justice problem that were acknowledged and even fixed. A few examples are Tartu, Estonia, Faro, Portugal, and Phoenix, Arizona. Green space is something everyone should have equal access to, but due to the environmental justice problem certain groups are deprived of easily accessible green space.
Living near a green space might even help you live longer. A scientific review published in The Lancet Planetary Health found urbanites living near a park or a garden had a lower risk of premature passing. In their work, the researchers used a vegetation index to measure the density of greenery in locales. Using their scale, infertile areas composed of rocks or sand would score closer to a zero, while an area like a lush tropical rainforest would score closer to one.
The chapter holistically covers and generalizes concepts and concerns associated with UGS across urban planning domain. The chapter is written based on the review and analysis of secondary data available in the form of published literature from reputed data sources, government reports and based personal observation of the author may during the course of study.
The green space can be differentiated from open space as it constitutes only a two-dimensional land area that has not been modified to buildings, highways, and other infrastructural components. Greens should be mainly classified into an ecological function space (flora and fauna, physical infrastructure (drainage, stormwater management, and water quality conservation), and human function (provision for recreational, aesthetical, emotional, and leisure activities, preservation of environmental values, and solar access). Green space may consist of a vast range of pre-hold and leasehold land tenure with different use and access rights. Green space may also find its share in further land-use planning.
In the early 1700s, garden squares and parks were firstly introduced in urban areas. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the parkway movement, headed by Frederick Law Olmsted, led to the belief that green space was an important cultural and social element of the urban form. The idea of integrating green space into the urban development process came out with the regeneration of the environmental movement in the 1960s [3]. Although public access is defined for various green spaces, green space does not imply public accessibility automatically. Here the green space categories the open spaces which support human socio-cultural and health requirements, biodiversity preservation as well as discussion related to historical green space perspective [4, 5].
There are different types of green spaces like food production areas, national parks, grasslands, green belts, and playfield (like a golf course) that are predominately utilized for corps and live stocks, habitation to animals and medicinal herbs, cattle grazing, the barrier between the pavement and human settlement, and sports activity respectively. Green space categories intermingled with the next one, parks and gardens, where the needs of individuality for recreation and enjoyment are fulfilled [6, 7]. Table 1 shows the Indian UGS typology according to the designated documents with different contexts, categories, classification, and other hierarchies.
Many cities in India have a categorization of spaces that are derived from literature (Table 2). And then, there is a hierarchy of classification of categorized spaces. The planned cities have systematic cataloging of green spaces like the recreational spaces, green areas and tourist areas. Each town has its USP (unique selling point), and it offers the spaces it has according to its function. Table 3 showcases the different cities of India and how they have their green spaces categorized, their further classification and the hierarchy.
Documents | Context | Category | Classification | Hierarchy |
---|---|---|---|---|
UDPFI (1996) | Open spaces | Recreational facilities | Parks and open spaces Sports centers and playgrounds Botanical and zoological parks Water bodies/other natural features Places of tourist interest | Housing cluster Sector Community District Sub-city center |
URDPFI (2014) | Open spaces | Recreational space Organized green Other common spaces (such as vacant lands/open spaces including flood plains, forest cover etc. In plain areas) | Recreational | Recreational P-1 Playgrounds/stadium/sports complex P-2 parks and gardens—public open spaces P-3 multi-open space (Maidan) Organized green Housing cluster Neighborhood Community District/zone Sub-city center |
Urban Green Guideline (2014) | Green spaces | Urban greens | Reserved forest Protected forest District park Neighborhood park Tot-lots Playgrounds Green belts (buffer) Green strip | Tot lot Playground Neighborhood park Community park |
Indian UGS typology.
Typology | International typology | Indian typology |
---|---|---|
Amenity green space | Recreational green space Parks and gardens Outdoor sports areas Green street space Private green space Green roofs Courtyard Greenery at housing estates Greenery at commercial buildings | Reserved forests Protected forests National parks Sanctuary |
Functional green space | Green trail Car parking space Pedestrian area Stormwater retention area Old landfills/dumps Productive green space Remnant farmland City farms Cemeteries/churchyards | City parks District parks Neighborhood parks Tot lots |
Linear green space and open spaces | River and canal banks Transport corridors—road/rails | Green belts (buffers) Green strips Transport corridors |
Natural and semi-natural spaces | Wetlands Woodlands Vacant land Post-industrial land | Playgrounds |
Green corridors | Tree belts Canal and riverbanks Disused railways | |
Allotments, community gardens, and urban farms | Allotments Community gardens City farms | |
Outdoor sports facilities | School playing fields Community playing fields | |
Provision for children and young people | Facilities for young people Community parks Children’s play area | |
Privately usable areas | Facade greening Roof garden Front garden Courtyard Balcony | |
Leisure areas | Campsite Multifunctional leisure facility Sports ground | |
Eco-sensitive areas | Waterlogged Marshy Swampy |
Categorization of green spaces according to the typology.
City name | Categorization of spaces | Classification of categorized spaces | Hierarchy of classification of categorized spaces |
---|---|---|---|
Jaipur | Recreational space/tourism zone | G1 eco sensitive areas G2 green zones G3 parks | Parks Gardens Stadium Sports ground |
Jodhpur | Recreational space | Parks and open spaces Stadium and play grounds Fair and tourism Public entertainment | No further classification |
Sriganganagar | Recreational space | Parks, open spaces and playground stadium | No further classification |
Chandigarh | Recreational space/green areas | Sports facilities Cremation ground Cultural facilities | Organized open space Forest Agriculture |
Naya Raipur | Recreational space | Open spaces | Film city Parks and play areas Stadium and sports complex Nature resort/theme park Reserved forest Botanical park, jungle safari |
Lucknow | Recreational space/green areas | Parks and open spaces | No classification |
Pune | Recreational space | Community hall Museum/theaters Parks and open spaces | No classification |
Varanasi | Recreational space | Gardens, open spaces and urban forest | No classification |
Panaji | Recreational space | City level parks and playgrounds | Housing area park Neighborhood park Community park District park |
Pudducherry | Recreational space/tourism zone | Open space | Parks Gardens Stadium |
Categorization of green spaces according to the typology.
