\r\n\tRisk management aims to develop an efficient organizational development environment through risk planning, assessment, analysis, and control. This process will apply in all areas of activity, and the evaluation framework is the same regardless of the field. This volume will aim to appeal to chapters that address methods, models, evaluation frameworks, benefits, barriers, and other dimensions of risk management. \r\n\tSustainability and the circular economy are approaches approached by many companies and have become activities of global interest. Protecting the environment, streamlining the consumption of organizational resources, reducing the amount of waste generated, and other activities are objectives of these efforts. The circular economy contributes to the sustainable development of the company or country and the achievement of the global objectives of sustainable development. This book will aim to collect various studies for organizational and global sustainability. \r\n\tLeadership has become a globally desirable approach that can help improve organizational competitiveness and reduce organizational risks. Risks and barriers in risk-free management can be well managed through effective organizational leadership. This book will aim to bring together chapters that explore different areas of leadership.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-218-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-991-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-219-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5d9c14d51cb7e214a9093c454eab1404",bookSignature:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu, Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean and Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11937.jpg",keywords:"Technical Risk, Occupational Risk, Operational Risk Management, Economic Risk, Financial Risk, Thematic Mapping, Global Sustainability, Sustainability Models, Life Cycle Assessment, Critical Raw Materials, Global Leadership, Risks",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ivascu obtained Ph.D. in Management and graduated with an MBA in Production and Transportation from the Faculty of Management, Politehnica University of Timisoara. She is the president of the scientific committee of the Academy of Political Leadership and vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management. Dr. Ivascu has been involved in national and international projects and has published nine books, and contributed scientifically to more than 200 scientific articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean obtained Ph.D. in Political Science and Ph.D. in Theology; he has extensive academic and political experience. He is the author of several books and numerous academic articles. He is highly preoccupied with supporting those in need, helping others to help themselves, and motivating people to live a life of purpose, love, and compassion. Dr. Ardelean is also a researcher dedicated to the management area and an honorary member of the Academy of the Romanian Scientists.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Business Management at the Business School of Hohai University, China. He is a member of the British Academy of Management, Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), and the American Economic Association. He is an ambassador of the MBA program at Chongqing University, China. His research focuses on corporate social responsibility, risk management, strategic management, and business management.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"288698",title:"Dr.",name:"Larisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ivascu",slug:"larisa-ivascu",fullName:"Larisa Ivascu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/288698/images/system/288698.png",biography:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu is a professor at the Politehnica University of Timisoara, Romania, with eighteen years of experience in programming, teaching, and research. She graduated with an MBA in Production and Transportation from the Faculty of Management, Politehnica University of Timisoara. She is a doctoral supervisor in the field of engineering and management. She is the head of the Entrepreneurship Office of Politehnica University of Timișoara, and director of the Research Center in Engineering and Management. She is the president of the scientific committee of the Academy of Political Leadership, and vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management. 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He completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Business Management at the Business School of Hohai University, China. He has published numerous papers in foreign authoritative journals and academic conferences at home and abroad. He is senior editor of Cogent Business & Management, associate editor of Frontiers in Psychology, Energies, and Future Business Journal, and guest editor of Frontiers in Environmental Sciences and INQUIRY. He is a member of the British Academy of Management, Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), and the American Economic Association, and an ambassador of the MBA program at Chongqing University, China. His research focuses on corporate social responsibility, risk management, strategic management, and business management.",institutionString:"Zhejiang Shuren University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Zhejiang Shuren University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453622",firstName:"Tea",lastName:"Jurcic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"tea@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Mathematical modeling and numerical simulations of fires are an essential decisive part of the solution of important problems related to fire safety, analysis of the development of fires in the investigation of their consequences. The methods that are used must have the necessary accuracy and reliability, as close as possible to the physical picture of the processes.
\n
The actual fire, as it is known, is an uncontrollable combustion process, complex enough and difficult for mathematical interpretation. This is due to its nonstationarity and three-dimensionality, which complicate the modeling of the heat and mass transfer processes observed in them. In the case of fires indoors of underground garages, buildings, and rooms, the development of the fire is accompanied by a change in the chronicle composition and parameters of the combustion products.
