IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
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\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
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1. Introduction
In 1933 Fritz Zwicky [1] indicated a problem related to the galaxy cluster Coma. Galaxy cluster studied by Zwicky appeared to contain some 400 times more matter than an ordinary, visible, i.e., luminous matter. The content of the luminous matter was estimated form the amount of light emitted by the cluster. However, there was no response for that finding. Only 40 years later in 1970s the problem was rediscovered and concerned almost all of the galaxies. Research of Vera Rubin discovered that the galaxies rotate in a way that cannot be explained by taking into account visible, luminous matter. Today we know that most of the matter in the Universe is dark. Various attempts to resolve the problem of the existence of a mysterious form of matter, dark matter, have been taken ever since. One such idea is to find a particle to possibly complete the standard model. The most important property of such particle would be that it is not a subject to electromagnetic force; hence the dark matter is invisible in all electromagnetic wavelengths. In order to detect such particle, sensitive detectors are built, but still final conclusion has not been made. Another attempt of explaining the problem of missing matter was based on the assumption of existence of astrophysical objects such as black hole or dim brown dwarfs. This idea has rather been discredited as the abundance and masses of such objects are too small comparing to the amount of the matter that is missing. On different grounds stands the idea of modifying gravity in low acceleration regime. Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) proposed by M. Milgrom in 1983 is a phenomenological approach attempting to provide explanation of rotation of galaxies without invoking hidden matter at all. Yet such an approach seems to be in tension with recent findings of van Dokkum et al. about the ultra-diffuse galaxies. There appear to exist galaxies devoided of dark matter—then what about MOND predictions? This contribution is completed with the rotational curve of the Milky Way determined with 3 m in diameter radio telescope in the Astronomical Observatory of the Jagiellonian University. Obtained rotational curve is flat which indicates the presence of dark matter in the halo of our galaxy.
2. The dark matter problem
The term “dark matter” (DM) was introduced due to the contribution by Fritz Zwicky as early as in 1930s of the twentieth century. Studying the Coma cluster (of galaxies) located 320 million light-years away, Zwicky estimated [1] masses of the galaxies that make up this cluster based on the amount of light they emit. It turned out that such an amount of (luminous) matter wasn’t large enough to explain the trajectories and velocities of those galaxies. Zwicky claimed then that the gravitational attraction exerted by the luminous matter was not enough to hold the cluster together and if there wasn’t some kind of additional, nonluminous matter that provide extra gravity force, the galaxies would fly apart. These findings seemingly intriguing by themselves had not been taken seriously by scientific community. And only findings of Vera Rubin [2], some 40 years later, led to the formulation of the fundamental and still unresolved problem. Rubin studied rotational curves of galaxies. Rotational curve of a galaxy is a plot presenting how the orbital velocity of objects in this galaxy changes with increasing distance from the galaxy’s center (see Figure 1). It turned out that the shapes of the curves did not comply with the theoretical predictions based on the mount of matter estimated due to the emitted light.
Figure 1.
Figure schematically representing discrepancy between observed (B) and predicted (A) rotational curves of galaxies that indicates presence of dark matter in halos of such galaxies. Credit: PhilHibbs, Wikipedia, https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krzywa_rotacji_galaktyki#/media/Plik:GalacticRotation2.svg, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Figure 1 illustrates this discrepancy. When being close to the center of the galaxy, the plot agrees with what one would expect: the rotational curve increases rapidly that reflects an obvious fact that the velocity of a test object (a “star”) increases as the effective gravitational force is growing (at a given radius, only the mass enclosed within a sphere of that radius is relevant in terms of excreting gravitational force—Newton’s Shell Theorem). Past a certain distance though (when increasing a distance from the massive center of galaxy does not enclose adequately bigger amounts of mass), the effective force of gravity should decline (as R2 will increase faster than the mass enclosed in a sphere of a radius being that distance from the center so the force of gravity will decline) which should result in lower orbital velocities.
Vera Rubin and Kent Ford published their first rotational curve in paper [2]. They presented there the rotation of Andromeda based on spectroscopic survey of emission regions applying neutral hydrogen, Hα, and [NII] λ6583 emission lines. Further works, see, e.g., [3], revealed that most of the galaxies have rather flat rotational curves like the one in Figure 1. The fact that more distant stars have almost constant velocity attracted the attention of scientists. The circular velocities of the stars are due to gravity which plays the role of centripetal force. Combining Newton’s law of gravity with an expression for centripetal force yields the following relation:
GMR2=V2R, E1
where G is universal gravitational constant, M is mass exerting a gravitational force, V denotes velocity of a (test) object orbiting mass M, and R is the distance between them. One obtains from Eq. (1)
M=GV2R. E2
Since G is constant and V appears to be constant as we can see in rotational curves (see Figure 1), it would mean that the mass of a galaxy increases linearly with the distance from its center:
MR∼R. E3
As we know most of galaxies including the Milky Way have a bright massive center, a bulge, with majority of stars placed in that range and possibly a supermassive black hole in the middle. The farther away from the center, the fainter the regions are, i.e., less stars hence less matter is present, and linear dependence (3) is almost impossible to be obeyed. Computer simulations show that the galaxies move in a way we can observe them only if there is another than ordinary, luminous, form of matter, namely, dark matter. The amount of dark matter should be as large as almost five times more than the amount of ordinary matter. This is in agreement with calculations made within lambda-cold dark matter model (Λ-CDM) and the data from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) [4] as well as Planck mission [5]. Λ-CDM model is a parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the Universe contains three major components: first, a cosmological constant denoted by lambda (Greek Λ) and associated with dark energy; second, the postulated cold dark matter (abbreviated CDM); and third, ordinary matter. It is often referred to as the standard model of Big Bang cosmology because it is the simplest model that provides a reasonably good description of the content of the Universe. WAMP was a satellite designed to map the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation over the entire sky in five frequency bands. The agreement between Λ-CDM model and the data from WAMP is good enough, which supports the validity of this model [4, 5]. The Λ-CDM model indicates that the matter the stars (and us) are made of is just a tiny part of the mass-energy content of the Universe (see Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Estimated distribution of matter and energy in the universe based on Planck data. Credit: ESA, Planck reveals an almost perfect Universe.
3. Possible solutions and even more problems
3.1 Wimps
Hypothetical particles that constitute the dark matter are called WIMPs which stands for weakly interacting massive particles. All the matter that we know (and us) is made of baryonic matter, i.e., the matter is made of baryons. WIMPS would be a new type of particles beyond the standard model. Those should be massive, subject to the gravitational force, and possibly other forces that are comparable to the weak force. One such candidate for WIMP could be a stable supersymmetric particle. Supersymmetric model has a particle of this property which was even called a “Wimp Miracle,” but we have not yet observed any trace of supersymmetry, moreover, Wimp Miracle in any of the particle colliders. WIMPs also should not interact via electromagnetism; hence the DM is not visible in any wavelength. We only can “see” the DM due to its gravitational interactions, which are strong enough to cause a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing.
3.1.1 Gravitational lensing
This phenomenon is observed when the light rays passing near a very massive object are deflected (due to the curvature of space–time produced by this object) in such a way that a distant observer observes it lensed. Figure 3 illustrates gravitational lensing: the stretched structures are distant galaxies, whose light was bent by the DM between them and the observer. This allows to calculate the mass required to cause such phenomenon [6]. Large aggregations of massive DM particles are able to produce such image letting us to know it’s out there.
Figure 3.
An image of gravitational lensing obtained with Hubble space telescope showing a distant image of galaxies which had been stretched due to the warping of space–time caused by a massive object between them and the observer. Credit: ESA/Hubble https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1506a/.
3.2 MACHOs
Massive astrophysical compact halo objects (MACHOs) was another hypothesis invoked to explain the presence of large amount of nonluminous matter in galactic halos. Those, contrary to the WIMPS, would have been regular astrophysical objects emitting little or no radiation such as black holes, neutron stars, as well as brown dwarfs and unassociated planets, which drift unseen through interstellar space providing extra gravity. Thorough investigations have shown that this concept rather fails to explain the expected amount of the DM. One way to detect MACHOS’ influence, as described in [7], is to look for events of microlensing caused by them. Such microlensing would cause observable apparent amplification of star’s flux. In [7] it was shown that the number of such events is far too less that would have been expected. That rules out MACHOS as the candidates for DM. Moreover, the studies of abundance of baryons created in the Big Bang show that baryon density is consistent with the mean cosmic density of matter visible optically and in X-rays. It implies that most of the baryons in the Universe are visible but not dark and that most of the matter in the Universe consists of nonbaryonic DM [7].