Figure 2 shows an overall view of UGS and countries’ happiness worldwide. This map highlights regional differences in the green space distribution due to climate; countries near the Equator in tropical climates have relatively high UGSs, while countries in the 20–30 latitude range have exceptionally low UGSs due to the dry climate. The UGS increases with latitude in higher-latitude regions. On the other hand, Northern and Western European and North American countries display relatively high happiness scores. Western Asian countries also show relatively high happiness with a low UGS, indicating that the relationship between happiness and green space is not trivial.
UGS and happiness index of countries worldwide (a) The map of urban green space and happiness in 60 developed countries. The size and color of circles represent the level of happiness and urban green space in a country, respectively. The markers are placed on the most populated cities of each country. (b) Histogram of happiness (c) Histogram of UGS (d) Histogram of log-GDP.
The distribution of UGS and happiness over the world. (a) The map of UGS and happiness in 60 developed countries. The size and color of circles represent the level of happiness and UGS in a country, respectively. The markers are placed on the most populated cities of each country. (b)–(d) The histograms of (b) happiness, (c) UGS and (d) logarithmic GDP per capita (log-GDP). We use the logarithm of the total NDVI per capita as an indicator of UGS and the logarithm of GDP per capita as a measure of wealth.
The usage of Greenspace for recreation and leisure purposes led to the identification of its economic, cultural, environmental, and social values, which further increased the attention on its management and planning. In this chapter, the focus is on the relationship of Greenspace to human interaction on various levels of livability, recreational purposes and improved quality of life. The other perspective describes urban vegetation, such as parks, yards, and gardens related to a green stuff kind of open space. This perspective may be defined as a subsidiary of a comprehensive notion of Greenspace, i.e., limited to the built-up environment subsection of open space.
UGS are critical for making our cities sustainable and energy-efficient [8]. However, for UGS to contribute to the optimum, they have to be planned, designed, developed and managed/maintained appropriately so that they are accessible both in terms of area and population coverage. It is a fact that urbanization in India will continue unabated. The Urban Greenspaces generate diverse ecosystems of substantial significance for human wellbeing and human activities, shaping their dynamics. Many green spaces in cities disconnected from the wider environment tend to lose biodiversity due to continuous construction activities. Hence, protecting green spaces in isolation will often fail to sustain the capacity of urban ecosystems to generate value and have to be well integrated into the overall city landscape.
Figure 3 shows the distribution, parts and sub-parts of the UGS.
Synonymous nature of UGS.
Furthermore, the socio-cultural, functional, health-related aspects are labeled for a specific place, i.e., “Greenspace”, as a park or recreational area [9]. Sprawling population, commerce, industries, transportation accelerated the gross domestic production, varied product availability to the consumers, and more excellent connectivity. With the high-rise demand of time, the researchers explored the correlation between these sectors and related aspects of “Greenspace”.
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Natural land | Unoccupied/unused lands, left unturned by the authorities or the locals, come under this category. Grasslands are also a big part of the natural land group. |
Green belts | Green belts of buffers include green girdle, park belt, rural belt, agricultural belt, country belt etc., which generally refers to a stretch between towns or regions separating one from the other. These areas are dominantly farmlands as they support agriculture and related functions. Green belts are established to keep in check the growth of the built-up regions, preserve neighboring towns from merging and also maintain a unique character of a town. |
National parks | National park is an area that is protected and conserved due to the presence of remarkable natural flora, fauna, geological formations and natural scenic spots. |
Reserved forests | Area duly notified under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or the State Forest Acts having complete protection. All activities inside are prohibited unless expressly permitted. |
Protected forests | They are found in urban and peri-urban areas secured by fencing or constructing a compound wall, or both. Here no construction activity is allowed. |
District parks | It is a designated term per the hierarchy of green spaces in an urban city. It is a prominent use of a vast green area and developed as a crucial green space in a city. As per UDPFI guidelines, one district park serves 500,000 of the population in plain areas. |
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Campsite leisure | Land that is dedicated to camping acquires a significant part of the green space category, especially in the trekking zones of any country |
Wetlands/marshy land | A wetland is a part of the ecosystem flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally. Wetlands are considered amongst the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal species. |
Functional green space | Spaces like cemeteries, pedestrian area, landfills, farms, etc., are functional green spaces. These areas acquire land which is usable for the users. |
Playing fields | As part of any institution/university/school, fields serve as a decent open area for any city. It enables the users to use it for any leisure/formal purposes. |
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Linear green space | Areas like pedestrians, river canals, street trees are included in Linear Green Space. It adds to the esthetic and usability value of any city. |
Green stripe | A green strip is developed on vacant land, for instance, land under high tension power supply lines. It is also developed along the arterial roads, separating residential areas from other land uses. |
Green roof/facade | Green roofs are the most popularly deployed form of roofs; they are generally lightweight and low cost. They are purposely fitted or cultivated with vegetation. They are also be known as living roofs, eco-roofs or vegetated roofs. They can reduce both heating and cooling loads in buildings. This has positive implications in terms of their energy consumption. The green roofs and facades increase the esthetic value of the scape. |
Neighborhoods parks | It is developed at the neighborhoods level for a population of 10,000. Neighborhoods Parks are conveniently located within the developed residential areas, preferably within walking distance. It is planned on a site of 2000−4000 m2 |
Indian city | Typology |
---|---|
Chandigarh: The capital city has a forest and tree cover of 35.5% in its 114-km2 area. Chandigarh has become the greenest city in the country. The tree cover saved the city from becoming an all-concrete jungle, a fate that has overcome many Indian towns. | The green belts of Chandigarh also facilitate a healthy population of diverse birds. The parks along the spine of Chandigarh include Rajendra Park, Bougainvillea Garden, Leisure Valley Garden, Zakir Rose Garden, Shanti Kunj, Bamboo Valley Garden, Bulbous Hibiscus Garden, Fragrance Garden and Dahlia Garden. |
See Figure 4.