\n
This chapter gives two different approaches in dealing with their complexity and implementation of solving the problem. On the other hand, an integrated, relatively simplified technical solution of a new system for preventing the spread of fires in underground garages is given, which is described in details in the chapter.
\n
The second part deals with the basic mathematical apparatus used in CFD-Fluent and FDS software. The results of two fire simulations made by the authors through Fluent and FDS using the PyroSim GUI are presented [1, 2].
\n
\n
\n
2. Fire extinguishing system in large underground garages: integral methods for investigation
\n
In the present part, a simple method (from a technological point of view) is offered for solution of the complex problem. It is suggested to isolate the parked in the garage cars in pairs by which will be operating a thick curtain of water at arisen burning. The necessary insulation for solid noncombustible barriers are replaced at this way [3, 4, 5, 6].
\n
\n
2.1 Operating principal
\n
Referring to Figure 1, cars are placed to ensure the possibility between the pairs to have enough distance for the implementation of water curtains. In case of burning over the car is formed upward convective flow, because of differences of the density of the products of combustion and the environment. This stream is proportional to the lift force:
where dh\n is the hydraulic diameter of the outbreak of fire and u\n0 is the initial value of the velocity of the upward flow. The velocity is determined according to [6]:
The convective flow that is formed is shown in Figure 2. The conditional flow can be divided into the following areas: Convective flow is formed in zone I (Figure 3). The ambient air enters the fire zone from all directions, which heats and reverses the direction vertically. The second zone is a free convective flow that continues until it reaches the ceiling of the room where the flow changes character (zone III). In this zone, the jet is transformed into a radially semi-enclosed stream and spreads over the garage ceiling (zone IV).
\n
Figure 2.
Distribution of the fire.
\n
Figure 3.
Sketch of the convective flow.
\n
The system includes fire sprinklers—quick response and standard sprinklers. Convective flow is reaching the garage ceiling under the influence of its temperature and a quick response sprinkler is switched on and the burning car is flushed with a water spray. Thus begins the process of extinguishing a fire in the initial stages. Further, propagating as a radial semi-closed jet, it reaches the “standard” reaction sprinklers that are included on the water curtain [7, 8].
\n
This stage is defined as the isolation of burning cars from the surrounding area and no other pairs are affected.
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Mathematical model of convective non-isothermal jet
\n
For the purpose of solving the task is used an integral method according to [9, 10]. The used equations are as follows [11, 12, 13]:
A simple solution can be made as (5) of enthalpy is replaced by a linear dependence on the widening of the jet
\n
\n\nb\n=\ncx\n\nE7
\n
On the right-hand side of Eq. (4) is written the Archimedes buoyancy. The significance of included symbols is as follows: u is the jet velocity; y is the transverse coordinate; \n\nρ\n\n is the current density; \n\n\nρ\nок\n\n\n is the density of the environment; and \n\nΔ\nh\n\n is the enthalpy of the stream. The exponent j signifies: at j = 0 a flat stream and j = 1 an axis jet. The coordinate x is directed vertically upward.
\n
There is a correlation between density and temperature:
\n
\n\nρ\n=\n\np\nRT\n\n,\n\nE8
\n
where p is the pressure of the environment, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Similarity to transverse distribution of the velocity and the density (temperature) are initiated [1, 2], where solving Eqs. (4) and (6) leads to the parameters of the upward convective stream:
where \n\n\nD\n0\n\n\n is the initial diameter of the heat source of fire (the burning car); \n\nΔ\n\nT\n1\n\n=\n\nT\nfl\n\n−\n\nТ\nenv\n\n\n; \n\n\nx\n¯\n\n=\n\nx\n\nD\n0\n\n\n\n; the constants \n\n\nB\nu\n″\n\n\n and \n\n\nB\n\nΔ\nT\n\n″\n\n\n have values \n\n\nB\nu\n″\n\n=\n0.222\n\n\n\nm\n3\n\n\nK\n\n9\n4\n\n\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nB\n\nΔ\nT\n\n″\n\n=\n0.71\n\n\n\nm\n\n1\n/\n3\n\n\n\nK\n\n9\n/\n8\n\n\n\n\n\n.