3.3 MOND
In the former sections, we have discussed the attempts of solving or explaining the problem of the missing matter. That is to find or to claim existence of unknown, invisible substance. Yet there is another idea based on a different assumption. In 1983 Milgrom [8] proposed an idea that maybe it is the theory that needs to be modified rather than an invisible matter to be found. Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) is an empirically motivated modification of Newtonian dynamics at low accelerations, suggested as an alternative to dark matter concept [8, 9]. In Ref. [8] Milgrom considered the possibility that Newton’s second law does not describe the motion of objects under the conditions which prevail in galaxies and systems of galaxies. Newton’s laws have been tested in high-acceleration environment like the Earth or the solar system. The stars in the outer parts of the galaxies move in the circumstances of extremely low accelerations compared to what we know from everyday life. To illustrate how small such accelerations might be, let us calculate the acceleration of average star (the Sun) located on the suburbs of average galaxy (the Milky Way):
a=V2R=220kms28.5kpc≈1.845×10−10ms2E4
Milgrom proposed then a generalized form of Newton’s second principle, claiming the inertia term not to be simply proportional to the acceleration of an object but being rather a more general function of it:
m·μa/a0a→=F→. E5
In expression (5)m is gravitational mass, a is acceleration, a0 is some acceleration constant, and μ is a nonlinear function with the following properties:
μx≫1≈1,μx≪1≈xE6
The acceleration constant is found to be a0=1.2±0.2×10−10ms2 [8]. Phenomenological success of MOND is that applying it produces flat rotation curves of galaxies as observed and that this simple law is sufficient to make predictions for a broad range of galactic phenomena.
3.4 Ultra-diffuse galaxies
Recent studies of van Dokkum et al. [10, 11] have uncovered new class of object referred to as ultra-diffuse galaxies. NGC1052-DF2 and NGC1052-DF4 are large, faint galaxies with an excess of luminous globular clusters, and they have a very low-velocity dispersion. Velocity dispersion is the dispersion of radial velocities about the mean velocity for a group of objects. Low-velocity dispersion indicates that the galaxy has little or no dark matter. NGC1052-DF2 was studied with the Keck Cosmic Web Imager (KCWI), a new instrument on the Keck II telescope that was optimized for precision sky-limited spectroscopy of low surface brightness phenomena at relatively high spectral resolution. The spectroscopy data was used to describe kinematics of the galaxy. This result was based on the radial velocities of globular clusters that were assumed to be associated with the galaxies. It was claimed in Ref. [10] that taking observational uncertainties into account, the determined intrinsic velocity dispersion is consistent with the expected value found for the stars alone and lower than expected from DM halo (see Figure 4). The dynamical mass of NGC1052-DF2 determined in [10] was 1.3±0.8×108Mʘ, and the stellar mass, i.e., luminous matter, was found to be 1±0.2×108Mʘ.
Figure 4.
Constraints on the intrinsic velocity dispersion of NGC1052-DF2. The result found in [8] (red dot star) is consistent with two other studies mentioned by authors and shows that such velocity dispersion indicates lack of the dark matter. Credit: [10].
To give a reader some intuition and place this in some context, it is worth to notice that the stellar mass of the Milky Way found in [12] was 6.08±1.14×1010Mʘ. It is broadly accepted in literature, and as will the following section present, the Milky Way contains big amount of the dark matter. The velocity dispersion of our galaxy is 75 km/s [13]. The NGC1052-DF2 is about 100 times lighter than the Milky Way; however, the velocity dispersion of NGC1052-DF2 was found to be only roughly 8.5 km/s [10]. If the galaxies can be formed and exist without the dark matter, i.e., the dark matter is not present in all existing galaxies, then the attempts to explain their dynamics by applying MOND might be at risk.
4. Detection of dark matter
4.1 Gravitational interaction with ordinary matter
In 2012 Moni Bidin et al. [14] published a paper in which they estimated surface mass density in the solar neighborhood. Results obtained match the expectations of visible matter alone without the need of adding the dark matter component. The difference between the measured mass of matter (derived in this study) and the mass of visible matter (i.e., mass of matter that is estimated in the independent way based on the amount of emitted) provides an estimate of the amount of DM in the volume under analysis, and constraints on the shape of the DM halo can be derived. The fundamental basis for this measurement is the application of the Poisson–Boltzmann and Jeans equations to a virialized system in steady state. This allows to estimate either the local density at the solar position or the surface density (mass per unit area) of the mass within a given volume. Authors in Ref. [14] derive analytical expression for surface density as a function of distance from the galactic disk plane Σ(Z) to estimate the surface mass density between 1.5 and 4.5 kpc distance from the galactic disk plane using data from of the kinematics studies of about 400 red giants kinematics. The authors in [14] claimed that the estimate of the surface mass density matches the expectation of visible mass alone and the degree of overlap between the two curves is striking. There is no need for any dark component to account for the results: the measured Σ(Z) implies a local DM density ρʘDM=0±1Mʘ·10−3pc−3 a. Further the authors in [14] compared this results with models of DM disk present in literature such as Ref. [15] hereafter OM; Ref. [16] hereafter SMH, which is standard DM halo model; or Ref. [17]—the model with minimal local DM density—hereafter MIN. Comparison of these findings is presented in Figure 5. Authors in Ref. [14] claim that the OM model is excluded at 8 sigma confidence level, SHM at 6 sigma, and even MIN model at 4.1 sigma. (Sigma confidence level says how many values lie within the number of standard deviation of the mean. For example, in particle physics there is a convention of a five-sigma effect being required to qualify as a discovery, that is to say that 99.99994% of the values must lay within 5 standard deviations of the mean; 8 sigma is even higher confidence level). Authors conclude that the measurement of the mass surface density at the solar galactocentric position between 1.5 and 4 kpc from the galactic plane accounts for the visible mass only. The DM density in the solar neighborhood, extrapolated from the observed curve of Σ(Z), is at variance with the general consensus that it must be in the range 5−13Mʘ·10−3pc−3 (e.g., [18, 19]). Lack of DM is observed by using measurements of the thick disk kinematics and is independent of the choice of data, because very similar results were obtained by means of other kinematical results in the literature. It is clear that the local surface density as measured in Ref. [14], extrapolated to the rest of the galaxy, cannot retain the Sun in a circular orbit at a speed of ∼220 km s−1. A deep missing mass problem is therefore confirmed by this study, and this finding tells us that indirect attempts to detect the dark matter by investigating its interactions with ordinary matter in that way have a little chance of success.
Figure 5.
Observational results for the surface mass density, as a function of distance from the galactic plane (black curve), compared to the expectations of the models discussed in the text (thick gray curves). The dotted and dashed lines indicate the observational 1σ and 3σ strip, respectively. Expectations for the known visible mass are indicated by the thick gray curve labeled as VIS. Credit: [14].
4.2 Direct detection
The experiments that aim at the direct detection due to scattering do not agree with each other yielding different constraints on the mass of the DM particles. The DAMA/LIBRA experiment [20] is the only one to claim positive result of detection which however has not been yet confirmed by the other groups (detectors). The aim of this experiment is detecting low-energy recoil photons from the scintillator crystals of thallium-doped sodium iodide NaI(Tl) placed in the detectors under the ground. Such photons would be emitted when the DM particle collides with one of the scintillators. If what we know about the DM is right, then since the Earth orbits the Sun, the DM particles should pass through the planet and hence have a chance to collide with those of the detectors. The idea of the experiment is that if one takes into account the revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the revolution of the Sun around the center of our galaxy, then the signals coming from the collisions should be modulated as in June the relative velocity of the Earth and the DM flux is the biggest hence yielding the biggest number of collisions. The data collected from the phase II of the experiment have all traits required to claim the presence of the DM in our part of the galaxy. The annual modulation is present only in the events concerning the photons with energies exactly within the energetic range theoretically predicted for the DM particles. Yet the DAMA/LIBRA is a singular case. Several groups have been working to develop experiments aiming at reproducing DAMA/LIBRA’s results using the same target medium. To determine whether there is evidence for an excess of events above the expected background in sodium iodide and to look for evidence of an annual modulation, the COSINE-100 experiment [21] uses the same target medium to carry out a model-independent test of DAMA/LIBRA’s claim. Their results from the initial operation of the COSINE-100 experiment were published in [21], and no excess of signal-like events above the expected background in the first 59.5 days of data from COSINE-100 has been observed. Assuming the so-called standard DM halo model, this result rules out spin-independent WIMP–nucleon interactions as the cause of the annual modulation observed by the DAMA/LIBRA collaboration. Another such experiment is the XENON100 experiment that searches for electronic recoil event rate modulation by measuring the scintillation light from a particle interacting in the liquid xenon. The results of this experiment published in [22] also exclude the DAMA/LIBRA results.
4.3 Others
We will present here very briefly the other two methods of detection of DM:
Production of DM particles in colliders—If the DM particles were created, for instance, in LHC, they would escape through the detectors unnoticed (due to their non-electromagnetic nature). However, they would carry away energy and momentum, so one could infer their existence from the amount of energy and momentum “missing” after a collision. The LHC also search for existence of supersymmetric particles which are one of the candidates for DM particle.
Searching for products of annihilation of its particles—Indirect detection. This experiments search for the products of the self-annihilation or decay of DM particles in outer space. For example, in regions of high DM density (e.g., the center of our galaxy), two DM particles could annihilate to produce gamma rays or standard model particle–antiparticle pairs. Alternatively if the DM particle is unstable, it could decay into standard model (or other) particles. These processes could be detected indirectly through an excess of gamma rays, antiprotons, or positrons emanating from high-density regions in the galaxy or others.
5. Milky way rotation curve
DM manifests its existence through the shape of rotational curves of galaxies, in particular, through the rotational curve of our own galaxy, the Milky Way. This is what motivated us to take a glimpse on that topic and to compare results to those present in literature [23]. We have studied the rotational curve of Milky Way with radio telescope located in the Astronomical Observatory of the Jagiellonian University provided by EU-HOU project (EU-HOU project was founded with support from the European Commission, grant 510,308-LLP-1-2010-FR-COMENIUS-CMP. https://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/hisurvey/euhou/LABprofile/).