Indian city | Typology |
---|---|
Delhi: The capital of India is one of the greenest capitals in the world due to the consistent emphasis on greening and strict monitoring of tree cutting. | Recently, the parks and garden society has been set up to coordinate the greening activities in Delhi. The city has some well-maintained parks and gardens like Lodhi Gardens, Mughal Gardens, Deer Park, Budha Jayanti Smarak Park, Indraprastha Millennium Park and The Garden of Five Senses besides the Ridge. |
Plan of Chandigarh.
See Figure 5.
City abroad | Typology |
---|---|
New York – Central Park: Central Park is an urban park in New York City located between Manhattan’s Upper West and Upper East Sides. It is the fifth-largest park in the city, covering 843 acres (341 ha). It is the most visited urban Park in the United States, with an estimated 42 million visitors annually as of 2016, and is the most filmed location in the world. | The Park has natural-looking plantings and landforms, having been almost entirely landscaped when built in the 1850s and 1860s. It has eight lakes and ponds created artificially by damming natural seeps and flows. Several wooded sections, lawns, meadows, and minor grassy areas. There are 21 children’s playgrounds and 6.1 miles (9.8 km) of drives. |
Plan of Delhi.
See Figure 6.
City abroad | Typology |
---|---|
London – Hyde Park: Hyde Park is famous for being the largest Park in Central Park and the royal parks of London and its speaker’s corners. | Hyde Park is a Grade I-listed major park in Central London. It is the largest of four Royal Parks that form a chain from the entrance of Kensington Palace through Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park, via Hyde Park Corner and Green Park, past the main entrance to Buckingham Palace. The Park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water lakes. |
Plan of New York Central Park.
See Figure 7.
Plan of London Hyde Park.
Different direct accessibility Greenspace typologies provide ecological benefits such as ambient temperature, air and noise pollution reduction, water harvesting, and a barrier between pavement and locality. Green Space provides indirect health benefits instead of direct benefits. These green spaces offer various herbs, vegetables, cereals, fruits, etc., supporting human health. Flourished greenspaces promote tourism, health wellness product vending and fetch high real sale values for the properties near parks and greenways. Apart from these direct benefits, many researchers have established many indirect benefits of Greenspace, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Recreation opportunities, Areas that are culturally and historically valuable. It has an impact on physical and mental health. Green spaces provide a refreshing contrast to the harsh shape, color, and texture of buildings and stimulate the senses with their simple color, sound and smell. Particular types of green space may offer a bigger diversity of land uses and opportunities for a wide range of activities, help to foster active lifestyles, and can be of real benefit to health.
Green Spaces add to the Landscape features of any cityscape; screened views are formed from different angles of the city. Growing trees and experiencing nature is a path to a positive passive lifestyle.
Air pollution reduction, Sound Control, Glare and Reflection reduction. Impacts on urban climate through temperature and humidity control. Urban forests act as temperature buffers providing shade in the summer and windbreaks in the winter in addition to reducing noise pollution and CO2 levels and providing a habitat for wildlife [10]. Urban greening improves air, water, and land resources by absorbing air pollutants, increasing water catchment in floodplain surfaces, and stabilizing soils.
Biotopes for flora and fauna in any urban environment is benefitted and, in turn, help the environment. Trees absorb pollutants; moderate the impact of humans, absorbing pollutants and releasing oxygen. They contribute to maintaining a healthy urban environment by providing clean air, water and soil. Green vegetation has been shown to lower wall surface temperatures by 17°C, which led to a reduced air conditioning load by an average of 50%. They improve the urban microclimate and maintain the balance of the city’s natural urban environment [11]. They preserve the local natural and cultural heritage by providing habitats for various wildlife and conserving a diversity of urban resources.
Tourism is increased due to the aesthetical change in any scape. The property value is increased—the value of market-prices benefits [12]. Property owners value urban greenery by the premium they pay to live in the neighborhood of UGS and public parks. Plots and flats adjoining Park add to the value. In densely populated areas, this effect is even more noticeable. For example, the view of green spaces and proximity to water bodies increases the real estate prices. The impact of neighborhood parks on the transaction price of multi-storied residential units in cities illustrates that neighborhood parks could increase the cost.
Humans appear to adapt to almost anything in their environment, including air pollution, noise and environmental dullness. Man’s apparent ability to adapt may be his most significant liability. On the one hand, it allows him to adjust to slowly developing adverse conditions; on the other, it could easily threaten his survival. Adaptability permits human adjustment to damaging environmental circumstances we aren’t aware of. When environmental conditions deteriorate to a point where they are readily apparent, it may be too late to reverse the cycle. If an individual has a feeling of wellbeing in the built environment that surrounds him, it is reflected in his activities. The type of space that covers us can either stimulate or be in habitus. Some have tried to isolate how spaces (man-made and open space) play a behavior role in our way of life and specific ways of thinking. While these studies can be rationalized from many perspectives, a case can be made that the type and amount of spaces in our urban areas do, to some degree, shape our social behavior. As urban life becomes more stressful, the more significant the influence of open space [13]. Stress is most pronounced in low-income neighborhoods.
Higher-income neighborhoods outside our major cities tend to be less densely populated, which may reduce the resident’s perceived need for public open space. Often, the lower a neighborhood’s economic scale is, the less likely it becomes for that neighborhood to have the available space and recreational activities required for good physical and mental development.
Placing an economic value on urban open space related to public benefits is a difficult task. Land value in a free enterprise system depends on supply and demand. The value of the real estate is directly proportional to the market demand, potential use, and rights of ownership within its geographic locality. Publicly owned open space used for recreation does not fit into the regular private land market. The parcel’s value as open space cannot be measured in dollars in the same way as land or improvements for a commercial venture.
One method of estimating the economic value of public open space is to monitor the success of a program and determine the revenue that is directly or indirectly generated by it [14]. At the same time, public parks are primarily supported by tax dollars appropriated through the general fund.
More indirectly, open space generates revenues by enhancing the value of adjacent private properties. For example, a 1977 study in Chicago concluded that property prices were $1000 higher for parcels within one block of an urban park as compared to a similar area. Hammer [15] estimated that for each acre of a public park adjacent to a stream, sur-rounding private property values would increase an average of $2600.