\n
These values correspond to the case at \n\n\nx\n¯\n\n=\n\nx\n\nD\n0\n\n\n≥\n3\n÷\n3.5\n\n. When adopted fire size created from a burning car \n\n\nD\n0\n\n=\n0.5\n\nm\n\n and height \n\nH\n=\n3\n÷\n4.5\nm\n\n, \n\n\nx\n¯\n\n\n of the garage will be always greater than the above values.
\n
At the relatively short distance to the ceiling, the high power of fire (the accepted conditions are \n\nQ\n=\n1500\nW\n\n and \n\nT\n=\n600\nK\n\n), the velocity and the temperature of the rising convective stream do not change significantly.
\n
The initial velocity calculated by Eq. (3) is \n\n\nu\n0\n\n=\n8.2\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n and the time when the convective stream will reach the ceiling at different heights of the garage is given in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
h, m
\n
3
\n
3.5
\n
4
\n
4.5
\n
\n
\n
Δt\n
\n
0.36
\n
0.43
\n
0.49
\n
0.55
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
h—height of the garage, m; Δt—time of the fire to reach the ceiling, m.
\n
This means that less than 1 s sprinklers over the burning car will be activated and extinguishing stream will flow over the burning car.
\n
The expansion (increasing of thickness) of the jet in height can be determined by the expression:
The density of the jet in the opening section is defined by Eq. (8): at \n\nR\n=\n287\n\nJ\n/\nkgK\n\n, \n\n\nT\n0\n\n=\n600\n\nK\n\n, \n\np\n=\n\n10\n5\n\nPa\n\n in which for \n\n\nρ\n0\n\n\n is received \n\nρ\n=\n0.58\n\nkg\n/\n\nm\n3\n\n\n. The density of the environment is \n\n\nρ\nenv\n\n=\n11.2\n\nkg\n/\n\nm\n3\n\n\n at the same pressure and temperature \n\n\nT\nenv\n\n=\n293\n\nK\n\n. At this density, the widening of the jet in the present case is
\n
\n\nb\n=\n0.163\nx\n\nE13
\n
For a different height in the garage, the parameter b is given in Table 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
h (m)
\n
3
\n
3.5
\n
4
\n
4.5
\n
\n
\n
b1 (m)
\n
0.501
\n
0.507
\n
0.652
\n
0.73
\n
\n
\n
bsou (m)
\n
0.651
\n
0.77
\n
7.74
\n
1.98
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
h—height of the garage, m; b0—initial width of the radial jet, m; b1—width of the radial jet, m.
\n
The last row in Table 2 is given the extension of the isothermal jet\n\n\n\n\nT\n0\n\n≈\n\nT\nenv\n\n\n\n\n. Obviously a slight extension of non-isothermal convective flow comparing with the isothermal.
\n
Reaching the ceiling vertical, the convective stream is transformed into radial jet (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Sketch of radial jet.
\n
Due to the weak widening of the jet and the short distance to the ceiling, the mass flow is not increased significantly because the temperature, density, and relatively low mileage ceiling have not changed. The jet has retained its temperature and density, and the velocity according to [14] may be determined:
\n
\n\n\nu\nmax\n\n=\n0.88\n\nu\n0\n\n,\n\nE14
\n
where for \n\n\nu\n0\n\n=\n8.2\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n it is \n\n\nu\nmax\n\n=\n7.2\n\nm\n/\ns\n\n\n.\n
\n
It is assumed that the starting size of the radial jet is equal to that obtained in Table 2, b\n1, that is \n\n\nD\n0\n\n=\n\nb\n1\n\n\n.