5.1 The method
This 3 m in diameter telescope runs observations on 1420 MHz frequency which is the emission line of neutral hydrogen. When the hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from the state of higher energy when the spins of the proton and the electron are parallel to the state of lower energy that is when the spins are antiparallel, emitted photon is equivalent to radiation roughly 21 cm wavelength in vacuum (see Figure 6). Even though such process occurs very rarely, given the abundance of the hydrogen in the Universe (i.e., 74% of its baryonic mass), it is a common phenomenon. Hence the hydrogen is also present in the interstellar space around the stars, and radio observations yield information on how the matter is distributed inside the galaxy, and knowing the Doppler shift of the observed radiation, one can calculate the velocity of the hydrogen cloud from which it comes from. This in turn gives us an idea how the hydrogen and the nearby matter move within the galaxy, i.e., orbit around its center. Knowing the velocities and distance of such hydrogen clouds, one can plot the rotational curve of the galaxy. This is called tangent point method. Thus using the data obtained from the telescope, the Doppler equation:
Figure 6.
Hydrogen 21-cm emission line.
Vr=f0−ff0·cE7
one can calculate the source’s velocity (speed) relative to us (Vr). f0 is the frequency emitted by the hydrogen atom, f is the frequency the radio telescope receives, and c denotes the speed of light. The frequencies registered by the radio telescope are of course slightly different than 1420 MHz which is the frequency of emitted photon as measured at the lab and as emitted by the hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atoms that we study are moving relatively to us so the signal coming from them is a subject to the same phenomenon as for the ambulance’s siren applies. That is the change in frequency that enables us to calculate the radial velocity of such hydrogen cloud along the line of sight (which is defined by galactic longitude).
To find the speed of the hydrogen cloud, a simple fact is used, that is the radial velocity results in difference between the projection of ours (Sun’s) velocity on the line of sight and the hydrogen cloud’s velocity on the line of sight (see Figure 7). The line of sight is determined along the galactic longitude (see Figure 8) on which we set the radio telescope.
Figure 7.
Figure presenting two objects (A, B) along the line of sight. Hence object B lies in tangent point, i.e., its distance from the center of the galaxy is smaller, and its velocity is greater than the velocity of object A.
Figure 8.
Figure presenting galactic longitude. L = 0° is direction from the solar system to the center of galaxy. Credit: File:Artist’s_impression_of_the_Milky_Way.Jpg: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ESO/R.hurt.
This results in the following equation for velocity of observed hydrogen cloud:
Vr=VR0Rsinl−V0sinlE8
Among the objects observed along the given line of sight, the one with the smallest distance will have the biggest velocity. The smallest possible distance between us and the source is when it lies in the tangent point; hence simple trigonometry allows us to determine the distance:
Eqs. (8) and (9) provide all required information to plot a rotational curve of the galaxy. This method works for objects in I and IV Quadrants of galactic longitude, that is for 0°<l<90°and270°<l<360° and inside the galactocentric radius of the Sun.
5.2 Results
Twenty-nine objects with galactic longitude 0°<l<90° have been studied. Their positions on the map of the Milky Way are presented in Figure 9. Tangent point method applied to the data results in rotational curve presented in Figure 10.
Figure 9.
Map of the hydrogen clouds used to determine the rotational curve of the Milky Way.
Figure 10.
Rotational curve obtained from 21-cm line observations of the Milky Way. Note that the velocity of the studied objects appears to be constant over roughly 3 kpc distance.
Our rotational curve plot, Figure 10, is comparable to the plot obtained from data from LAB survey [24] and consistent with the ones that can be found in literature [23, 25]. We follow [25] in their choice of function to fit the data, namely
VV0=aRR0b+cE11
where we put V0=220kms and R0=8.5kpc and find the coefficients to be a=−5.495e−06, b=−21.28, and c=0.9808.
We conclude that the rotational curve reveals the existence of dark matter within the Milky Way. Taking (nonrelativistic) law of gravity, that is, the force of gravity is proportional to inverse squared distance, one would expect that the farther away the hydrogen clouds (constituting the distribution of matter) are from the massive center of the galaxy, the lower their velocities will be. As one see from the rotational curve, Figure 10, this is not the case; the velocities seem to be constant over a distance of roughly 3 kpc. Which means there is nonluminous matter distributed in such a way just to “keep up” with the increasing distance from the center of galaxy and make it so that the velocities of hydrogen atoms are almost constant as the distance increases.
6. Conclusions
The problem of missing matter discovered by Fritz Zwicky in 1933 appears to be still an open question. The most important premise of existence of the dark matter is the shape of rotational curves of galaxies, introduced as a tool for studying galaxy rotation by Vera Rubin. With our current understanding of the Universe, the dark matter, still a mysterious substance, makes up 86% of all the matter in the Universe. Throughout the years various attempts have been made to explain its nature. Some of the ideas have been proven unlikely (MACHOs). Some of them contradict each other (DAMA/LIBRA, the COSINE-100 collaboration). Yet even simple Milky Way’s observations as presented in Section 5 lead to the conclusion that the dark matter is present in the halo of our galaxy.
\n',keywords:"dark matter, WIMP, MACHO, MOND, rotational curve, ultra-diffuse galaxies, gravitational lensing, milky way",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70270.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70270.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70270",totalDownloads:713,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:45,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"October 25th 2019",datePrePublished:"December 3rd 2019",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",dateFinished:"November 28th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Dark matter is an invisible substance that seems to make almost 85% of all the mass and roughly 26% of mass-energy content of our Universe. We briefly present the history of its discovery, and we discuss the main attempts to resolve the problem of the origin of dark matter. Those attempts are as follows: dark matter particles (WIMPs), unseen astrophysical objects (MACHOs), or interactions of dark matter with ordinary (luminous) matter. We also introduce a different approach claiming no need for existence of the dark matter (MOND) and recent findings about the ultra-diffuse galaxies. Finally we present 21-cm line observations of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way made by using 3 m in diameter radio telescope in the Astronomical Observatory of the Jagiellonian University. These studies yield rotational curve of our galaxy. Rotational curve we obtained is compared to those present in literature and constitutes a proof of presence of dark matter in the Milky Way.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70270",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70270",book:{id:"7788",slug:"progress-in-relativity"},signatures:"Aleksander Kaczmarek and Andrzej Radosz",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The dark matter problem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Possible solutions and even more problems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Wimps",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Gravitational lensing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 MACHOs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.3 MOND",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.4 Ultra-diffuse galaxies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Detection of dark matter",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Gravitational interaction with ordinary matter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Direct detection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Others",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Milky way rotation curve",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 The method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.2 Results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zwicky F. Die Rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen Nebeln. Helvetica Physica Acta. 1933;6:110-127'},{id:"B2",body:'Rubin VC, Kent Ford W. 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A second galaxy missing dark matter in the NGC1052 group. The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 2019;874:L5 (8pp). DOI: 10.3847/2041-8213/ab0d92'},{id:"B12",body:'Licquia TC, Newman JA. Improved estimates of the milky Way’s stellar mass and star formation rate from hierarchical bayesian meta-analysis. The Astrophysical Journal. 2015;806:96 (20pp). DOI: 10.1088/0004-637X/806/1/96'},{id:"B13",body:'Gebhardt K, Bender R, Bower G, Dressler A, Faber SM, Filippenko AV, et al. A relationship between nuclear black hole mass and galaxy velocity dispersion. The Astrophysical Journal. 2000;539:L13-L16. DOI: 10.1086/312840'},{id:"B14",body:'Moni Bidin C, Carraro G, M’endez RA, Smith R. Kinematical and chemical vertical structure of the galactic thick disk. II. A lack of dark matter in the solar neighborhood. The Astrophysical Journal. 2012;751:30 (14pp). DOI: 10.1088/0004-637X/751/1/30'},{id:"B15",body:'Olling RP, Merrifield MR. Luminous and dark matter in the milky way. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2001;326(1):164-180. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04581.x'},{id:"B16",body:'Jungman G, Kamionkowski M, Griest K. Supersymmetric dark matter. Physics Reports. 1996;267(5–6):195-373. DOI: 10.1016/0370-1573(95)00058-5'},{id:"B17",body:'de Boer W, Sander C, Zhukov V, Gladyshev AV, Kazakov DI. EGRET excess of diffuse galactic gamma rays as tracer of dark matter. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2005;444(1):51-67. DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361:20053726'},{id:"B18",body:'Weber M, de Boer W. Determination of the local dark matter density in our Galaxy. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2010;509. DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/200913381'},{id:"B19",body:'Garbari S, Read JI, Lake G. Limits on the local dark matter density. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2011;416(3):2318-2340. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.19206.x'},{id:"B20",body:'Bernabeia R, Bellia P, Bussolotti A, Cappella F, Caracciolo V, Cerulli R, et al. First model independent results from DAMA/LIBRA–phase 2. Nuclear and Particle Physics Proceedings. 2018;303–305:74-79. DOI: 10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2019.03.01'},{id:"B21",body:'The COSINE-100 Collaboration. An experiment to search for dark-matter interactions using sodium iodide detectors. Nature. 2018;564:83-86. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0739-1'},{id:"B22",body:'Aprile E et al. Search for electronic recoil event rate modulation with 4 years of XENON100 data. Physical Review Letters. 2017;118:101101. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.101101'},{id:"B23",body:'Michael F, Blitz L, Stark Antony A. The rotation curve of the milky way to 2R0. The Astrophysical Journal. 1989;342:272-284. DOI: 10.1086/167591'},{id:"B24",body:'Kalberla PMW, Burton WB, Dap H, Arnal EM, Bajaja E, Morras R, et al. The Leiden/Argentine/Bonn (LAB) Survey of Galactic HI. Final data release of the combined LDS and IAR surveys with improved stray-radiation corrections. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2005;440(2):775-782. DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361:20041864'},{id:"B25",body:'Brand J, Blitz L. The velocity field of the Outter galaxy. Astronomy and Astrophysics. 1993;275(1):67'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Aleksander Kaczmarek",address:"a.kaczmarek12@wp.pl",affiliation:'
Faculty of Fundamental Problems of Technology, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
Department of Quantum Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Poland
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1. Introduction
A hypothesis is put forward according to which two factors play an important role in the formation of a number of cases of so-called “endogenous” (major) depression. First, the initially lowered (but within the reaction norm) level of cerebral serotonin, reflecting the gene polymorphisms of the human population. Second, the excessively long pre-morning periods of REM sleep associated with the “pressure of civilization” on the natural structure of the human wakefulness-sleep cycle, during which the release of cerebral monoamines stops altogether. It is a combination of these two factors that can lead to the emotional imbalance seen in depression.