Ecological considerations directly related to land and resource preservation often are neglected. These include the function of open space for water-shed management, environmental quality, and esthetic appreciation.
Greenbelts adjacent to natural water bodies can reduce sedimentation, increase preservation, reduce the need for excessive flood control projects and lessen flood damage [16]. Areas of open space can:
Ensure groundwater recharge.
Improve water quality by reducing soil erosion and sedimentation.
Increase recreational benefits, such as nature study, fishing and boating.
Sustain wetlands, which provide wildlife habitats.
Absorb peak water discharge and naturally filter some of the suspended pollutants.
Keep lake and stream levels more constant over the entire year.
Enhance the community appearance.
The benefits of green spaces for our cities are well documented, but they are seldom given desired attention with other computing land uses such as the residential, commercial and industrial use within the urban planning process. Negligence by planning authorities and decision-makers results in not meeting the quantitative and qualitative standards of green spaces and results in their unequal distribution on the spatial scale. Inaccessible green spaces within urban centers also raise concerns regarding city dwellers’ utilization. Primarily new developments in urban centers diminish the future opportunities for recreational provision, and most often, the existing green spaces are not very well managed. Various UGS planning and management issues are thus identified in the subsequent subsections.
The quality of green space is a critical determinant to assess its value to the urban population. In generic terms, the quality of green space is understood in terms of its esthetic outlook and the level of facilities served by it. But in the spatial planning domain, the density of vegetation and the spread of tree crowns can be realized as they essentially lead to the several ecological and social benefits associated with green space. Improved physical and mental health, reduced stress levels, and increased happiness and satisfaction amongst citizens indicate the existence of superior quality greens in the city. Scenarios of degenerating UGS quality are well reported across many cities [17]. The city of Bengaluru in India has seen a decrease of 78% in green cover over the course of four decades, along with its deteriorating quality. These scenarios can be related to rising accounts of air pollution, obesity, shrinking health, and social and psychological collapse amongst the citizens. Overall degenerating quality of the greens and cities can be associated with multiple factors such as lack of maintenance, not choosing native trees, urban sprawl on green belts and ecological areas, deterioration of green riverfronts and loss of biodiversity in forests.
Policy frameworks in an urban planning setup are intended to guide associated decision-makers in the field towards achieving suitable outcomes related to various city infrastructures. Provision, maintenance and broadening of appropriate green covers in cities require policy measures supporting the existence and promotion of several ecosystem services delivered by UGS. Recommendations made by World Health Organization (WHO) suggests the availability of a minimum of 9 m2 of green space per person, ceases the intent at large of appropriate green space provision policy as it follows the ‘one size fits all approach and neglects varying physical and social circumstances across world cities [18]. Furthermore, catering to large densities in urban centres, many cities fail to meet the standard. For example, (see Table 4) amongst many Indian cities, only a few cities like Chandigarh, Delhi, and Bangalore meet the WHO standard, and numerous like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Chennai, and Hyderabad miss it on a large scale.
City | City area (km2) | City population in million (census 2011) | Area of UGS (km2) | Per capita UGS (m2 per person) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chandigarh | 114 | 1.05 | 50 | 47.37 |
Delhi | 1484 | 16.34 | 324.44 | 19.84 |
Bangalore | 709 | 8.43 | 150 | 17.80 |
Mumbai | 735 | 18.45 | 122 | 6.61 |
Ahmedabad | 464 | 5.57 | 21.8 | 3.91 |
Surat | 326.5 | 4.46 | 11.84 | 3.32 |
Chennai | 176 | 8.69 | 11 | 1.26 |
Hyderabad | 172 | 7.75 | 8.72 | 0.88 |
Per capita UGS in Indian cities.
Source: author.
The Ministry of Urban Development sets out urban and regional development plan formulation and implementation (URDPFI) guidelines for, Government of India and suggests appropriate urban development standards. It identifies UGS as part of organized greens within the city’s social infrastructure and categorizes them based upon their spatial hierarchy as housing area, neighborhood, community, district and sub-city parks (see Table 5). The population to be served per unit and associated area requirements are mentioned within these categories. Such standards meet the quantitative aspects of UGS, but attention to their physical distribution and accessibility in regards to providing the serving radius is missed out.
S. no. | Category | Population served per unit | Area requirement (ha) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Housing area park | 5000 | 0.50 |
2 | Neighborhood park | 15,000 | 1.00 |
3 | Community park | 1,00,000 | 5.00 |
4 | District park | 5,00,000 | 25.00 |
5 | Sub city park | 10,00,000 | 100.00 |
Categories of UGS in Indian cities as per URDPFI guidelines.
Source: URDPFI, volume 1.
Indian cities broadly vary in topography, and thus while setting out UGS standards and policy measures, it is crucial to incorporate their diverse local climate context and cultural practices, which these standards miss out on largely.
Developing the proper functionality of an UGS is vital to make it enduring. In the context of UGS associating them with the recreational programming during the planning process, it drives them to become more functionally sound and exciting and vibrant for citizens use. But a large number of green spaces in urban centers lack on this front as greens existing across the riverfront, green belts and even large cities scale greens are usually found with the least footfall and thus are encroached by slums and squatters [19]. Even in low hierarchy greens such as local or neighborhood parks, the absence of supporting recreational amenities such as sitting area, walking pathways, sports facilities, biking trails, open gyms, etc. are either not found or are not so well maintained. One of the studies in the Alexandria city of Egypt brings forth the lack of recreational programming of UGS and how it negatively affects the usability of city greens by the urban citizens (see Figure 8).
Inappropriate recreational programming in Al Shalalat park Alexandria, Egypt. (Source: 2003; De Sousa; thinking brownfields into green space in the city of Toronto).