\n
Width of the radial jet b\n0 is determined by the flow rate Q at the intersection of the reverse flow. The flow rate is amount of initial flow rates Q\n0 and increase its height due to suction of air from the environment. The flow rate of ejecting fluid is considered proportional to the square of the relative increase in the width of the jet \n\n\n\n\n\n\nb\n1\n\n−\n\nb\n0\n\n\n\nb\n0\n\n\n\n2\n\n\n and the distance x divided by the duration of the process \n\nΔ\nt\n\n.
The flow rate of the respective heights \n\nx\n=\n3\n;\n\n3.5\n;\n\n4\n;\n\n4.5\n\nm\n\n of the garage is shown in Figure 5 where it is defined by the relationship given in Eq. (12), respectively and in case of a leak by Eq. (13).
\n
Figure 5.
Change of the flow rate at different heights of the garage.
\n
According to Figure 4, it is assumed \n\n\nD\n0\n\n=\n\nb\n1\n\n\n that is already known and for flow rate in Eq. (16), the original width of the radial jet \n\n\nb\n0\n′\n\n\n is calculated:
Parking average velocity depending on r at the four heights is shown in Figure 7. Figure 8 shows the time to reach the appropriate distance:
\n
Figure 7.
Average velocity at different heights of garage.
\n
Figure 8.
Time to reach the sprinklers at different heights of garage.
\n
\n\nΔ\nt\n=\n\nr\n\nu\nm\n\n\n,\ns\n\nE25
\n
This means that in the first 2 s, all sprinklers at distance of 2 m away from the burning car will be triggered. For longer distances, the remote sprinklers will act at a condition if the temperature of the burning car does not decrease too quickly. For maximum calculated time of 7.7 s could not be expected too much decrease of the temperature, which leads to the conclusion that the ceiling temperature will be much greater than the starting temperature of “fast” sprinklers so that at \n\n\nt\np\n\n=\n57\n°\nC\n\n or T = 330°K will always remain less than the temperature of the wall jet which initial temperature is 600°K.
\n
With the removal from the water curtain, it is possible to turn on the other ceiling sprinklers that are in the range.
\n
In the vicinity of the burning car to sprinkler curtain, a distance of \n\nl\n≤\n2\n\nm\n\n will trigger three (to five) fast sprinklers. At a longer distance, it will trigger maximum of three quick sprinklers of water curtain plus the main ones over the burning car and eventually those are lying in the range of \n\nl\n=\n4\n\nm\n\n ceiling sprinklers so that the number of activated sprinklers will increase [10].
\n
To create a smokeless zone under a layer of smoke floating [14], air exhaust systems are designed and installed for smoke and hot gases. An exhaust ventilation system for smoke and hot gases is a scheme of safety equipment designed to perform a positive role in spin fire. The smoke is drawn in the direction of the noncarrier partition EI from a velocity of 2 m/s to 5 m/s. Standard allowed velocity of 5 m/s, but it should be taken into consideration that this velocity would affect negatively and lead to the merging of streams of pure air.
\n
From Abramovich [14], the density of the thermal load in the premises for the storage of combustible materials according to their purpose, is determined the heat capacity of the prevailing materials. The ventilation system to remove smoke and heat (VSRSH) has to reach its designed performance level within 60 s of receiving the command signal. Each VSRSH has to ensure receipt of sufficient fresh air that enters the room for the expense of the flue products.
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Thermal impact
\n
Heat transfer by convection and radiation is defined according to [3, 10]. Thermal effects are expressed by the intensity of the heat flow \n\n\nh\nnbt\n\n,\nW\n/\n\nm\n2\n\n\n to the surface of the element is determined taking into account the heat transfer by convection and radiation, such as:
where \n\n\nα\nc\n\n\n is the heat transfer coefficient by convection \n\n\n\n\nW\n\nm\n2\n\n\nK\n\n\n\n; \n\n\nθ\ng\n\n\n is the gas temperature near the exposed fire element [°C]; and \n\n\nθ\nm\n\n\n is the surface temperature of the element [°C].