2. Serotonin and sleep
Serotonin (5-HT) is one of the oldest and most important mediators in the central nervous system, participating in a wide range of behavioral, physiological and pathological processes. The history of its study goes back about 70 years, nevertheless, serotonin remains one of the most mysterious neurotransmitters. As is known, the largest accumulation of serotonergic neurons in the brain is observed in the dorsal raphe nuclei (DRN) and the pons varolii (zones B6 and B7 according to Dahlström & Fuxe [1]). The total number of such cells in human brain is relatively small - about one hundred thousand. The serotonergic system has two characteristics: first, the unusually numerous ramifications of its axons (up to a million bifurcations of a single axon). Secondly, the extraordinary variety of types (at least 7) and subtypes (at least 14; some researchers even count more than 20) of their receptors, among which there are both membrane depolarizing (subtypes 5-HT2A-C, 5-HT3, 5-HT6, 5-HT7) and hyperpolarizing it (5-HT1A,B). Due to the abundant “treelike” branching, several hundred thousands of serotonergic neurons of the brain stem innervate tens of billions of other neurons in the human brain: practically all the nerve cells of the neocortex, hippocampus, striatum, and hypothalamus, other parts of the brain as well as motor neurons of the spinal cord [1, 2]. Only the upper olive complex (part of the auditory system) and the optic chiasm are devoid of serotonin afferents [3]. And due to the receptor diversity, ligands of serotonin receptors can effect both activating and inhibitory processes on the brain and behavior in general.
The role of serotonin transmission in the regulation of wakefulness and sleep was first identified by the work of Michel Jouvet and his laboratory in Lyon, France. In these experiments of the classic of world somnology, performed on cats using primitive technologies of the 60s - early 70s of the last century, the following was shown. Intracerebral administration of serotonin, or electro-stimulation of the DRN or the median raphe nucleus (MnRN), where most 5-HT neurons in the brain are located, induces a short period of paradoxical (REM) sleep, followed by prolonged deep slow-wave sleep (NREM). If, on the contrary, the level of cerebral serotonin is reduced by systemic administration of parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA), which blocks serotonin synthesis, or by destruction of the MnRN, both phases of sleep are sharply reduced. This insomnia lasts at least 10 days. In this case, effect of PCPA is eliminated by the administration of the precursor of serotonin - 5-hydroxytryptophan. These and other early experiments served as the basis for Michel Jouvet’s hypothesis about serotonin as “somnotonin” (as it was then called by the Swiss somnologist Werner Koella), the main factor in slow wave sleep [4]. However, further experiments performed in the same laboratory of Jouvet with electrical stimulation and reversible shutdown of DRN neurons caused by local tissue cooling to 10 °C, pointed, on the contrary, to serotonin as a factor of wakefulness. Eventually, it was proved that this hypothesis of Jouvet was wrong - in particular, insomnia caused by suppression of serotonergic neurotransmission was associated with a disorder of thermoregulation, a drop in body temperature, which led to an increase in the motor activity of cats to warm up [5]. And the insomnia that occurs in experimental rats and cats as a result of the administration of PCPA, as it turned out, is the result of a sharp increase in sensitivity to the surrounding animal stimuli, and not a disorder of the regulation of the wakefulness-sleep cycle [6].
Summing up the results of many years of research, a disciple of Michel Jouvet, Raymond Cespuglio, suggested that serotonin may be involved in the regulation of the wakefulness-sleep cycle in two different ways: in wakefulness serotonin is realized on the presynaptic membrane of the 5-HT neurons and promotes the formation and accumulation in target cells hypnogenic neuropeptides: vasointestinal polypeptide (VIP), corticotropin-like intermediate lobe peptide (CLIP), substance P (SP); in the subsequent period of sleep, under the influence of these peptides, dendritic (nonsynaptic) realization of serotonin in the nuclei of the raphe occurs and its binding to the 5-HT1B autoreceptors, as a result of which the synaptic release of serotonin is weakened and stopped [3]. However, this hypothesis also has not received convincing experimental confirmation [6].
Experiments with extracellular registration have shown that most serotonergic neurons are very active in the waking state, and during the transition to sleep and further into deep NREM sleep, they progressively slow down their activity and completely “silence” immediately before the transition to REM sleep. Thorough studies of the activity of not only large and medium-sized, but also small cells of the dorsal raphe of the model mouse brain in the wake–sleep cycle, carried out by Jouvet’s disciple Kazuya Sakai, revealed a high anatomical, neurochemical and functional heterogeneity of these neurons. The majority of neurons in this area (52%) are indeed serotonergic (5-HT/DR), and almost all of them (48%) are active only in wakefulness, but a significant part (25% of all cells) are active in sleep, and judging by the spike shape, 19% of them are GABAergic, and only 6% are serotonergic [7]. Apparently, serotonin neurons are mainly responsible for maintaining calm (relaxed) wakefulness; thus, according to some data, they are most active during food consumption and reduce the frequency of impulses with increased behavioral activation [5].
Agonists of all serotonin receptors stimulate wakefulness and suppress NREM and REM sleep when administered systemically or intraventricularly. In this case, the activation of wakefulness occurs by depolarizing the histaminergic tuberomammillary neurons of the posterior hypothalamus, as well as GABA/parvalbumin-containing neurons of the basal forebrain region, which project into the hippocampus and neocortex. Suppression of NREM is carried out mainly by inhibition of neurons in the “sleep center” VLPO, mediated by the 5-HT1A receptor [5]. And the suppression of REM sleep occurs due to inhibition of cholinergic REM-on neurons of the pons [5].
With direct microinjection of inhibitory receptor 5-HT1A agonists into the dorsal raphe nuclei, an increase in REM sleep occurs, whereas similar injections of inhibitory autoreceptor 5-HT1B agonists and activating 5-HT2A/C, 5-HT3 and 5-HT7 receptors suppress REM sleep, which is consistent with the concept of the need for inhibition of 5-HT neurons to trigger REM sleep [8]. Systemic administration of non-selective antagonists of the 5-HT2A/C receptors, selective antagonists or reversible agonists of the 5-HT2A receptor in laboratory rats and mice, healthy subjects and patients with primary or comorbid insomnia causes an increase in NREM sleep, which, again, is consistent with the idea of the participation of 5-HT neurons in maintaining wakefulness [6].
Thus, according to the results of neural and pharmacological studies, serotonin seemed finally established as the status of a wakefulness mediator along with other monoamines (norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine), as well as acetylcholine and glutamate. The main source of serotonin - the DRN – were introduced on diagrams as one of the clusters of the reticular ascending activating system [9, 10]. It has also been shown to play an important role in the negative regulation of REM sleep: without turning off serotonin transmission, neither initiation nor maintenance of REM sleep is possible [6].
In this case, selective shutdown of serotonergic transmission should suppress wakefulness by increasing NREM sleep. Such a methodological opportunity appeared with the introduction of molecular genetic and other newest innovative techniques into neurophysiology. It was found that the brain has its own special isoform of the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase - Tph2, which converts the amino acid tryptophan, which is supplied to the body with protein food, into 5-hydroxytryptophan, a precursor of serotonin, and encoded by a separate gene. This discovery made it possible to create knockout mice for this gene, in which the content of cerebral serotonin does not exceed 4% of its content in the brain of control mice (that is, practically absent). Figuratively describing the phenotype of such mice, which grew up “without serotonin in their brain”, can be named as “evil dwarfs.” They are fertile and females have milk, but they do not care for their offspring, and therefore half of their offspring dies [11, 12]. Disorders of the wakefulness-sleep cycle in these mutants are limited, judging by the results of registration of locomotor activity, to a slight increase in sleep and suppression of wakefulness in daylight (daytime), which seems to correspond with the above hypothesis [13].
