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\r\n\tAccording to the protection and control strategies in recent years; Although WHO has reduced the rates somewhat with the application of mass medication in children in places where the prevalence of roundworm is over 20%, to control morbidity and eliminate STN as a public health problem, the mathematical applications have been to apply the treatments to adults as well.
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It is a subfield of computational linguistics that draws ideas from linguistics, computer science, information theory, artificial intelligence, and statistics. For a long time, it had a bad reputation because it was perceived as low quality. Especially in the last two decades, we have been witnessing great progress in MT quality, which made it interesting also for the use in the translation industry. Its quality is still lower than human translation, but that does not mean it does not have good practical uses. In the past, translation agencies and other professional translators were the only actors in the translation industry, but, in recent years, we have been faced with the rapidly growing range of machine translation solutions entering the market and being of practical use. There is increasing pressure on the translation industry in terms of price, volume, and turnaround time. The emergence of commercial applications for MT is a welcome change in translation processes. In professional or official circumstances, human translation is inevitable, as humans are essential to making sure a translation is grammatically correct and carries the same meaning as the original text. Machine translation is appropriate in different circumstances, mainly for unofficial purposes or for providing content for a human translator to improve upon it. MT has proved to be able to speed up the whole translation process, but it cannot replace the human translator. The questions that researchers in the translation industry are trying to answer today are: How much can human translators benefit from using MT? How could MT be integrated efficiently into translation processes? If MT is integrated into the translation workflow, will the quality of translation remain at the same level? These questions will not be answered explicitly in this chapter, but an effort will be made to show that MT is worth being part of the translation process, as its quality can be evaluated reliably. MT opens new opportunities for translators through using MT output only as a suggestion and, if necessary, post-editing it to the desired quality. It could be much faster than translation from scratch. This process is further discussed in the penultimate section of the chapter.
\nThe aim of this chapter is to overview the methods of machine translation and the methods of the evaluation of its quality. This chapter is organised as follows. In Section 2, different approaches for machine translation are described: rule-based MT in Section 2.1, example-based MT in Section 2.2, statistical MT in Section 2.3, hybrid MT in Section 2.4, and neural MT in Section 2.5. Not all languages are equally difficult for MT. Section 3 exposes common problems when dealing with morphologically rich languages. Sections 4–7 are devoted to MT evaluation. In Section 5, basic metrics for automatic MT evaluation are described and in Section 6, the more advanced ones. Automatic MT evaluation makes sense if it gives similar results as manual evaluation. Section 7 discusses how the correlation between automatic and manual MT evaluation is determined. MT is never perfect. Section 8 discusses post-editing MT to correct the mistakes and make MT of practical use. Section 9 concludes this chapter.
\nComputer scientists began trying to solve the problem of MT in the 1950s. The first published machine translation experiment was performed by the Georgetown University and IBM. It involved automatic translation of more than 60 Russian sentences into English. The system had only 6 grammar rules and 250 lexical items in its vocabulary. It was by no means a fully featured system. The sentences for translation were selected carefully, as the idea of the experiment was to attract governmental and public interest and funding by showing the possibilities of MT. Many problems of MT had come to light right after, and, consequently, for a long time, MT was present only as a research area in computational linguistics. Overtime, different approaches for MT were defined and gained maturity for practical use today. The history of the development of MT approaches is given in \nFigure 1\n. In [1], it has been shown that 22% of the MT users in the translation industry use rule-based MT systems, 50% use statistical MT systems, and 36% of them use hybrid MT systems.
\nTimeline of MT evolution.
The first approaches for MT were based on linguistic rules that were used to parse the source sentence and create the intermediate representation, from which the target language sentence was created. Such approaches are appropriate to translate between closely related languages. The rule-based machine translation methods include dictionary-based MT, transfer-based MT, and interlingual MT.
\nDictionary-based MT uses entries in a language dictionary to find a words equivalent in the target language. Using a dictionary as the sole information source for translation means that the words will be translated as they are translated in a dictionary. As this is, in many cases, not correct, grammatical rules are applied afterwards.
\nTransfer-based MT belongs to the next generation of machine translation. The source sentence is transformed into an intermediate, less language-specific structure. This structure is then transferred into a similar structure of the target language, and, finally, the sentence is generated in the target language. The transfer uses morphological, syntactic, and/or semantic information about the source and target languages.
\nIn interlingual MT, the source sentence is transformed into an intermediate, artificial language. It is a neutral representation that is independent of any language. The target sentence is then generated out of the interlingua.
\nTo be useful in practice, rule-based MT systems consist of large collections of rules, developed manually over time by translation experts, mapping structures from the source language to the target language. They are costly and time-consuming to implement and maintain. As rules are added and updated, there is the potential of generating ambiguity and translation degradation. Rule-based MT requires linguistic experts to apply language rules to the system.