\n
The coefficient of heat transfer by convection \n\n\nα\nc\n\n\n is determined by the nominal curves corresponding to “temperature–time.” On indirectly heated surface elements, the intensity of heat flow \n\n\nh\nnbt\n\n\n is determined by Eq. (16) where \n\n\nα\nc\n\n=\n4\n\n\n\nW\n\nm\n2\n\n\nK\n\n\n\n. The coefficient of heat transfer by convection has value \n\n\nα\nc\n\n=\n9\n\n\n\nW\n\nm\n2\n\n\nK\n\n\n\n, considering that the effects of heat transfer by radiation are included. Radiating components of net heat flux per unit surface area are defined as \n\n\nh\n\nnbt\n,\nr\n\n\n=\nΦ\n\nε\nm\n\n\nε\nf\n\nσ\n\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n1\n\nr\n+\n273\n\n\n2\n\n−\n\n\n\n\nθ\nm\n\n+\n273\n\n\n4\n\n\n\n,\nW\n/\n\nm\n2\n\n\n, where: Ф is the factor of configuration, \n\n\nε\nm\n\n\n is the emitting surface element, \n\n\nε\nf\n\n\n the transmission of fire, \n\nσ\n=\n5.67\n×\n\n10\n8\n\n\n\n\nWK\n4\n\n\nm\n2\n\n\n\n\n is the constant of Stefan-Boltzmann, \n\n\nθ\nr\n\n\n is the effective temperature of the radiation environment [°C], and \n\n\nθ\nm\n\n\n is the surface temperature of the element [°C]. Transmission of fire is equal to \n\n\nε\nf\n\n=\n1\n\n.
\n
\n
\n
2.4 Determination of the intensity of water curtain
\n
Because of the difficulties associated with the construction of fire walls, experiments are conducted so that these areas to be reduced to such proportions that the primarily split up do not disturb of the process. In many cases, such as in buildings of first degree of fire resistance, as already noted, firewalls did not provide the detriment of fire safety. In connection with this arises a need of using such fire barriers that could effectively limit the spread of fire and at the same time would give some freedom for internal layout of buildings with different functions, which is the case of the water curtain [15].
\n
When calculating water curtains, the assumption must simultaneously satisfy the following conditions:
\n
Structural parts of the building to withstand the effects of fire on one side and the passage of flames or hot gases to be prevented by the transfer of heat to the unexposed side. The ability of the structural parts of the building to withstand the effects of fire on one side and prevent the transfer of heat from the exposed to the unexposed side. The transfer is limited so that it does not ignite either the unexposed surface, or any other material in the immediate vicinity. The structural element is designed to serve as a barrier against the heat and to ensure the protection of people who are close to it.
\n
The effectiveness of water curtains is assessed according to the amount of absorbed heat.
\n
It is known that the dependence of the growth temperature of the source of radiation of maximum energy moves to the side of the shorter waves. This follows from the law of Vin:
where \n\nλ\n\n is the wavelength in m, T is the temperature at the surface of water curtain, °K.
\n
Good enough inter-phase and heat-absorbing surfaces have water drops of size 200 × 10−6. It is considered that in the best case, sprinklers spray water of size less then 1000 μm.
\n
\n
\n
2.5 Required flow rate for air curtain
\n
The current has the following characteristics: density of the radiation heat flux is 1500 W/m2; density of the irradiation protected material is 900 W/m2; height of the hole–4 m; length of the hole–6 m; pressure of water in sprinkler–0.6 MPa (6 atm) and the radius of the water drops–0.0006 m (600 μm).
Water curtains are constructed so that the entire hole is irrigated with finely dispersed water. For this purpose, sprinklers are placed over the hole and next to it. When they are placed at the top of the hole, it is possible for unprotected areas to remain through which it is possible for a penetration of hot gases to occur.