At the same time, in another study on genetically modified mice with the homozygous Tph2 mutation (intact neurons, but complete absence of serotonin in the central nervous system) and polysomnographic registration, the following was found. A small (but statistically significant) decrease in the duration of NREM sleep and a corresponding increase in active wakefulness in mutant animals compared with control occurred only when the light was turned on and off. Apparently, the absence of serotonin increases the reactivity of the animal to light stimulation. It was also shown that the sleep of the mutants was less fragmented. No further disturbances in the wake–sleep cycle were identified. In this series of experiments, the absence of serotonin caused only very small changes, not confirming the original hypothesis [14].
However, Tph2 knockout mice cannot serve as an adequate model for studying the role of serotonin in the regulation of the wakefulness-sleep cycle, since it is unclear whether the revealed phenotypic changes are the result of abnormal development, compensation for the lack of serotonin by other transmitters, or, indeed, impaired neurotransmission in adults. To solve this problem, a method was developed to turn off the expression of the Tph2 gene by microinjection of its blocker directly into the tissue of the raphe nuclei of the midbrain and pons in the genetically created mouse strain [15]. By visual analysis of video recordings, it was possible to reveal an increased level of motor activity, especially noticeable in the night (active) phase of the nychthemeron, when in the second half of the night the control individuals experienced a period of decreased activity, called by the authors “siesta”. In mice with blocked serotonergic transmission, such periods were absent altogether; they ran almost continuously all night [15]. Thus, according to the results of this study, serotonin itself behaves more like “sleep factor” than “wake factor”.
Since 5-HT containing neurons also secrete glutamate and various neuropeptides, the effect of their destruction may be quite different from that of the elimination of serotonin itself. In the work of Japanese authors [16], carried out using polysomnographic recording, neurotoxic destruction of serotonin-containing DR neurons in special genetically engineered mice led to a decrease in REM sleep at night, when its representation is already low. In addition, according to the data of the same authors, in the experimental mice, in comparison with the control ones, the response to the new environment was weakened and the power of the theta rhythm in wakefulness was increased. However, all these effects were so small that they were detected only with the help of statistical tricks. This, however, did not prevent the authors from concluding that their data support the main hypothesis about the role of serotonin as a factor of wakefulness (positive) and REM sleep (negative), presented above.
Finally, in a recently published study led by renowned Boston somnologist Patrick Fuller using a novel method of highly selective chemogenetic activation of serotonergic neurons in the DRN in combination with polysomnography and behavioral tests, no unambiguous results were obtained either [17]. A “compensatory” restoration of NREM sleep, slightly suppressed by the 5-HT neuron activator injection procedure, was shown to return to baseline levels. This effect can hardly be called somnogenic, but it is definitely not activating. In addition, a change in behavior in the open field was found, which the authors interpret as a decrease in the level of anxiety under the influence of the activation of serotonergic neurons in the DRN. However, testing in a cruciform elevated maze revealed no changes. The authors refer to a recent study that revealed the existence of two mutually intertwining serotonergic subsystems in the DRN that innervate the orbital frontal cortex and the central amygdala differently. One of these subsystems supports anxiogenic and the other anxiolytic functions. It is possible that the simultaneous activation of both subsystems is associated with the uncertainty of the results obtained in such experiments [17].
As mentioned above, most serotonin-secreting neurons are “silent” during the entire period of REM sleep until the moment of its completion (by awakening or re-entering NREM sleep), and in fact not one single serotonin molecule is released from the presynaptic membrane during this time.
As can be seen from the Table 1, the intercellular fluid in wakefulness is saturated mainly with the mediators with depolarizing action on the postsynaptic membrane. During the transition to NREM sleep, all these molecules quickly disappear from the intercellular environment being replaced by the main inhibitory mediator of the brain, GABA, that concentration increases with the deepening of NREM sleep, and the peptide galanin colocolized with GABA. The cerebral biochemical environment in REM sleep is special. High levels of acetylcholine, glutamate and galanin are combined with a complete absence of orexin (hypocretin) and monoamines — serotonin, norepinephrine and histamine, with the exception of dopamine, the concentration of which may sometimes even exceed that in wakefulness. A new mediator appears, the MCH peptide, which mediates the hypothalamo-pontine level of REM sleep regulation. The release of GABA in general is significantly reduced, but remains high in areas of the orexinergic (LHA), histaminergic (TMN), serotonergic (DR) and noradrenergic (LC) neurons localization. In these systems, GABAergic neurons play the role of a “lock” preventing depolarization of these cells during the entire period of REM sleep.
Neurotransmitters
Localization
W
NREM sleep
REM sleep
5-HT
DR
↑↑
↓→↓↓
↔
Norepinephrine
LC
↑↑
↓→↓↓
↔
Histamine
TMN
↑↑
↓→↓↓
↔
Dopamine
VTA/SNpc/vPAG
↑↑
↓
↑
Acetylcholine
LDT/PPT/BF
↑↑
↓→↓↓
↑↑
Glutamate
PC/PB/BF
↑↑
↓→↓↓
↑↑
GABA
Total brain
↑/↓
↑↑
↑/↓
Orexin/Hypocretin
LHA
↑↑
↔
↔
Galanin
VLPO/MnPO
↓
↑↑
↑↑
MCH
LHA/PH
↓
↓
↑↑
Table 1.
A simplified scheme for the secretion of cerebral neurotransmitters in the sleep–wake cycle (data from animal studies).
Abbreviations: W – wake; NREM sleep – non rapid eye movement sleep; REM sleep - rapid eye movement sleep; 5-HT – serotonin; GABA – γ-aminobutyric acid; MCH – melanin-concentrating hormone; LC – locus coeruleus; DR – dorsal raphe; TMN – tubero-mammillar nucleus; VTA – ventral tegmental area; SNpc – substantia nigra/pars compacta; vPAG – ventral periaquetuctul gray matter; LDT/PPT – latero-dorsal tegmentum/pedunculo-pontine tegmentum; BF – basal forebrain; PC/PB – preceoruleus/parabrachialis nuclei; LHA – lateral hypothalamic area; VLPO – ventro-lateral preoptic area; MnPO – median preoptic area; PH – posterior hypothalamus; ↑ – increase in release; ↓ -decrease in release; ↑↑ - substantial increase in release; ↓↓ - substantial decrease in release; ↑/↓ - increase or decrease in release dependently of the site of cerebral localization; → – gradual decrease in release; ↔ – release ceased.
Obviously, the level of serotonin (as well as norepinephrine and histamine) at the sites of projection of aminergic neurons (and, possibly, in the brain as a whole) can decrease during this time. However, the periods of REM sleep in all animals are short, and in some species (small rodents, birds, etc.) they are extremely short (from a few seconds to 1 min) [18, 19]. So this decrease cannot be significant, and in the subsequent period of wakefulness, the normal, “basal” level of serotonergic transmission is quickly restored.
The situation is different in humans. In adults, unlike animals, sleep is of a continuous, so-called “monophasic” or “consolidated” nature. This means that an adult living in modern urban conditions is waking all day (16 hours), and the entire daily “quota” of sleep, usually 5 cycles 1.5 hour each, is realized at night “at a time.” In this case, the first half of the night sharply differs from the second - and this is another important difference between human sleep and animal sleep (Figure 1, upper graph). In the first half of the night, a person implements mainly the need for deep slow wave sleep (NREM), which has accumulated over a long period of wakefulness (stage 3; according to the old classification - stages 3 + 4, “delta sleep” is apparently a state that is critical for the survival of the organism). In the second half of the night, the need for REM sleep is realized, which alternates with periods of superficial NREM sleep (stage 2). At the same time, individual periods of REM sleep, which in a healthy person occupies about 2 night hours, can last 20, 30, and even 40 minutes in the last sleep cycles [20]. Naturally, such long periods of inactivity of the “serotonin factory” of the brain cannot pass without leaving a trace.
Figure 1.
A hypnogram of a healthy human subject (top) and a depressed patient (bottom) [20]. W - wakefulness, REM - REM sleep, S1-S4 - stages of NREM sleep, MT and BM - various types of movements during sleep, EM - rapid eye movements. It can be seen that the patient has fragmented sleep, REM sleep is disinhibited, and deep NREM sleep (stages 3 and 4; according to the new classification, they combined into one), on the contrary, is suppressed.
What determines these differences in the structure of human sleep? A newborn baby sleeps around the clock with short sucking breaks, total about 16 hours, 8 of which is occupied by the so-called “activated sleep”, which is considered as the precursor of adult REM sleep. A one-year-old child has two periods of daytime sleep, and a four-year-old is allowed to sleep only once a day, after lunch. An eight-year-old is already attending school and cannot sleep during the day, and this daily rhythm (without daytime sleep) is maintained by the majority of the modern urban population for life. Psychophysiological studies of the wakefulness-sleep rhythm carried out at one time in healthy subjects who were transferred to a 24-hour bed rest when isolated from the external environment [21], as well as some observations of ethnographers on the nature of sleep in primitive tribes living in isolation from civilization [22], allow to make the following assumption. By nature, a person has a sleep–wake rhythm with two periods of short naps. With this mode, the duration of night sleep is significantly shortened; a person can get up at dawn (in summer). Sleep becomes less consolidated, sleep cycles can be interspersed with more or less prolonged episodes of wakefulness. The differences between the first and second half of the night are smoothed out. In general, human sleep begins to resemble more animal sleep [21, 22, 23]. The monophasic nature of sleep of a modern person, apparently, is associated not so much with biological, genetic factors, as with the “pressure of civilization”, distorting, disrupting the natural alternation of wakefulness and sleep. During a 16-hour daytime period of continuous wakefulness, a modern person experiences repeated “intrusions” of sleep mechanisms, realized in the form of episodes of local sleep, microsleep and an increase in the delta index in the EEG [24]. A monophasic diurnal rhythm (without daytime sleep) is acquired by the majority of the modern urban population in childhood and retained for the rest of their lives [25].