\nExample-based MT is based on the idea of analogy. It is grounded upon a search for analogous examples of sentence pairs in the source and target languages. Example-based MT belongs to corpus-based approaches because examples are extracted from large collections of bilingual corpora. Given the source sentence, sentences with similar sub-sentential components are extracted from the source side of the bilingual corpus, and their translations to the target language are then used to construct the complete translation of the sentence.
\nStatistical MT is based on statistical methods [2]. It also belongs to corpus-based approaches, as statistical methods are applied on large bilingual corpora. Building a statistical MT system does not require linguistic knowledge. Statistical MT utilises statistical models generated from the analysis of texts, being either monolingual or bilingual. It is called training data. If more training data are available, better and larger MT systems can be built. Statistical MT systems are computationally expensive to build and store. Statistical MT can be adapted easily to a specific domain if enough bilingual and/or monolingual data from that domain are available.
\nStatistical MT is defined using the noisy-channel model from the information theory:
\nwhere \n
Standard phrase-based SMT models consist of three components:
A translation model of phrases (denoted as \n
A reordering model (denoted as
A language model (denoted as \n
Log-linear models of phrase-based SMT are most commonly used:
\nwhere
Statistical MT faces many obstacles. Data sparsity of highly inflected languages limits the effectiveness of statistical MT. Advanced statistical MT systems try to overcome the limitations by introducing data preprocessing and data post-processing. In \nFigure 2\n data preprocessing is used, where morphosyntactic tags (MSD) and lemmas are assigned to words and used in translation and language models. Reordering model captures short-term dependencies. The operation sequence model (OSM) is able to capture long-distance dependencies [3]. It models translation by a linear sequence of operations. The operation generates translation, performs reordering, jumps forward and backward, etc. Having morphosyntactic tags and lemmas available, OSM could be constructed based on them, as depicted in \nFigure 2\n.
\nStatistical machine translation system using a language model based on surface forms, a language model based on MSD tags, a language model based on lemmas, and three OSMs.
While statistical methods still dominate research work in MT, most commercial MT systems were, from the beginning, only rule-based. Recently, boundaries between the two approaches have narrowed, and hybrid approaches emerged, which try to gain benefit from both of them. We distinguish two groups of hybrid MT, those guided by rule-based MT and those guided by statistical approaches. Hybrid systems, guided by rule-based MT, use statistical MT to identify the set of appropriate translation candidates and/or to combine partial translations into the final sentence in the target language. Hybrid systems, guided by statistical MT, use rules at pre-/post-processing stages.
\nNeural MT emerged as a successor of statistical MT. It has made rapid progress in recent years, and it is paving its way into the translation industry as well. Neural MT is a deep learning-based approach to MT that uses a large neural network based on vector representations of words. If compared with statistical MT, there is no separate language model, translation model, or reordering model, but just a single sequence model, which predicts one word at a time. The prediction is conditioned on the source sentence and the already produced sequence in the target language. The prediction power of neural MT is more promising than that of statistical MT, as neural networks share statistical evidence between similar words. In \nFigure 3\n one of the proposed topology for neural machine translation is given with the same example sentence as in \nFigure 2\n. The input words are passed through the layers of the encoder (blue circles) to its last layer, the context vector, updating it for every input word. The context layer is then passed through the decoder layers (red circles) to output words, and it is again updated for each output word.
\nNeural machine translation system using the encoder-decoder topology.
The encoder-decoder recurrent neural network architecture with attention is currently the state of the art for machine translation.
\nAlthough effective, the neural MT systems still suffer some issues, such as scaling to larger vocabularies of words and the slow speed of training the models. In addition, large corpus is needed to train neural MT systems with performance comparable to statistical machine translation. Researchers continue to work on solving open problems.
\nThe fast progress of MT has boosted translation quality significantly, but, unfortunately, machine translation approaches are not equally successful for all language pairs. Morphologically rich languages are problematic in MT, especially if the translation is from a morphologically less complex to a morphologically more complex language. Morphological distinctions not present in the source language need to be generated in the target language. Much work on morphology-aware approaches relies heavily on language-specific tools, which are not always available. Many morphologically rich languages fall in the category of low-resource languages.
\nOne group of morphologically rich languages is a group of highly inflected languages. They are difficult not only for MT but also for other language technology applications [4, 5]. The main problem in highly inflected languages is that the large number of inflected word forms lead to data sparsity (see example in \nTable 1\n), which results in unreliable estimates in statistical MT [6]. Most words in a given corpus occur at most a handful of times. Therefore, the translation rule coverage is partial, and the estimation of translation probabilities is poor. Some approaches try to reduce the problem of data sparsity by using modelling units other than words; for example, stems and endings, lemmas and morphosyntactic tags, etc. Relaxed word order in inflectional languages poses another problem (see example in \nTable 2\n). Usually, very little information about the target word order is obtainable from the source sentence. Pre-ordering approaches learn to preprocess the source sentence during training in such a way that the words on the source side appear closer to their final positions on the target side. A frequent problem of inflectional languages is also an inaccurate translation of pronouns. There are also many cases in inflectional languages where the subject is dropped completely. Problematic also is differences in the expression of negation. Slavic languages fall into the category of highly inflected languages, and they cause many problems in machine translation [7, 8].