\n
Sprinkler heads that are used to spray jets are spaced 0.5 m in protecting small holes and 1.25–1.5 m in protecting large holes. For sprinkler heads which are situated at a distance greater than 3 m, it is required head pressure of the water 4–6 mH2O.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Numerical simulations: mathematical model of flow in a confined space
\n
The mathematical model is based on the equations used in the computational mechanics of fluids. These are the continuity equations, the Navier-Stokes equations in modification according to the Businex hypothesis (μeff = μ + μt), the energy equation (1st law of Thermodynamics), the Clapeyron equation for the gas mixture. Fire currents run at low speeds in the absence of detonation and explosions.
\n
In the case of a fire without detonation, combustion, and explosions, it can be assumed: \n\ndiv\n\nV\n→\n\n=\n0\n\n, \n\n\n\n∂\nu\n\n\n∂\nx\n\n\n+\n\n\n∂\nv\n\n\n∂\ny\n\n\n+\n\n\n∂\nw\n\n\n∂\nz\n\n\n≡\n0\n\n.
\n
To these are added the equations for smoke propagation (smoke content) and for the optical density of the gas mixture.
where \n\n\nc\np\n\n\n is the specific heat content at constant pressure; \n\nλ\n\n is the coefficient of thermal conductivity; \n\n\nλ\ni\n\n\n is the coefficient of turbulent thermal conductivity; \n\n\nλ\np\n\n\n is the coefficient of radiation thermal conductivity; and \n\n\nq\nv\n\n\n is the intensity of internal heat sources.
\n
Here, \n\n\nq\nv\n\n\n, can be represented by \n\n\nq\nv\n\n=\n\nq\nvc\n\n+\n\nq\nvr\n\n+\n\nq\nvb\n\n\n, where \n\n\nq\nvk\n\n\n is the intensity of internal convective heat sources; \n\n\nq\nvb\n\n\n is the intensity of internal combustion sources; and \n\n\nq\nvr\n\n\n is the intensity of internal sources due to radiation heat transfer.
\n
Gas condition equation is given by:
\n
\n\np\n=\nρ\nTR\n,\n\nE40
\n
where R is the universal gas constant.
\n
Law for the conservation of the mass of the ith gas that is a part of the mixture is
where D is the diffusion coefficient, representing the sum of the coefficient of gas diffusion \n\n\nD\ni\n\n\n and the coefficient of turbulent diffusion \n\n\nD\nt\n\n\n\nD\n=\n\nD\ni\n\n+\n\nD\nt\n\n\n\n\n; \n\nχ\n\n is the mass concentration of the ith gas; \n\n\nm\ni\n\n\n is the intensity of internal mass sources arising from the formation (disappearance) of molecules of a gas, a consequence of the ongoing chemical reactions of combustion in fires.
\n
The law (equation) for preserving the optical density of smoke is of the form:
where \n\n\nD\non\n\n\n is the smoke-generating capacity of the combustible material and \n\n\nq\nD\n\n\n is the intensity of the internal sources of optical density of the smoke formed by the ongoing reaction of combustion in a fire [3].
\n
The thermophysical parameters of the mixture of gases involved and the result of combustion in a fire take into account the chemical composition of this mixture. It consists of oxygen, nitrogen, and combustion products - carbon monoxide, nitrogen, sulfur, etc., involved in the process combustible ingredients. They are defined as follows:
where \n\n\nα\ni\n\n\n is the bulk concentration of the ith component and \n\n\nH\ni\n\n\n is its mass concentration.
\n
The values of these parameters are determined at constant pressure (\n\np\n=\nconst\n\n). They can be considered as temperature dependent or considered permanent.
\n
\n
3.1 A characteristic equation
\n
The characteristic equation summarizes the main partial differential equations, which are solved sequentially in software for each of the flow parameters. The type of equation is as follows:
where \n\nΦ\n\n is the dependent variable—velocity components, enthalpy, concentration of the components of the gas medium, optical density of the smoke, respectively; \n\nГ\n\n is the diffusion coefficient for the corresponding \n\nΦ\n\n; and S is the source member. The values for Eq. (46) are given in [9].