Improving the UGS scenarios in our cities requires strategic measures with the coordinated efforts of all decision-makers and the stakeholder’s participation. These measures would intend to improve the qualitative and quantitative structure of urban greens in our cities, ensuring equitable distribution and making the greens accessible for citizens. Improving the planning process, strengthening the spatial data, enhancing quality greens, applying ecological principles, using altered greening practices and promoting public participation are discussed in the subsections below as the strategies for UGS improvements.
UGS assists sustainable development by being environmentally, socially and economically viable. The accustomed green planning process involves using standards approach wherein a set of standards are used while deciding greens provision. The standards approach ensures enough green spaces exist in cities, but it often compromises other vital aspects. UGS should be of satisfactory quality, adequate quantity, well-distributed and variably accessible [19, 20]. The process of determining standards should be appropriate for the greens’ of the greens and should be custom made. They are using local intensive methods such as neighborhood index which are more suitable for the green planning process. The planning process needs to be flexible enough to take in the political change occurring in the cities and should integrate a multi-disciplinary approach involving natural, social, economic, planning, and legal components.
UGS are a system of ever-evolving complexity, and to plan them effectively, spatial information is required that is fine, vigorous, and constantly updated. Geographic Information System (GIS) is one such tool that processes the geospatial data from satellite imagery, aerial photography and remote sensors helping to understand the current green spaces needs. It puts together vast amounts of spatial information and thus assists in analyzing the areas of priorities for UGS and determining the feasibility of developing new green sites in our cities [21]. In GIS, one can run numbers on queries, monitor fluctuations, predict environmental effects and thus help urban planners seek amplified visibility into the available data. Improved public participation is also achieved by using GIS tools for planning UGS, as people can get to know the actual ground reality to be achieved.
For adequate UGS planning, the existing green spaces in the city need to be addressed first. The stub semi-natural land with quality vegetation and varied, rich species can produce sound recreational and biodiverse spaces. The choice of vegetation plays a crucial role in determining and enhancing the quality of greens in a space. Choosing a natural species composition that supplements the biodiversity of the area is required. In cities undergoing densification, innovative greening techniques such as green roofs, green walls, street sites, and renaturation are very beneficial to improving green quality [22]. On an architectural scale, green needs to be saved by making effective plans. Also, site trees should not be cut during the construction phase. Proper distribution of UGS within the cities should be ensured to enhance their accessibility and visibility. Efforts to green the city streets should be made using various shrub species in order to improve the overall quality of UGS.
The efficacious planning of city greens can be achieved by utilizing ecological principles such as greenways, green fingers, and green belts. Using these principles aims at availing the optimal use of UGS geometry, thus enhancing their accessibility and diversity. Greenways act as a UGS management tool and are usually developed linearly across cities, contributing effectively to city greens. They are created along roads, railways, rivers and ridges helping to preserve green spaces and bring green vegetation into urban areas. Green fingers are conceptualized in the shape of human fingers and have green spaces set in a radial form spreading from city centre to periphery [23]. They bring green vegetation into the core of settlements and their adjoining areas, enabling citizens easy access to UGS. Green belts are set out to act as a protective mechanism checking the outward growth of cities. They are usually created in a ring form at city outskirts to prevent urban sprawl. They also acted as city boundaries separating one city from another. They contributed mainly to preserving city vegetation by safeguarding peripheral land for agriculture, forestry and recreation.
Within compact, dense cities, the land availability is less and thus, altering greening practices are required to fulfill the cities UGS requirements. In such cases practice of green roofs and walls comes to the rescue. Green roofs are the roof of a building covered with vegetation [19]. They not just provide esthetically pleasing landscapes but also create a habitat for wildlife and lower air temperature and mitigate the urban heat island effect. Providing green roofs increases property value in addition to many other benefits. Green wall, on the other hand, is a vertical greening typology wherein the walls are covered with vegetation. It can be used to enhance green spaces on land by using effective multi-level greenery designs. To encourage more and more people to use green roofs and walls, various policy measures in terms of economic incentives and tax exemption is required. Also, spreading environmental knowledge regarding them will increase the willingness of more people to implement these alternative greening measures.
The end-users of the UGS are city residents, and thus it is essential to involve them in the planning process. Public participation programs need to be thoughtfully planned and provide all the necessary information to the stakeholders. The urban planners and decision makers need to be open-minded and committed to considering the stakeholder’s inputs. To have active participation, the stakeholders need to explain the decision-making process and have a visual presentation clearly. For effective public participation, the demographic structure of the area needs to be identified, and further, the goals for UGS needs to be set accordingly [24]. Developing a questionnaire based on the area profile, demographics and UGS requirements should be formulated. To educate the citizens regarding UGS, workshops, seminars, and expert discussions can be conducted, which will also help the decision makers better identify local needs and demands.
With the rapid urbanization occurring in our cities, the need for sustainable development is more than ever. UGS are significant contributors to sustainable development as they provide us with several ecological services. They assist carbon sequestration, reduce the urban heat island effect, act as a barrier for noise pollution and bring down air pollution. The built environment is majorly affected by the UGS as they comprise recreational spaces for citizens that promote social inclusion in communities. Urban planners play a significant role in the provision of UGS in our cities. They are the primary decision-makers guided by the various standards, policies, laws and legislations. But most of the time, UGS seldomly take a back seat in the planning process over other land use such as residential, commercial, industrial and institutional. Therefore, it is essential for urban planning to address the challenges associated with UGS and suggest various strategies and measures. Indian cities face many challenges with the incredible pace of urbanization, such as less quantity of UGS and inappropriate quality. UGS is not equitably distributed in many cities and is not easily accessible [25]. The intended purpose not being served causes dissatisfaction amongst the city residents. To improve the situation of UGS in our cities, it is utterly vital to improve the planning process and at the same time strengthen the spatial data available to the decision-makers [26]. It is primarily important to work on enhancing the quality of UGS and incorporate various ecological principles available to us in the planning process. In cities undergoing densification and reduced land availability, alternative greening practices such as green roofs and walls can be of great help. Above people are all that avail the UGS, so it’s imperative to involve them in the planning process. It is equally essential for the youth to take this up in their hands of responsibility, and that is only possible if they have been given a chance, ensured support and most importantly, allotted funds for improving the UGS.