\n\n | Singular | \nDual | \nPlural | \n
---|---|---|---|
Nominative | \nštudent | \nštudenta | \nštudenti | \n
Genitive | \nštudenta | \nštudentov | \nštudentov | \n
Dative | \nštudentu | \nštudentoma | \nštudentom | \n
Accusative | \nštudenta | \nštudenta | \nštudente | \n
Locative | \nštudentu | \nštudentih | \nštudentih | \n
Instrumental | \nštudentom | \nštudentoma | \nštudenti | \n
Inflected word forms of the word “student” (masculine) in Slovene.
In the example, the word has nine different endings.
1. | \nAngleščino študiram dve leti. | \n
2. | \nDve leti študiram angleščino. | \n
3. | \nŠtudiram angleščino, dve leti. | \n
Word permutations of the English sentence “I have been studying English for two years” in Slovene.
Third example is used in colloquial speech.
Another group of morphologically rich languages is a group of agglutinative languages, which are even more difficult to use in machine translation. In an agglutinative language, words may consist of more than one, and possibly many, morphemes. Each morpheme in a sequence indicates a particular grammatical meaning. Morphemes are used commonly as basic units in MT for those groups of languages. All these phenomena cause errors in translations produced by MT systems and make the use of MT questionable. It is necessary to evaluate MT quality before use in practice.
\nAs MT emerges as an important mode of translation, its quality is becoming more and more important. Judging translation quality is called machine translation evaluation. It is defined commonly by technical terms. It means, with the exception of human (i.e. manual) evaluation, that it is defined as an algorithm that can be coded into a programme and run by a computer that calculates the evaluation score, which tells the user how good a translation is. Translation evaluation methods count word- and/or sentence-based errors that can be detected automatically, while general text-level aspects are not taken into account. This weakness of automatic MT evaluation is one of the main criticisms in the translation community. Despite that, in the last decade, we have been witnessing great progress in automatic MT evaluation.
\nMT quality can be measured in many different ways, depending on the goal of the evaluation and the means available. Traditionally, there are two paradigms of machine translation evaluation: Glass-box evaluation and black-box evaluation. Glass-box evaluation measures the quality of a system based on internal system properties. Black-box evaluation examines only the system output, without connecting it to the internal mechanisms of the translation system. The focus in this section will be on black-box evaluation. It is concerned only with the objective behaviour of the system upon a predetermined evaluation set. An evaluation set is a set of sentences in the source language and their translations into the target language, obtained by the translation system. These sentence pairs are then exposed to the evaluation. An evaluation set needs to be selected carefully to cover all data features important for future use of the translation system. The same translation quality can then be expected on the other data that is of the same type as the evaluation set; if not, translations of quite different quality could be obtained. The reason is in the fact that MT systems are trained on translation examples. If these examples are of a different type to the text that is afterwards translated by the system, the system has only weak knowledge about its translation and, consequently, produces poor translations. Different types of data mean variations in structure, genre, and style. Evaluation, on the other hand, can focus on testing the systems’s robustness. In this case, the evaluation set is composed of subsets of different data types. One should be aware that obtaining a robust MT system means at least training it with translation examples of different data types.
\nThere is also a difference between judging and measuring the quality of MT output as a final product and judging and measuring the usability of MT output for subsequent corrections by humans, called post-editing (PE). As regards the latter, it is interesting to know how much editing effort is needed to make the MT output match a reference translation or to become an acceptable translation. What is acceptable translation is left to be decided by the translation expert. In the MT community, there are no criteria for it.
\nFor a long time, methods for evaluating human and MT quality have been disconnected. The comparison between them was impossible. In recent years, a framework called multidimensional quality metrics (MQM) [9] was developed for evaluating the quality of both human and machine translations. It includes over 100 issue types that cover all of the major translation quality evaluation metrics. For the specific translation quality judgement task, relevant issues may be chosen from MQM. The focus of this section is only on the evaluation of MT quality, whereas human translation is taken as the gold standard.
\nThe most common option for judging and measuring machine translation quality is human evaluation. The quality of MT output is judged by experts in translation and linguistics from two different perspectives. The first perspective is the degree of adherence to the target text and target language norms, referring, for example, to features such as grammaticality and clarity. This quality evaluation perspective is known as fluency. When judging fluency, the source text is not relevant. The evaluators have access to only the translation being judged and not the source data. Fluency requires an expert fluent only in the target language. On the other hand, source text adherence is judged to the source text norms and meaning, in terms of how well the target text represents the informational content of the source text. It is known as accuracy. The evaluators have access to the source text and translations being judged. Frequently, the context of a sentence is also taken into account. The evaluators must be bilingual in both the source and target languages. The adequacy and fluency are usually judged on a 5-point scale, as given in \nTable 3\n.