Thus, the circadian rhythm of a modern urban person is 16 hours of sleep deprivation, followed by 8 hours of sleep. And the law of “rebound” is as follows: first, delta sleep is restored (stage 3), then REM sleep [26]. On the other hand, superficial sleep is considered an “optional” state, which “can be dispensed with.” Consequently, the unusually long pre-morning periods of REM sleep, in which serotonergic transmission can be severely depleted, are mainly due to “civilization pressure” disrupting natural circadian dynamics.
3. Serotonin and depression
Although the role of serotonin in the regulation of the wakefulness-sleep cycle remains not completely defined, its participation in emotional reactions is well known. In popular literature, serotonin is often referred to as the “happiness hormone”. Excessive activation of serotonergic transmission in the brain causes movement disorders – part of the so-called “serotonin syndrome”, and insufficient activation seems associated with diseases such as depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, etc. [27, 28]. In the 50–60s of the last century, the so-called “catecholaminergic” hypothesis became widespread, linking the occurrence of depression with a lack of noradrenergic transmission. It was replaced by the “serotonin” hypothesis of endogenous depression, which was first published in the Lancet magazine in an article by a psychopharmacologist from Leningrad (USSR, now St. Petersburg, Russia) Izyaslav (Slava) Lapin and his graduate student Gregory Oxenkrug: “Intensification of the central serotoninergic processes as a possible determinant of the thymoleptic effect” [29]. The article had about 350 citations in the first 18 years (to date, according to Google searches, about 800). This led Eugene Garfield to include it in the “This Week’s Citation Classic” section of the Current Contents and to publish a note by Oxenkrug on how the article was created [30].
Lapin and Oxenkrug were the first to link emotional disorders and sleep disturbances in depression with a common causative factor - impaired serotonin transmission due to changes in the turnover of cerebral serotonin. Reducing serotonergic transmission in the brain through the hypothalamus-pituitary–adrenal cortex axis disinhibits the release of cortisol. Cortisol activates the enzyme tryptophan dioxygenase (TDO), which “shunts” the normal turnover of serotonin and converts it (in the presence of the pro-inflammatory cytokine γ-interferon, which appears in response to stress) into kynurenine. As a result, serotonin is released less and less. Neuroactive kynurenines, in turn, increase anxiety and impair cognitive performance. Subsequently Lapin showed that the metabolism of kynurenine in the absence of vitamin B6 leads to the appearance of diabetogenic derivatives [31]. The impact of Lapin’s ideas on the further development of world psychiatry and psychopharmacology was described in detailed reviews by Oxenkrug [32, 33].
Later, other authors developed a “new serotonin hypothesis” [34], according to which an increased level of glucorticoids, systemic inflammatory processes, and neuroimmune activation of microglia stimulate the synthesis of enzymes tryptophan dioxygenase and indoleamine dioxygenase (TDO/IDO) and finally shift the breakdown of tryptophan to the kynurenine pathway. Finally, the initial development of Lapin recently received a new generalization in the form of the so-called “serotonin-kynurenine-inflammatory” hypothesis of the onset of depression (see Figure 2) [35, 36]. Based on the latest biochemical and molecular biology studies, these authors show that the metabolites of kynurenine - oxidized kynurenine, quinolinic acid and the cation NAD+ (nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide), which have exito- and neurotoxic properties, cause an excessive increase in glutamatergic neurotransmission, suppressing neurogenesis in the fascia dentata of the hippocampus, apoptosis and neurodegeneration. The kynurenine pathway of serotonin metabolism occurs in microglia, and the proliferation of microglia has been found in a number of studies using neuroscanning of depressed patients. So, despite the fact that modern theories of the origin of depression concentrate more on neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative processes [36, 37, 38, 39], Lapin’s serotonin idea, put forward more than half a century ago has not lost its relevance.
Figure 2.
Simplified illustration of the kynurenine pathway. Tryptophan (TRP) is predominantly converted into kynurenine (KYN) by the indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) isozymes and tryptophan dioxygenase (TDO). IDO-1 is expressed in various immune cells throughout the body, notably dendritic cells, monocytes, and macrophages. Less is known about the more recently discovered IDO-2 enzyme although it is more selectively expressed in dendritic cells, liver, kidney, and the brain and it does not appear to have a significant effect on peripheral kynurenine concentration. TDO-2 is an alternative nomenclature for TDO. KYN can be metabolized into kynurenic acid (KYNA), which is usually considered to be neuroprotective, by the KAT isozymes. Alternatively, it may be converted into anthranilic acid by kynureninase or 3-hydroxykynurenine (3HK) by kynurenine monooxygenase (KMO). Metabolism down the latter pathway increases under inflammatory conditions. 3HK is a free radical generator while quinolinic acid (QA) is a known neurotoxin and gliotoxin. Thus, metabolites in this pathway are usually considered to be neurotoxic. QA is the endogenous source of nicotinamide and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) [35].
Back in 1960, a reduced (almost 3 times) level of serotonin in the cerebrospinal fluid of depressed patients was confirmed [40]. And selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (increasing 5-HT concentration in the synaptic cleft) have been widely and successfully used in clinical medicine as antidepressants for more than 30 years [2]. However, the generalizing works of the last two decades have given some authors the basis for a paradoxical conclusion that not suppression, but, on the contrary, the excess of serotonin neurotransmission is the cause (or at least one of the causes) endogenous depression (melancholy), or that serotonin is not involved at all in the pathogenesis of this disease [41, 42, 43, 44].
In recent years, researchers have turned their attention not to cerebral serotonin itself, but to its carrier protein (5-HTT) and the gene for this protein. It turned out that people homo- or heterozygous for its short allele are less resistant to stress and are more at risk of developing insomnia and depression than carriers of the long allele [45]. The short allele is associated with a decrease in the number of 5-HTT binding regions on the surface of the presynaptic membrane and, accordingly, in the reuptake of excess serotonin. From this point of view, the disorder of serotonin transmission in some types of depression, in fact, may be associated more with an excess than a lack of serotonin in the synaptic cleft.
Apparently, under the general term “depression” there is several (and maybe even many) diseases of various etiologies [46]. At the same time, the majority of patients respond positively to the intake of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Moreover, almost any drug that inhibits the reuptake of monoamines (primarily serotonin, but partly also norepinephrine and dopamine) has thymoleptic (antidepressant) properties [46]. However, a very long interval (calculated in weeks) from the start of antidepressant administration to the appearance of a therapeutic effect is an indirect indication that the lack of monoaminergic transmission is most likely a secondary, “downward” consequence of some still unknown primary disorders [46]. Nevertheless, for most cases of endogenous depression (major depression), the hypothesis of monoamine deficiency is still considered the most acceptable [46]. Apparently, the impairment of serotonergic neurotransmission is one of the links in a cascade of molecular biological events that ultimately lead to neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative changes in certain parts of the brain, as mentioned above.
The main difficulty faced by this hypothesis is the reason for the decrease in serotonin levels in the brain during depression. Among the possible reasons, either an increased activity of the MAO enzyme, which metabolizes serotonin, or a mutation with loss of function of the gene of the Tph-2 enzyme, which synthesizes serotonin, is proposed. In this review, we propose a third reason that can explain a number of cases of “spontaneous” onset of depressive symptoms in apparently healthy people, as well as link the hypotheses of “monoamine deficiency” and “circadian rhythm disturbances” [46].
4. Sleep and depression
Depression is one of those relatively few diseases that are characterized by pronounced and rather specific sleep disorders. In addition, these disorders can occur much earlier than the main symptoms (mood disorders, etc.), and therefore serve as important predictors of the disease. Non-specific disorders in depression include difficulty falling asleep, frequent nighttime awakenings, and early morning awakenings. However, there is a more specific violation of the sleep structure: suppression of deep NREM sleep (stage 3) and disinhibition of REM sleep (see Figure 1, lower graph). The suppression of deep SWS manifests itself in the loss of stage 4 (according to the old classification), reduction and fragmentation of stage 3, a decrease in the EEG delta index, and lengthening of stage 2. The disinhibition of REM sleep is manifested both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitatively, by reducing the latency of the onset of the first REM period down to zero, when sleep can begin with a REM episode, which never happens in a healthy adult; lengthening the first REM period; an increase in the proportion of the total duration of REM sleep in all night sleep. Qualitatively, the disinhibition of REM sleep manifests itself in an increase in the generation of rapid eye movements already in the first REM sleep period. Although similar disorders of REM sleep are observed not in all patients with depression, but only in 50–70% (according to various sources), and similar phenomena of REM sleep “disinhibition” can sometimes be observed in other neuropsychiatric disorders (schizophrenia, manic psychosis), nevertheless for “major” depression, they are much more typical and more pronounced [37].