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Waisundara and Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10111.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:27,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"38573",doi:"10.5772/51687",title:"Food Phenolic Compounds: Main Classes, Sources and Their Antioxidant Power",slug:"food-phenolic-compounds-main-classes-sources-and-their-antioxidant-power",totalDownloads:10255,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:115,abstract:null,book:{id:"3203",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-chronic-degenerative-diseases-a-role-for-antioxidants",title:"Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases",fullTitle:"Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases - A Role for Antioxidants"},signatures:"Maria de Lourdes Reis Giada",authors:[{id:"153687",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:"Reis",surname:"Giada",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-giada",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Giada"}]},{id:"39159",doi:"10.5772/51788",title:"Oxidative Stress in Diabetes Mellitus and the Role Of Vitamins with Antioxidant Actions",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-diabetes-mellitus-and-the-role-of-vitamins-with-antioxidant-actions",totalDownloads:6343,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:null,book:{id:"3203",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-chronic-degenerative-diseases-a-role-for-antioxidants",title:"Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases",fullTitle:"Oxidative Stress and Chronic Degenerative Diseases - A Role for Antioxidants"},signatures:"Maria-Luisa Lazo-de-la-Vega-Monroy and Cristina Fernández-Mejía",authors:[{id:"46162",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria-Luisa",middleName:null,surname:"Lazo-De-La-Vega-Monroy",slug:"maria-luisa-lazo-de-la-vega-monroy",fullName:"Maria-Luisa Lazo-De-La-Vega-Monroy"}]},{id:"66369",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84255",title:"General Perception of Liposomes: Formation, Manufacturing and Applications",slug:"general-perception-of-liposomes-formation-manufacturing-and-applications",totalDownloads:3313,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"Liposomes are currently part of the most reputed carriers for various molecular species, from small and simple to large and complex molecules. Since their discovery, liposomes have been subject to extensive evolution, in terms of composition, manufacturing and applications, which led to several openings in both basic and applied life sciences. However, most of the advances in liposome research have been more devoted to launching new developments than improving the existing technology for potential implementation. For instance, the evolution of the conventional lipid hydration methods to novel microfluidic technologies has permitted upscale production, but with increase in manufacturing cost and persistent use of organic solvents. This chapter intends to present general concepts in liposome technology, highlighting some longstanding bottlenecks that remain challenging to the preparation, characterization and applications of liposomal systems. This would enhance the understanding of the gaps in the field and, hence, provide directions for future research and developments.",book:{id:"8095",slug:"liposomes-advances-and-perspectives",title:"Liposomes",fullTitle:"Liposomes - Advances and Perspectives"},signatures:"Christian Isalomboto Nkanga, Alain Murhimalika Bapolisi, Nnamdi Ikemefuna Okafor and Rui Werner Maçedo Krause",authors:[{id:"284670",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",slug:"rui-krause",fullName:"Rui Krause"},{id:"284672",title:"Mr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Bapolisi",slug:"alain-bapolisi",fullName:"Alain Bapolisi"},{id:"284673",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Nkanga",slug:"christian-nkanga",fullName:"Christian Nkanga"},{id:"284675",title:"Mr.",name:"Okafor",middleName:null,surname:"Nnamdi",slug:"okafor-nnamdi",fullName:"Okafor Nnamdi"}]},{id:"52680",doi:"10.5772/65715",title:"Endogenous Antioxidants: A Review of their Role in Oxidative Stress",slug:"endogenous-antioxidants-a-review-of-their-role-in-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:4086,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Oxidative stress (OxS) constitutes a disturbance caused by an imbalance between the generation of free radicals and antioxidant system, which causes damage to biomolecules. This, in turn, may lead the body to the occurrence of many chronic degenerative diseases. Therefore, it is very important to know the functioning of those endogenous (and exogenous) antioxidants systems to prevent such diseases. Due to evolutionary conditions in living beings, among other functions have been developed and selected defense systems against the deleterious action of free radicals. Such systems are intrinsic in cells (at level intracellular and extracellular) and act together with the dietary exogenous antioxidants. All these antioxidant systems have very important role in preserving the oxide/reduction equilibrium in the cell. To understand the role of the transcription factor Nrf2 in regulating the processes of antioxidant defense, it must also know the role of many of the endogenous antioxidants that occur because of its activation. Therefore, this chapter makes a literature review of the most important general aspects of endogenous antioxidant systems, which will provide another point of view from which to approach the study and treatment of many chronic degenerative diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and Parkinson.",book:{id:"5407",slug:"a-master-regulator-of-oxidative-stress-the-transcription-factor-nrf2",title:"The Transcription Factor Nrf2",fullTitle:"A Master Regulator of Oxidative Stress - The Transcription Factor Nrf2"},signatures:"Tomás Alejandro Fregoso Aguilar, Brenda Carolina Hernández\nNavarro and Jorge Alberto Mendoza Pérez",authors:[{id:"154732",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza-Pérez",slug:"jorge-a.-mendoza-perez",fullName:"Jorge A. Mendoza-Pérez"},{id:"154908",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomás A.",middleName:null,surname:"Fregoso-Aguilar",slug:"tomas-a.-fregoso-aguilar",fullName:"Tomás A. Fregoso-Aguilar"},{id:"194794",title:"Dr.",name:"Brenda Carolina",middleName:"Carolina",surname:"Hernandez Navarro",slug:"brenda-carolina-hernandez-navarro",fullName:"Brenda Carolina Hernandez Navarro"}]},{id:"52857",doi:"10.5772/65366",title:"Oxidative Stress and Disease",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-disease",totalDownloads:3108,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Typically in aerobic metabolism, organic compounds such as nucleic acids, proteins and lipids can undergo structural damage by oxidative reactions. This damage caused by reactive oxygen/nitrogen species has been recognized as “oxidative stress”. Despite the biological systems present efficient enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant systems, oxidative stress indicates a pro-oxidant/antioxidant imbalance in favor of excessive generation of free radicals or decrease in the removal rate. Various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and neurodegenerative clearly exemplify the chronic oxidative stress. Therefore, it is important to consider that at low and moderate ROS levels, it can, for