\nAdequacy | \nFluency | \n||
---|---|---|---|
5 | \nAll meaning | \n5 | \nFlawless language | \n
4 | \nMost meaning | \n4 | \nGood language | \n
3 | \nMuch meaning | \n3 | \nNon-native language | \n
2 | \nLittle meaning | \n2 | \nDisfluent language | \n
1 | \nNone | \n1 | \nIncomprehensible | \n
Numeric scale for judging adequacy and fluency.
Human evaluation is time-consuming and expensive. It is also inherently subjective. To alleviate the problem of subjectivity, more experts are usually asked to evaluate the translations in the same evaluation set, and their evaluations are, finally, justified statistically.
\nMT systems are rarely static, and they tend to be improved over time as resources grow and bugs are fixed. The evaluation needs to be repeated many times. Automatic evaluation metrics are cost-free alternatives to human evaluation. They are used commonly during the development of MT systems to estimate improvement. They are also applicable to compare different MT systems. While using automatic metrics to judge the translation quality, it is important to understand what their scores mean. They rely on the idea that MT quality in itself should approach human quality. Automatic metrics depend on the availability of human reference translation. They evaluate the output of MT systems by comparing it to the reference translation. As there is a great variability even in human translation, it is important to have more human reference translations for each machine-translated sentence to be evaluated. Evaluation metrics then provide evaluation scores based on the most similar reference translation.
\nStandard and recently proposed automatic metrics for MT evaluation will be discussed in the continuation of this section. Statistical correlation coefficients are used to see how close automatic evaluation is to manual judgements. Three correlation coefficients will be described later in the section. Machine translation, coupled with subsequent post-editing, has become a widely accepted method in the translation industry. This type of translation workflow will be discussed at the end of this section.
\nAn obvious method for evaluation is to look at the translation and judge by hand, whether it is correct or not. To get reliable judgements, the evaluators should be appropriately qualified. From a practical point of view, manual evaluation, performed by translation experts, is expensive and takes time. What is needed are automatic metrics that are quick and cheap to use and approximate human judgements accurately. De facto metrics, used in the MT community, are BLEU, NIST, METEOR, and TER. All these metrics need reference translations because they compare the MT output with reference translations and provide comparison scores. If reference translations are available, these metrics can be used to evaluate the output of any number of systems quickly, without the need for human intervention. Let us take an example where the reference translation is “Dve leti že študiram angleščino” and the MT output to be evaluated is “Angleščino študiram dve leti”. If we compute the precision, we get:
\n\n\n
\n\n
Based on given measures, the quality of translation is good, as reordering is not penalised. It is not always a good decision. For example, the MT output “Dve angleščino študiram leti” will get the same evaluation result, even though the translation is disfluent.
\nBLEU [10] measures the overlap of unigrams (single words) and high-order
The main component of BLEU is
Metric | \nScore | \n
---|---|
1-gram precision | \n\n\n | \n
2-gram precision | \n\n\n | \n
3-gram precision | \n\n\n | \n
4-gram precision | \n\n\n | \n
Brevity penalty | \n\n\n | \n
BLEU | \n0% | \n
BLEU score computation for the MT output “Angleščino študiram dve leti”, if the reference is “Dve leti že študiram angleščino”.
BLEU is typically computed over the entire corpus, not single sentences. It is important to point out that very few translations will attain a score of 1 unless they are identical to a reference translation. For this reason, even a human translator will not necessarily score 1, as there is great variability of possible correct translations. In this sense, it is also important to note that having more reference translations per sentence is highly welcome. It will increase the BLEU score. NIST [11] is a close derivate of BLEU.
\nBoth metrics, BLEU and NIST, focus only on
Word error rate (WER) metric was first used to evaluate automatic speech recognition. It counts the minimum number of edits needed to change the evaluated translation so that it matches the references exactly, normalised by the average length of the references. The minimum number of edits is also called Levenshtein distance. Possible edits are insertion (
Reference: | \n\n | \n | dve | \nleti | \nže | \nštudiram | \nangleščino | \n
Output: | \nangleščino | \nštudiram | \ndve | \nleti | \n\n | \n | \n |
Edit: | \nI | \nI | \nM | \nM | \nD | \nD | \nD | \n
\n\n | \n
WER computation for the MT output “Angleščino študiram dve leti”, if the reference is “Dve leti že študiram angleščino”.
\n\nTable 5\n contains the calculation of WER for our example.
\nTranslation edit rate (TER) metric [14] is a derivate from the WER. It uses an additional edit step, namely, shifts of word sequences (
Although BLEU, NIST, METEOR, and TER metrics are used most frequently in the evaluation of MT quality, new metrics emerge almost every year. There is a metrics-shared task, held annually at the WMT Conference where new evaluation metrics are proposed [15, 16, 17]. Those which exhibit high correlation with human judgement will be presented from the pool of recently defined metrics.