As noted above, suppression of neurogenesis in adult animals was shown in various experimental models of depression (mice, rats) [47]. Interestingly, in other models associated with an increase in REM sleep (some forms of stress), according to some data, neurogenesis in the hippocampus is also impaired. On the other hand, inhibition of neurogenesis is also observed in sleep deprivation [37].
One of the main arguments in favor of the hypothesis of a causal relationship (rather than just a correlation) between depression and REM sleep is the effects of antidepressants. It is well known that most antidepressants that prevent the natural breakdown of serotonin (and other brain amines): tricyclic drugs, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), deeply inhibit REM sleep. Especially effective in this regard are MAO inhibitors, which can almost completely eliminate REM sleep for months and years [37, 38, 39]. Millions of patients around the world have taken and are taking these drugs. No cases of cognitive impairment were reported; instead, there is some evidence that MAO inhibitors even improve memory! On the contrary, the latest generation of benzodiazepines, used as hypnotics and practically do not disturb the duration and distribution of REM sleep, have a pronounced detrimental effect on memory due to the effect of these drugs on the GABA signaling system [48, 49, 50, 51].
Now, imagine that in the human population, with its unusually wide gene diversity, there are subjects with initially lowered levels of cerebral serotonin. This may be due to some gene polymorphisms that cause, for example, the synthesis from dietary tryptophan, not serotonin, but kynurenines (as Lapin believed) [29, 31, 32, 33]), or a decrease in the formation of tryptophan hydroxylase-2, which synthesizes cerebral serotonin from its precursor, or an increased level of the MAO-A enzyme, which metabolizes serotonin, etc. For such people, long pre-morning periods of REM sleep become especially dangerous, since they can reduce the level of cerebral serotonin below a certain critical level, the threshold for disruption of general serotonergic transmission and the occurrence of emotional disorders. This approach is confirmed by the subjective reports of patients reporting the appearance of the first feelings of depression even during the experience of morning dreams and reaching their maximum severity immediately upon awakening. However, by the evening (as cerebral serotonin accumulates in the course of a vigorous state), the patient’s condition gradually improves, depressive symptoms go away by themselves, and he/she feels completely healthy ... until a new period of sleep comes! [46]. It is clear that against the background of a low, near-threshold level of cerebral serotonin, even immersions in NREM sleep causing a decrease in serotonin release can re-launch pathological processes in the brain.
On the other hand, the release of cerebral serotonin is involved in the inhibition of the glutamatergic/cholinergic center of REM sleep triggering in the pons [5, 9, 10]. Then, the weakening of this inhibition may be associated with a well-studied increase in the “pressure” of REM sleep in depression, which manifests itself, in particular, in the shortening of the latent period of the first episode of this sleep phase, as mentioned above [37, 38, 39]. Moreover, according to some reports, even genetic relatives of such patients, who do not suffer from depression, but, assuringly might have the same gene polymorphism and, as a result, a lowered “basal” level of cerebral serotonin, also have excessively prolonged periods of REM sleep [37]. That is, one can assume that all people who initially have a lowered level of cerebral serotonin, due to this, have an increased “pressure” of REM sleep, which further lowers this level.
It becomes clear why it is not possible to create a more or less adequate experimental model of stress-induced anhedonia (depression) [52]. For this, apparently, it is necessary to adapt the experimental mice to “human conditions”: a constant 16-hour sleep deprivation (in the dark period of the day) accompanied by its 8-hour “return” (in the light period). And it is necessary to influence chronic stress also in the dark period against the background of this artificial circadian rhythm. It is possible that in this case the applied impacts will be more effective.
5. Conclusion
Thus, according to the proposed hypothesis, the formation of depression is due to a combination of two factors - a reduced level of cerebral serotonin and the structure of human night sleep with extremely long pre-morning periods of REM sleep. It is known that total sleep deprivation (or selective REM sleep deprivation) is used as an effective but short-term thymoleptic action. According to the proposed approach, fragmentation of REM sleep can be just as effective. If it really turns out to be effective in alleviating depressive symptoms, then it can be relatively easily automated by giving the patient during REM sleep signals (for example, sound), selected so that they do not wake him up at all, but only wake him up, transferring from REM sleep to the 2nd or 1st stage of NREM sleep. Such a procedure, which is much more easily tolerated by patients, will also be suitable for chronic use.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (project No. 17-15-01433).
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It is assumed either increased activity of the MAO enzyme, which metabolizes serotonin, or a mutation with the loss of function of the gene of the Tph-2 enzyme, which synthesizes serotonin, as possible causes. In this review, a third cause is proposed, which can explain a number of cases of «spontaneous» onset of depressive symptoms in apparently healthy people, as well as links the hypotheses of “monoamine deficiency” and “disturbances in circadian rhythms.” It is assumed that the formation of endogenous depression is due to a combination of two factors: a reduced “basal” level of cerebral serotonin and excessively long pre-morning periods of REM sleep, during which the release of cerebral monoamines stops altogether. As a possible way to of non-drug treatment of depression, not deprivation, but fragmentation of this phase of sleep is suggested, that is much easier for patients to tolerate.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75576",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75576",signatures:"Vladimir M. Kovalzon",book:{id:"10195",type:"book",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",fullTitle:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-200-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-199-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-201-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"341029",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir M.",middleName:null,surname:"Kovalzon",fullName:"Vladimir M. Kovalzon",slug:"vladimir-m.-kovalzon",email:"somnolog43@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Serotonin and sleep",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Serotonin and depression",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Sleep and depression",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Jacobs BL, Azmitia EC Structure and function of the brain serotonin system. Physiological Reviews. 1992;72(1):165-229'},{id:"B2",body:'Müller CP, Cunningham KA., editors. Handbook of the Behavioral Neurobiology of Serotonin. 2nd ed. London: Elsevier; 2020'},{id:"B3",body:'Cespuglio R. Serotonin: its place today in sleep preparation, triggering or maintenance. Sleep Medicine. 2018; 49:31e39. DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2018.05.034'},{id:"B4",body:'Jouvet M. 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Growth retardation and altered autonomic control in mice lacking brain serotonin. PNAS. 2009;106(25):10332-10337. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0810793106'},{id:"B14",body:'Solarewicz JZ, Angoa-Perez M, Kuhn DM, Mateika JH. The sleep-wake cycle and motor activity, but not temperature, are disrupted over the light-dark cycle in mice genetically depleted of serotonin. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2015;308:R10–R17. DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00400.2014'},{id:"B15",body:'Whitney MS, Shemery AM, Yaw AM, Donovan LJ, Glass JD, Deneris ES. Adult brain serotonin deficiency causes hyperactivity, circadian disruption, and elimination of siestas. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2016;36(38):9828-9842. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1469-16.2016'},{id:"B16",body:'Iwasaki K, Komiya H, Kakizaki M, Miyoshi C, Abe M, Sakimura K, Funato H, Yanagisawa M. Ablation of central serotonergic neurons decreased REM sleep and attenuated arousal response. Front. Neurosci. 2018;12:535. 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DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.14170'},{id:"B40",body:'Ashcroft GW, Sharman DF. 5-Hydroxyindoles in human cerebrospinal fluids. Nature. 1960;186:1050-1051. DOI: 10.1038/1861050a0'},{id:"B41",body:'Baumeister AA, Hawkins MF, Uzelac SM. The myth of reserpine-induced depression: role in the historical development of the monoamine hypothesis. Journal of the History of the Neurosciences: Basic and Clinical Perspectives. 2003;12(2):207-220. DOI: 10.1076/jhin.12.2.207.15535'},{id:"B42",body:'Cowen PJ. Serotonin and depression: pathophysiological mechanism or marketing myth? Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 2008;29(9):433-436. DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2008.05.004'},{id:"B43",body:'Andrews PW, Bharwani A, Lee KR, Fox M, Thomson JA, Jr. Is serotonin an upper or a downer? The evolution of the serotonergic system and its role in depression and the antidepressant response. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2015;51:164-188. DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.018'},{id:"B44",body:'Healy D. Serotonin and depression. The marketing of a myth. British Medical Journal. 2015;350:h1771 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.h1771'},{id:"B45",body:'van Dalfsen JH, Markus CR. The involvement of sleep in the relationship between the serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and depression: A systematic review. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2019;256:205-212. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2019.05.047'},{id:"B46",body:'Hasler G. Pathophysiology of depression: do we have any solid evidence of interest to clinicians? World Psychiatry. 2010;9:155-161'},{id:"B47",body:'Cline BH, Costa-Nunes JP, Cespuglio R, Markova N, Santos AI, Bukhman YV, Kubatiev A, Steinbusch HWM, Lesch K-P, Strekalova T. Dicholine succinate, the neuronal insulin sensitizer, normalizes behavior, REM sleep, hippocampal pGSK3 beta and mRNAs of NMDA receptor subunits in mouse models of depression. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 2015; 9:37. DOI:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00037'},{id:"B48",body:'Siegel JM. The REM sleep–memory consolidation hypothesis. Science. 2001;294:1058-1063'},{id:"B49",body:'Siegel JM. The incredible shrinking sleep-learning connection. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2005;28:82-83'},{id:"B50",body:'Vertes RP. Memory consolidation in sleep: dream or reality. Neuron. 2004;44:135-148'},{id:"B51",body:'Vertes RP, Eastman K.E. The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2000;23:793-1121'},{id:"B52",body:'Strekalova T, Cespuglio R, Kovalzon V. Sleep structure during chronic stress and anhedonia in the mouse model of depression. In: Kalueff AV, LaPorte JL, editors. Experimental Animal Models in Neurobehavioral Research. Nova Science Publishers: N.Y.; 2009. p. 123-137'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vladimir M. Kovalzon",address:"kovalzon@sevin.ru",affiliation:'