example, act as signaling molecules that support cell proliferation and differentiation and activate survival pathways in response to stress. Correlations between oxidative stress and disease should be carefully investigated in order to understand whether oxidative stress actually increases susceptibility to a particular disease or opposite.",book:{id:"5407",slug:"a-master-regulator-of-oxidative-stress-the-transcription-factor-nrf2",title:"The Transcription Factor Nrf2",fullTitle:"A Master Regulator of Oxidative Stress - The Transcription Factor Nrf2"},signatures:"Rosângela F.F de Araújo, Danyelly Bruneska G. Martins and Maria\nAmélia C.S.M. Borba",authors:[{id:"189307",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosângela",middleName:null,surname:"Araújo",slug:"rosangela-araujo",fullName:"Rosângela Araújo"},{id:"194629",title:"Dr.",name:"Danyelly",middleName:null,surname:"Martins",slug:"danyelly-martins",fullName:"Danyelly Martins"},{id:"194630",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria Amélia",middleName:null,surname:"Borba",slug:"maria-amelia-borba",fullName:"Maria Amélia Borba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69775",title:"Principles of Chromatography Method Development",slug:"principles-of-chromatography-method-development",totalDownloads:4278,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter aims to explain the key parameters of analytical method development using the chromatography techniques which are used for the identification, separation, purification, and quantitative estimation of complex mixtures of organic compounds. Mainly, the versatile techniques of ultra−/high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC/HPLC) are in use for the analysis of assay and organic impurities/related substances/degradation products of a drug substance or drug product or intermediate or raw material of pharmaceuticals. A suitable analytical method is developed only after evaluating the major and critical separation parameters of chromatography (examples for UPLC/HPLC are selection of diluent, wavelength, detector, stationary phase, column temperature, flow rate, solvent system, elution mode, and injection volume, etc.). The analytical method development is a process of proving the developed analytical method is suitable for its intended use for the quantitative estimation of the targeted analyte present in pharmaceutical drugs. And it mostly plays a vital role in the development and manufacture of pharmaceuticals drugs.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Narasimha S. Lakka and Chandrasekar Kuppan",authors:[{id:"304950",title:"Prof.",name:"Chandrasekar",middleName:null,surname:"Kuppan",slug:"chandrasekar-kuppan",fullName:"Chandrasekar Kuppan"},{id:"309984",title:"Mr.",name:"Narasimha S",middleName:null,surname:"Lakka",slug:"narasimha-s-lakka",fullName:"Narasimha S Lakka"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3785,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]},{id:"64549",title:"Plant Lipid Metabolism",slug:"plant-lipid-metabolism",totalDownloads:2666,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"In plants, the synthesis of fatty acids takes place in the chloroplast and the fatty acid synthase is prokaryotic type. In plants, the structure of membrane lipids is different from that of eukaryotic cells. The membranes of the chloroplasts are essentially formed of galatolipids. This chapter will also focus on the structure and biosynthesis of fatty acids and membrane lipids in plants. Lipids of seeds are essentially composed of TAG; it would be interesting to describe their synthesis during the maturation of the seeds. Some plants contain in their reserve lipids unconventional fatty acids such as gamma linolenic acid in Borrago officinalis L., short-chain fatty acids C: 12 and C: 10, fatty acids with very long chains, and fatty acids that are cyclical. All of these fatty acids can have industrial and/or pharmaceutical applications.",book:{id:"7036",slug:"advances-in-lipid-metabolism",title:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism",fullTitle:"Advances in Lipid Metabolism"},signatures:"Fatiha AID",authors:[{id:"256576",title:"Prof.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Aid",slug:"fatiha-aid",fullName:"Fatiha Aid"}]},{id:"66369",title:"General Perception of Liposomes: Formation, Manufacturing and Applications",slug:"general-perception-of-liposomes-formation-manufacturing-and-applications",totalDownloads:3313,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"Liposomes are currently part of the most reputed carriers for various molecular species, from small and simple to large and complex molecules. Since their discovery, liposomes have been subject to extensive evolution, in terms of composition, manufacturing and applications, which led to several openings in both basic and applied life sciences. However, most of the advances in liposome research have been more devoted to launching new developments than improving the existing technology for potential implementation. For instance, the evolution of the conventional lipid hydration methods to novel microfluidic technologies has permitted upscale production, but with increase in manufacturing cost and persistent use of organic solvents. This chapter intends to present general concepts in liposome technology, highlighting some longstanding bottlenecks that remain challenging to the preparation, characterization and applications of liposomal systems. This would enhance the understanding of the gaps in the field and, hence, provide directions for future research and developments.",book:{id:"8095",slug:"liposomes-advances-and-perspectives",title:"Liposomes",fullTitle:"Liposomes - Advances and Perspectives"},signatures:"Christian Isalomboto Nkanga, Alain Murhimalika Bapolisi, Nnamdi Ikemefuna Okafor and Rui Werner Maçedo Krause",authors:[{id:"284670",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:null,surname:"Krause",slug:"rui-krause",fullName:"Rui Krause"},{id:"284672",title:"Mr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Bapolisi",slug:"alain-bapolisi",fullName:"Alain Bapolisi"},{id:"284673",title:"MSc.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Nkanga",slug:"christian-nkanga",fullName:"Christian Nkanga"},{id:"284675",title:"Mr.",name:"Okafor",middleName:null,surname:"Nnamdi",slug:"okafor-nnamdi",fullName:"Okafor Nnamdi"}]},{id:"61865",title:"A Click Chemistry Approach to Tetrazoles: Recent Advances",slug:"a-click-chemistry-approach-to-tetrazoles-recent-advances",totalDownloads:2680,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Introduction to tetrazole and click chemistry approaches was briefed in a concise way in order to help the readers have a basic understanding. Tetrazole and its derivatives play very important role in medicinal and pharmaceutical applications. The synthesis of tetrazole derivatives can be approached in ecofriendly approaches such as the use of water as solvent, moderate conditions, nontoxic, easy extractions, easy setup, low cost, etc. with good to excellent yields.",book:{id:"6365",slug:"molecular-docking",title:"Molecular Docking",fullTitle:"Molecular Docking"},signatures:"Ravi Varala and Bollikolla Hari Babu",authors:[{id:"212519",title:"Dr.",name:"Varala",middleName:null,surname:"Ravi",slug:"varala-ravi",fullName:"Varala Ravi"},{id:"221476",title:"Dr.",name:"Bollikolla",middleName:null,surname:"Hari Babu",slug:"bollikolla-hari-babu",fullName:"Bollikolla Hari