\nCDER [18] is a more advanced metric that is concerned with edits and Levenshtein distance. It calculates the distance between two strings \n
In addition to classical edit operations (i.e. insertion, deletion, and substitution), it models block reordering explicitly as an additional edit operation. As a further improvement, it introduces word dependent substitution costs \n
Tolerant BLEU [19] and LeBLEU [20] are derivates of BLEU with a relaxation of the strict word
CharacTER [21] is a derivate of TER:
\nIt calculates the edit rate on character level, whereas shift edits are still performed on word level. First, a technique for word-level shifts is performed, words are then split into characters, and, finally, the edit distance is calculated based on characters, and \n
METEOR universal [22] is a derivate of METEOR. It adds the fourth stage to matching. It is paraphrase matching. For each target phrase
Phrases are matched if they are listed as paraphrases in a language appropriate paraphrase table. Paraphrases are extracted automatically from the parallel corpora used to train statistical MT systems.
\nThe BEER [23] metric provides a linear combination of different features:
\nwhere
ChrF [24] is another, even simpler, metric based on character
\n\n
DREEM [26] is a new metric based on distributed representations of words and sentences generated by deep neural networks. Neural networks are models that imitate human brains to recognise patterns in sequences. DREEM employs three different types of word and sentence representations: One-hot representations, distributed word representations learned from a neural network model, and distributed sentence representations computed with a recursive autoencoder. The final score is the cosine similarity of the representation of the translation and the reference, multiplied with a length penalty.
\nRATATOUILLE [27] is a metric combination of BLEU, BEER, METEOR, and few more metrics, out of which METEOR-WSD is a novel contribution. METEOR-WSD is an extension of METEOR that includes synonym mappings.
\nIn this section, state-of-the-art MT evaluation metrics were investigated briefly. Only the most important characteristics of them were exposed. For a more elaborate description of each metric, the reader is advised to use the provided references to literature.
\nIt should be noted that despite the well-known problems with BLEU, and the availability of many other metrics, MT system developers have continued to use BLEU as the primary measure of translation quality.
\nToday, different MT systems are available for use in practice. Usually, the qualities of different MT systems are compared between themselves by computing the translation quality scores on a predetermined evaluation set. The question arises whether, if there is a difference in quality on the evaluation set, one can be ensured that different MT systems indeed own different system quality. A difference in quality on an evaluation set may be just the result of happenstance. Research work on the statistical significance test for MT evaluation was done by Koehn [28], and the bootstrap resampling method is proposed to compute the statistical significance intervals for evaluation metrics on evaluation data. Statistical significance usually refers to the notions of the p-value, the probability that the observed difference in quality will occur by chance given the null hypothesis.
\nHuman judgements of translation quality are usually trusted as the gold standard, and the aim of an automatic evaluation metric is to produce quality estimates that are as close as possible to human judgements. As there are many different evaluation metrics, the user needs to decide which automatic evaluation metric he trusts the most. Correlation coefficients are used commonly to measure the closeness of automatic metric scores and manual judgements. Manual MT quality judgements on a number of test data are needed for comparison. Correlation coefficients are then computed on system level and/or segment level.
\nSystem-level comparison is done to compare different MT systems in general. First, each system gets a cumulative rank that reflects how high the annotators ranked that system. The metric scores of systems are also converted into ranks, and then the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient \n
\n
H is the vector of annotator’s scores of all systems, and M is the vector of the corresponding scores as predicted by the given metric. \n
Pearson’s correlation coefficient
The quality of a metric’s segment level scores is usually measured by means of Kendall’s \n
Afterwards, all concordant and discordant pairs are counted:
\nIn a concordant pair, a human annotator and an automatic metric agree in ranking, and in a discordant pair, they disagree. Finally, Kendall’s \n
\n\n
In this section, no analysis of correlations for automatic metrics is presented, as it depends on many parameters. In general, all evaluation metrics presented in this chapter correlate well with human judgements. It is only worth mentioning that, for inflected languages, metrics that work on character level correlate better with human judgements than metrics that work only on word level.
\nIn recent years, MT has become accepted more widely in the translation industry [29]. The most common workflow involves the use of machine-translated text as a raw translation that is corrected or post-edited by a translator. Post-editing (PE) tools and practices for such workflows are being developed in large multilingual organisations, such as the European Commission [30]. The researchers in [31] report that 30% of the companies in the translation industry currently use MT. The majority (70%) of the MT users combine MT with PE at least some of the time.