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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Quina, Fabio Gozzi, Volnir O. Silva, Leidi C. Friedrich and José E. F. Moraes",authors:[{id:"85138",title:"Dr.",name:"Amilcar",middleName:null,surname:"Machulek Jr.",slug:"amilcar-machulek-jr.",fullName:"Amilcar Machulek Jr."},{id:"95179",title:"Prof.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Herbert Quina",slug:"frank-herbert-quina",fullName:"Frank Herbert Quina"},{id:"95183",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Gozzi",slug:"fabio-gozzi",fullName:"Fabio Gozzi"},{id:"95189",title:"Dr.",name:"Volnir",middleName:null,surname:"O. Silva",slug:"volnir-o.-silva",fullName:"Volnir O. Silva"},{id:"95193",title:"BSc.",name:"Leidi",middleName:null,surname:"C. Friedrich",slug:"leidi-c.-friedrich",fullName:"Leidi C. Friedrich"},{id:"95197",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"E. F. Moraes",slug:"jose-e.-f.-moraes",fullName:"José E. F. 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Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The global mean temperatures may increase up to 5.4°C by 2100. Climate change is mainly caused by humans, especially through increased greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change is recognized as a serious threat to ecosystem, biodiversity, and health. It is associated with alterations in the physical environment of the planet Earth. Climate change affects life around the globe. It impacts plants and animals, with consequences for the survival of the species. In humans, climate change has multiple deleterious consequences. Climate change creates water and food insecurity, increased morbidity/mortality, and population movement. Vulnerable populations (e.g., children, elderly, indigenous, and poor) are disproportionately affected. Personalized adaptation to the consequences of climate change and preventive measures are key challenges for the society. Policymakers must implement the appropriate strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations.",book:{id:"9664",slug:"environmental-issues-and-sustainable-development",title:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",authors:[{id:"313921",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan M.",middleName:null,surname:"Heshmati",slug:"hassan-m.-heshmati",fullName:"Hassan M. 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As a result, the optimal formula is obtained with 300 g of mycorrhizal and rhizobium strains + 500 g of black soil + 200 g of potato peel crust, which has an effective antagonistic capacity of 100% in pea cultivation, 90% in the barley, and 85% in the potato, besides that it achieves a biotisation in the cultivation of peas of 95%, in the barley 100% and in the potato 90%.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Henry Juan Javier Ninahuaman and Grimaldo Quispe Santivañez"},{id:"82542",title:"Effects of Veld Degradation on Biomass Production in the Arable Lands of South Africa",slug:"effects-of-veld-degradation-on-biomass-production-in-the-arable-lands-of-south-africa",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102605",abstract:"This paper reviews the impacts of veld degradation on species diversity, veld ecological condition. The major focus of this review is to assess the major critical factors that contributeto veld degradation. It is imperative to revitalize information on the effects of veld degradation in the South African pastoral farming systems. Current studies have indicated the limited research gaps that identify the adverse effects of veld degradation on species composition and biomass production. Grazing behavior in different grazing patterns has not been clear. Finally, this review will assist farmers, policymakers, and pastoralists to broaden their knowledge on policy development, and appropriate the veld management practices, coping measures of veld degradation, particularly those from resource-poor communities. Whereby, livestock production is the focus for food security and poverty alleviation. However, the use of legumes intercropped with temperate grass species can improve animal performance and herbage production during critical periods. The review further evaluates the veld management practices and their ability in providing adequate foliar cover with the use of the edible perennial grass plant that ensures long-term sustainable production with maximum economic returns during critical grazing seasons.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Nkosikhona Madolo and Francis B. Lewu"},{id:"82330",title:"Advances in Bioenergy Production Using Fast Pyrolysis and Hydrothermal Processing",slug:"advances-in-bioenergy-production-using-fast-pyrolysis-and-hydrothermal-processing",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105185",abstract:"This chapter provides an overview of current efforts and advances as well as environmental and economic aspects of fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing, which are potential technologies for bioenergy production, mainly bio-oil and syngas. Biomass is presently the primary bioenergy resource in the world. The chapter presents a brief discussion of sources and compositions of biomass. Biomass is converted to various products using thermochemical conversions. Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process that converts biomass into carbon-rich solid residue, condensable vapors, and non-condensable gases in the absence of oxygen. It is a promising technology for converting biomass into renewable biofuels with environmental and economic advantages. Pyrolysis processes are classified based on their operating conditions and desired products. Two thermochemical processes, fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing are reviewed. Fast pyrolysis produces a higher quantity and quality of bio-oil and syngas than slow and intermediate pyrolysis processes. Hydrothermal processing converts wet biomass into carbonaceous biofuel. The ability to produce higher-value bioenergy by these pyrolysis technologies depends on the feedstock and operating condition of the pyrolysis processes. This chapter will present the most promising features of fast pyrolysis and hydrothermal processing along with their optimal pyrolysis conditions in maximizing the production of biofuels.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Meegalla R. Chandraratne and Asfaw Gezae Daful"},{id:"81162",title:"Economic Assessment of Biomass Based Power Generation",slug:"economic-assessment-of-biomass-based-power-generation",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103692",abstract:"Biomass based power generation systems can play a significant role to alleviate energy crisis and reduce fossil fuel dependency in the countries that possess abundance of agricultural and forest biomass resources. Particularly the countries to go for biomass energy in a large scale must know power and energy potential for biomass based commercial production with proper economic assessment of the possibilities. In-depth knowledge is must to assess the profitability and sustainability of the projects. Profitability measures how the investment in the project can be secured to have an ensured surplus to be shared by the stake holders and sustainability ensures the long-term existence in the business with a positive trend of gaining market share day by day or simply to be in the business. This chapter will present the details of the economic assessment of biomass- based energy projects in terms of net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), discounted payback period (DPB), and cost of energy. The economic profitability measure is a must before advancing to a venture whether it is self-financed or loan financed. So, it is hoped that readers of the chapter should develop a proper evaluation capability and know how to analyze the biomass-based energy projects.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"A.B.M. Abdul Malek"},{id:"80542",title:"Comparative Analysis of Biodiesel Production from Different Potential Feedstocks in the Philippines",slug:"comparative-analysis-of-biodiesel-production-from-different-potential-feedstocks-in-the-philippines",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102724",abstract:"In response to the worsening crisis on energy security and climate change, the Philippine Biofuels Law (Republic Act 9367) was enacted which mandates the blending of biodiesel to petroleum diesel sold in the country. Primarily, feedstock and pricing concerns led to stagnant growth of the Philippine biodiesel industry. Hence, viability of different potential biodiesel feedstocks such as coconut, oil palm, and soybean (first generation), jatropha and used cooking oil (second generation), and microalgae (third generation) was assessed through extensive research and developments. Among these sources, oil palm is regarded as the best complementary feedstock to coconut due to its high biodiesel productivity of 376 million liters per year. Oil palm biodiesel production in the Philippines was also found to have a low carbon footprint of 1.80 kg CO2e per liter and a GHG reduction potential of 42%, which corresponds to a GHG savings of about 1.05 million metric tons CO2e per year for a 5% blending mandate in 2025. Additionally, a low biodiesel selling price of about Php 33.26 per liter can be achieved from using this feedstock for biodiesel production. Hence, use of a low cost and readily available feedstock coupled with established processing technologies and pricing mechanisms will help boost the biodiesel industry in the Philippines.",book:{id:"11177",title:"Biomass, Biorefineries and Bioeconomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11177.jpg"},signatures:"Rona Joyce B. Landoy, Rex B. Demafelis, Bernadette T. Magadia and Anna Elaine D. Matanguihan"},{id:"80493",title:"Conventional and Unconventional Transformation of Cocoa Pod Husks into Value-Added Products",slug:"conventional-and-unconventional-transformation-of-cocoa-pod-husks-into-value-added-products",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102606",abstract:"The drive for a sustainable society and a circular economy has motivated researchers around the globe to turn to the transformation of renewable raw materials like biomass into value-added products that are akin or superior to their fossil counterparts. Among these biomass raw materials, cocoa pod husks (CPH) which is the non-edible portion of cocoa (ca. 70–75% weight of the while cocoa fruit) remains a promising bio-resource raw material for the production high-value added chemicals but yet largely underexploited. Currently, the most popular applications of CPH involves its use as low-value application products such as animal feed, raw material for soap making, and activated carbon. However, the rich source of lignocellulosic content, pectin, and phenolic compounds of CPH means it could be used as raw materials for the production industrially relevant platform chemicals with high potential in the agrochemicals, pharmaceutical, and food industries, if efficient transformations routes are developed by scientists. In this chapter, we will shed light on some of the works related to the transformation of CPH into various value-added products. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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