Babu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"43",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82531",title:"Abnormal Iron Metabolism and Its Effect on Dentistry",slug:"abnormal-iron-metabolism-and-its-effect-on-dentistry",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104502",abstract:"Iron is a necessary micro-nutrient for proper functioning of the erythropoietic, oxidative and cellular metabolism. The iron balance in the body adversely affects the normal physiologic functioning of the body and structures in the oral cavity. Various abnormalities develop owing to improper iron metabolism in the body which reflects in the oral cavity. The toxicity of iron has to be well understood to immediately identify the hazardous effects which arise owing to it and to manage it. It has been very well mentioned in the chapter. The manifestations of defects of iron metabolism in the oral cavity should be carefully studied to improve the prognosis of the treatment of the same. Disorders related to iron metabolism should be managed for improvement in the quality of life of the patient.",book:{id:"10842",title:"Iron Metabolism - A Double-Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg"},signatures:"Chinmayee Dahihandekar and Sweta Kale Pisulkar"},{id:"82403",title:"Use of Plant Secondary Metabolites to Reduce Crop Biotic and Abiotic Stresses: A Review",slug:"use-of-plant-secondary-metabolites-to-reduce-crop-biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-a-review",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104553",abstract:"Plant secondary metabolites (PSM) are small molecules of organic compounds produced in plant metabolism that have various ecological functions, such as defense against pathogens, herbivores, and neighboring plants. They can also help to reduce abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, temperature, and UV. This chapter reviewed the ecological functions of the PSM and how people utilize these metabolites to reduce crop biotic and abiotic stresses in agriculture. Specific topics covered in this review are (1) extraction of PSM from plant parts and its application on crops; (2) screening of crop/cover crop germplasms for high PSM content and with resistance to pathogens, herbivores, and/or neighboring plants; (3) regulation of PSM biosynthesis (including plant hormones and defense activators) to increase plant readiness for defense; (4) transcriptome and genome technology improvements in the last decade leading to valuable tools to characterize differential gene expression and gene composition in a genome, and lineage-specific gene family expansion and contraction. In addition, there is a critical need to understand how the biosynthesis and release of allelochemicals occur. Filling this knowledge gap will help us to improve and encourage sustainable weed control practices in agriculture.",book:{id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites - Trends and Reviews",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg"},signatures:"Ziming Yue, Varsha Singh, Josiane Argenta, Worlanyo Segbefia, Alyssa Miller and Te Ming Tseng"},{id:"81728",title:"Plant Secondary Metabolites: Therapeutic Potential and Pharmacological Properties",slug:"plant-secondary-metabolites-therapeutic-potential-and-pharmacological-properties",totalDownloads:29,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103698",abstract:"Plants are an essential source for discovering novel medical compounds for drug development, and secondary metabolites are sources of medicines from plants. Secondary metabolites include alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, coumarins, quinones, carotenoids, and steroids. Each year, several new secondary metabolites are extracted from plants, providing a source of possibilities to investigate against malignant illnesses, despite certain natural chemicals having distinct anticancer activities according to their physicochemical features. Secondary metabolites found in plants are frequently great leads for therapeutic development. However, changes in the molecular structure of these compounds are improving their anticancer activity and selectivity and their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion capacities while minimizing their toxicity and side effects. In this section, we will discuss the most significant breakthroughs in the field of plant secondary metabolites, some of which are currently in clinical use and others that are in clinical trials as anticancer drugs. This study gives an up-to-date and thorough summary of secondary plant metabolites and their antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer effects. Furthermore, antioxidant and antibacterial, and anticancer effects of secondary metabolites are addressed. As a result, this article will serve as a thorough, quick reference for people interested in secondary metabolite antioxidants, anticancer, and antibacterial properties.",book:{id:"11331",title:"Secondary Metabolites - Trends and Reviews",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11331.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Zeeshan Bhatti, Hammad Ismail and Waqas Khan Kayani"},{id:"80495",title:"Iron in Cell Metabolism and Disease",slug:"iron-in-cell-metabolism-and-disease",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101908",abstract:"Iron is the trace element. We get the iron from the dietary sources. The enterocytes lining the upper duodenal of the intestine absorb the dietary iron through a divalent metal transporter (DMT1). The absorbed ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron in the body. This ferric iron from the blood is carried to different tissues by an iron transporting protein, transferrin. The cells in the tissues take up this ferric form of iron by internalizing the apo transferrin with its receptors on them. The apo transferrin complex in the cells get dissociated resulting in the free iron in cell which is utilized for cellular purposes or stored in the bound form to an iron storage protein, ferritin. The physiological levels of iron are critical for the normal physiology and pathological outcomes, hence the iron I rightly called as double-edged sword. This chapter on iron introduces the readers basic information of iron, cellular uptake, metabolism, and its role cellular physiology and provides the readers with the scope and importance of research on iron that hold the great benefit for health care and personalized medicine or diseases specific treatment strategies, blood transfusions and considerations.",book:{id:"10842",title:"Iron Metabolism - A Double-Edged Sword",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10842.jpg"},signatures:"Eeka Prabhakar"},{id:"81233",title:"Secondary Metabolites of Fruits and Vegetables with Antioxidant Potential",slug:"secondary-metabolites-of-fruits-and-vegetables-with-antioxidant-potential",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103707",abstract:"An antioxidant is of great interest among researchers, scientists, nutritionists, and the public because of its ability to prevent oxidative damage, as indicated by various studies. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. 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Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. 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He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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