\nPost-editing MT is attractive because it has been shown to be faster than human translation. It is faster than translation from scratch and even faster than translation assisted by a translation memory [32]. Speed is not the only factor that should be taken into account when assessing the post-editing process. More recent studies have looked at ways of determining post-editing effort. In [33], three levels of post-editing effort are defined: Temporal effort, cognitive effort, and technical effort. The temporal effort is the time needed to post-edit a given text, cognitive effort is the activation of cognitive processes during post-editing, and the technical effort means the operations such as insertions and deletions that are performed during post-editing. All three levels of post-editing effort are influenced greatly by the translation quality. The use of PE and MT also raises the question about the quality of final translations. Has the quality improved, or is it worse?
\nAs PE effort is related strongly to MT quality, derivatives of standard quality metrics are developed, which are concerned more with PE effort. Human-mediated translation error rate (HTER) [14] is a human-in-the-loop variant of TER. Instead of a reference, post-edited translation is used in the comparison. HTER centres on what edits are to be made to convert a translation into its post-edited version. It is computed as the ratio between the number of edit steps and the number of words in the post-edited version. HTER can be used as a measure of technical PE effort: The fewer changes necessary to convert the translation into its post-edited version, the less the effort required from the translator.
\nHTER is concerned more with the final translation and not the process. In [34] a metric called actual edit rate (AER) is proposed, which measures the translator’s actual edit operations, which may involve more complex tasks, for example, applying corrections to previously post-edited parts of the text.
\nA study on PE of MT confirmed the relation between HTER and MT qualities [34]. An increase in HTER was evident as the quality of the MT system decreased. In contrast, they did not establish any significant association between AER and MT qualities. Keyboard activity may not be as sensitive to MT quality as PE time. They also found a linear relationship between MT quality and post-editing speed. MT quality was measured by the BLEU score of the system. The increase of BLEU score by one point resulted in a decrease of post-editing speed of about 0.16 seconds/word post-editing time. Their study also shows the correlation between the quality of machine translation output and the quality after post-editing. They confirmed that worse translation almost always leads to worse result after post-editing. As the use of MT and PE workflows has increased, there is a growing demand for expertise in PE skills. The research on and teaching of skills specific to post-editing has become necessary. The authors in [31] emphasise the impact of “familiarity with translation technology” on the employability of future translators.
\nMachine translation is being used by millions of people on a daily basis. This chapter discusses different MT approaches that were developed over time. Currently, the most promising approach is neural machine translation. Although effective, it also suffers some issues, such as scaling to larger vocabularies of words and the slow speed of training the models. Researchers continue to work on solving the problems and making translation a better service accessible to everyone.
\nThe second part of the chapter describes how machine translation output is evaluated. The main characteristics of human and automatic MT evaluation were outlined. Human evaluation of MT output remains crucial to look for ideas to improve MT systems still further. On the other hand, automatic MT evaluation is cheap and fast. In the chapter, traditional and advanced metrics for automatic MT evaluation were presented. Despite the well-known problems with BLEU, and the availability of many other metrics, MT system developers have continued to use BLEU as the primary measure of translation quality.
\nMT quality is continually improving. Despite that, there are still a number of flaws in machine translation output. To make the translation correct, post-editing machine translation output is proposed to be integrated into the translation processes. It is discussed at the end of the chapter.
\nFuture research in MT will be devoted to neural machine translation. It is still not very well understood. Its inner workings are commonly seen as a black-box, which works as the neurons of the human brain. As the computing power NMT requires becomes more widely available, many different configurations can be examined to further improve the accuracy of machine translation.
\nFuture effort in machine translation evaluation will be directed toward character-based metrics which show the highest correlation with human judgement at the system and segment levels.
\nHuman translators are worried to be replaced by machines. Machine translation, no matter how sophisticated, cannot match the accuracy of people. Human translators are also an important segment in MT evolution not only as post-editors but also as teachers for MT systems to become better and better.
\nThe authors acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P2-0069).
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
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\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
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\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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However, what studies fail to notice is that Asian faculty members who are either born in the United States or are naturalized might experience very different levels of attitudes and satisfaction toward their job when compared with Asian faculty members who are foreign born and on temporary visa status, impacting retention. Do institutions recognize the differences between these two groups, or are Asian faculty members considered a “model minority” group and “problem‐free?” This is the question that this study aims to examine. Given the growing competition in S&E globally, matters pertaining to faculty members’ satisfaction, retention, and persistence will take a front seat among policy makers and university administrators. Data for this study come from the National Science Foundation’s Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR).",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Meghna Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"192631",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meghna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"meghna-sabharwal",fullName:"Meghna Sabharwal"}]},{id:"53671",doi:"10.5772/67004",title:"The New Actors of International Migration: A Comparative Analysis of Foreign Students’ Experiences in a Medium-Sized City in Turkey",slug:"the-new-actors-of-international-migration-a-comparative-analysis-of-foreign-students-experiences-in-",totalDownloads:1273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"International or foreign student migration is one of the topics that started to become a hot topic in many different countries because of various aspects. Lately, Turkey, especially in terms of higher education, can be seen as a country that sends students to study abroad but also attracts foreign students. With regard to Adnan Menderes University which is located in a medium‐sized city (Aydın), the main focus of this study is based on experiences of foreign students regarding prejudice, discrimination and racism. In addition to this, the topics such as to what extent are foreign students having difficulty to adapt to the life in Turkey, to what extent are the students satisfied with their lives in the country, in what way could foreign students who currently study in Turkey help to increase the foreign student population or sustain the student migration were examined. In this context, six different categories, such as students from Africa, Asia, South Caucasia, Middle East, Europe/Balkans and Europe/Other, were created. Surveys were applied to participants of the study group in line with a quantitative research scope.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Serdar Ünal",authors:[{id:"192402",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Ünal",slug:"serdar-unal",fullName:"Serdar Ünal"}]},{id:"53486",doi:"10.5772/66824",title:"Immigration and Food Insecurity: The Canadian Experience—A Literature Review",slug:"immigration-and-food-insecurity-the-canadian-experience-a-literature-review",totalDownloads:2632,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Canada is a popular destination for immigrants and integration of newcomers is an important strategy for its demographic growth and economic development. Food insecurity disproportionately affects newcomers in Canada; unfortunately, they occupy the lower end of the socio‐economic spectrum and thus adding to the burden of socio‐cultural challenges they are already facing. The high level of food insecurity contributes to poor diet quality and the rise in overweight and other chronic health conditions and therefore to the loss of healthy immigrant status. Indeed, statistical evidence, mainly of the overall Canadian population, demonstrates that individuals living in food‐insecure households have higher rates of self‐reported poor health and chronic health conditions. Therefore, understanding and properly addressing the factors associated with food insecurity among Canadian immigrants is crucial for an adequate integration of immigrants. This chapter suggests that an adequate and appropriate understanding of food security for Canadian immigrant populations requires consideration of a cultural perspective in addition to the traditional individual, household and community levels and the development of measurement tools to capture this cultural dimension. It is proposed the concept of cultural food insecurity encompasses the four usual dimensions (availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability) and a newly proposed fifth cultural dimension. Future research should aim at validating the relevance of this cultural perspective as a fifth pillar for food security and developing measurement tools to assess it.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Diana Tarraf, Dia Sanou and Isabelle Giroux",authors:[{id:"192842",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Tarraf",slug:"diana-tarraf",fullName:"Diana Tarraf"},{id:"193533",title:"Dr.",name:"Dia",middleName:null,surname:"Sanou",slug:"dia-sanou",fullName:"Dia Sanou"},{id:"193603",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Giroux",slug:"isabelle-giroux",fullName:"Isabelle Giroux"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53486",title:"Immigration and Food Insecurity: The Canadian Experience—A Literature Review",slug:"immigration-and-food-insecurity-the-canadian-experience-a-literature-review",totalDownloads:2636,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Canada is a popular destination for immigrants and integration of newcomers is an important strategy for its demographic growth and economic development. Food insecurity disproportionately affects newcomers in Canada; unfortunately, they occupy the lower end of the socio‐economic spectrum and thus adding to the burden of socio‐cultural challenges they are already facing. The high level of food insecurity contributes to poor diet quality and the rise in overweight and other chronic health conditions and therefore to the loss of healthy immigrant status. Indeed, statistical evidence, mainly of the overall Canadian population, demonstrates that individuals living in food‐insecure households have higher rates of self‐reported poor health and chronic health conditions. Therefore, understanding and properly addressing the factors associated with food insecurity among Canadian immigrants is crucial for an adequate integration of immigrants. This chapter suggests that an adequate and appropriate understanding of food security for Canadian immigrant populations requires consideration of a cultural perspective in addition to the traditional individual, household and community levels and the development of measurement tools to capture this cultural dimension. It is proposed the concept of cultural food insecurity encompasses the four usual dimensions (availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability) and a newly proposed fifth cultural dimension. Future research should aim at validating the relevance of this cultural perspective as a fifth pillar for food security and developing measurement tools to assess it.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Diana Tarraf, Dia Sanou and Isabelle Giroux",authors:[{id:"192842",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Tarraf",slug:"diana-tarraf",fullName:"Diana Tarraf"},{id:"193533",title:"Dr.",name:"Dia",middleName:null,surname:"Sanou",slug:"dia-sanou",fullName:"Dia Sanou"},{id:"193603",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Giroux",slug:"isabelle-giroux",fullName:"Isabelle Giroux"}]},{id:"53470",title:"Sociocultural Models of Second-Language Learning of Young Immigrants in Canada",slug:"sociocultural-models-of-second-language-learning-of-young-immigrants-in-canada",totalDownloads:1646,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The most significant challenge for the minority immigrant is learning a new language. They arrive in a new culture and community hoping to master English quickly in order to achieve their academic and career goals. However, many immigrants have mentioned general barriers resulting from being unable to communicate with peers outside their cultural and linguistic group. Recent research has identified several cognitive variables such as vocabulary, reading aloud, and grammatical judgment related to second-language learning in immigrants; however, little attention was given to sociocultural factors such as acculturation, motivation, and cultural learning because learning a language is a necessary aspect of being socialized into a particular culture. This chapter reviews research of sociocultural models in relation to second-language learning of immigrant youth in Canada. We address this paradigm for research by incorporating both acculturation and sociolinguistic approaches, as well as more traditional cognitive-linguistic approaches, to models of second-language learning in immigrants.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Fanli Jia, Alexandra Gottardo and Aline Ferreira",authors:[{id:"192435",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanli",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",slug:"fanli-jia",fullName:"Fanli Jia"},{id:"194425",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Gottardo",slug:"alexandra-gottardo",fullName:"Alexandra Gottardo"},{id:"194656",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"aline-ferreira",fullName:"Aline Ferreira"}]},{id:"53700",title:"Migration and Health from a Public Health Perspective",slug:"migration-and-health-from-a-public-health-perspective",totalDownloads:2420,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"One of the main dimensions related to migration is that of health; this correlation is dynamic by nature and complex. Health is strongly related to the social determinants of health (job, income, education, and housing). When not properly supported by appropriate inter-sectoral policies, migration can expose the most vulnerable socioeconomic groups to significant problems. The protection of the health of migrants is an important investment of the public health because it promises benefits to both migrant population and natives. An essential aspect is to properly analyze the health needs of ethnic minorities. Both quantitative and qualitative research is necessary, and the involvement of the target communities is important. Another important aspect is the education and training of social and health workers involved in the care of migrants (with a multidisciplinary teamwork and “transcultural” approach), and the organization of services that can effectively be used. Finally, it is also essential to carry out an evaluation of health outcomes of the migrant population and the impact of adopted health policies. Protecting the health of ethnic minorities is both a challenge for governments and a test of the quality of their health systems.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Maurizio Marceca",authors:[{id:"192600",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Marceca",slug:"maurizio-marceca",fullName:"Maurizio Marceca"}]},{id:"53859",title:"Introductory Chapter: People's Movements in the 21st Century",slug:"introductory-chapter-people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:1504,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Ingrid Muenstermann",authors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}]},{id:"53701",title:"The Immigrant Experience in V.S. Naipaul's The Enigma of Arrival and Z. Smith's White Teeth: An Exploration of Homi Bhabha's Postcolonial Theory",slug:"the-immigrant-experience-in-v-s-naipaul-s-the-enigma-of-arrival-and-z-smith-s-white-teeth-an-explora",totalDownloads:2112,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"V.S. Naipaul and Z. Smith, prominent postcolonial authors, reflect the condition of the immigrants suffering from cultural shock, hybridity, fragmentation and mimicry in the postcolonial Western societies in their novels, The Enigma of Arrival and White Teeth. The former portrays the desperate condition of an author doing his best to create his work in the post‐war West, in London and New York, trying to overcome his hybridity and adaptation problems due to his cultural background, and the latter sheds light on the cultural distress of two families from Bangladesh, immigrating to London, by stressing the conflicts between the Westerners and the Easterners and between the first and the second generations of immigrants. Thus, these two novels highlight the immigrant experience illustrating the impact of power relations between the former colonized and the former colonizer upon their relationship in the postcolonial era. In this study, the problems of immigrants in the post‐war West in these novels will be analysed in the light of Homi Bhabha's postcolonial theory, which puts forward such concepts as hybridity, mimicry, ambivalence, cultural differentiation and otherness. In this regard, Bhabha's theory will be adapted into these novels to identify cultural problems of immigrants in these works.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Berna Köseoğlu",authors:[{id:"148215",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",middleName:null,surname:"Köseoğlu",slug:"berna-koseoglu",fullName:"Berna Köseoğlu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"271",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"19",title:"Animal Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/19.jpg",editor:{id:"259298",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Narayan",slug:"edward-narayan",fullName:"Edward Narayan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Edward Narayan graduated with Ph.D. degree in Biology from the University of the South Pacific and pioneered non-invasive reproductive and stress endocrinology tools for amphibians - the novel development and validation of non-invasive enzyme immunoassays for the evaluation of reproductive hormonal cycle and stress hormone responses to environmental stressors. \nDr. Narayan leads the Stress Lab (Comparative Physiology and Endocrinology) at the University of Queensland. A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"191123",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan José",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez-Alarcón",slug:"juan-jose-valdez-alarcon",fullName:"Juan José Valdez-Alarcón",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBfcQAG/Profile_Picture_1631354558068",institutionString:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institution:{name:"Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"161556",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Dos Anjos",middleName:null,surname:"Pires",slug:"maria-dos-anjos-pires",fullName:"Maria Dos Anjos Pires",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS8q2QAC/Profile_Picture_1633432838418",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"209839",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Spinu",slug:"marina-spinu",fullName:"Marina Spinu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLXpQAO/Profile_Picture_1630044895475",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}]},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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