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Modeling the turbulence using CFD
\n
Most often, a CFD-Fluent turbulence \n\nk\n−\nε\n\n model is applied. In this model, the coefficient of turbulent viscosity \n\n\nυ\nt\n\n\n is represented by the Kolmogorov-Prandtl dependence, as the ratio of kinematic turbulent energy k and the rate of dissipation \n\nε\n\n:
To close the system of equations at FDS, as in all other cases in turbulent flows, it is necessary to use appropriate models of turbulence. In this case, the large eddy simulation model [9] known in this type of task as the LES model is recommended as the most appropriate. The model is described in detail in [9].
\n
The model of large eddy simulation is based on the following: large-scale vortices differ markedly in the course of transition from one current to another, with the small-scale structure changing slightly. The field of large-scale structures needs to be defined. Continuity of flow parameters is assumed using Leonard’s so-called filtering function. For each flow parameter, a = a + a′. Dissipative combustion processes such as viscous thermal conductivity, diffusion, and impurity transfer are modeled. What is special about the model is that the scale of the vortex structures is smaller than the size of the data network. The parameters μ, λ, and D in the equations describing the process are replaced by expressions modeling their effect.
\n
The strain rate tensor is used to determine μ. Thermal conductivity and impurity diffusion are determined by:
The process of combustion in the fire is most often implemented using the “Part of the mixture” approach. It is a scalar quantity characterizing the mass concentration of one or more components of a gas mixture at a given point in the flow. To reduce the volume of calculations, the significant memorized are two components of the mixture: mass concentration of unburned fuel and burned, respectively. Combustion products. Radiant heat transfer is calculated by the equations for the emission of sulfur-containing gases, which, in fact, implies a constraint on the problem. Large-scale models may also be used in certain cases. FDS equations use the FVM finite volume method. In addition to using the LES turbulence model, successful attempts have been made to apply the direct numerical modeling method described in [9]. FDS has been tested in a number of laboratories and institutions in the United States. The validation done shows the possibility of its application in many cases [16].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Computer modeling and numerical simulations
\n
A detailed description of the Fluent (CFD) program interface is given in [17, 18, 19].
\n
Development of fire in atrium space: The development of fire occurred in a certain object—the building shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10, located on Tsarigradsko shose Blvd., Sofia.
\n
Figure 9.
Building with atrium subject to simulation study [20].
\n
Figure 10.
Building fire development.
\n
The arrangement of the air exchange in the atrium space in case of fire is shown in Figure 10. Atrium air exchange was implemented, showing zones with critical parameters of radiation, smoke, and fire. It is important to note that all of the above is possible only by knowing the respective velocity or temperature field of the air in the room [5].
\n
The geometric model so drawn shows the location of the fire, that is, hazard generator and flue gas outlet (smoke hatches).
\n
In real fires, there is a degree transition zone between lower cold smoke and higher hot smoke.
\n
The first smoke curtain signal may be calculated from the beginning of the transition zone formation. Thus, it can be assumed that forecasts using equations of this type depend on the exact application of the computer model.
\n
After the 3D Atrium Model has been built (in the Gambit work environment), it is necessary to proceed with the “networking” procedure of the volume. Due to the large volume, it is not appropriate to use crosslinking of the elements in the same step.
\n
For this reason, a fine mesh is selected at the site of fire generation and its departure from the room, while a larger one is used far from them.
\n
In the present case, triangular elements were selected for the site of fire generation and the smoke hatches for the networking of persons with step 0.3 m. For the other walls as well as the volume of the atrium, a step of 0.5 m is chosen.
\n
\nFigure 11 shows the velocity field in the atrium in vector form. It can be seen from the figure that high velocities are observed at the site of smoke generation, both near the walls and the high part of the atrium.
\n
Figure 11.
The velocity field in atrium in vector form.
\n
The temperature distribution in the volume of the atrium is shown in Figure 12. Areas with higher temperatures are clearly visible—near the source of smoke and the surrounding wall above it, and near the dome of the atrium.
\n
Figure 12.
The distribution of temperature in the volume of the atrium.
\n
\nFigure 13 shows the distribution of smoke in the atrium at various points in time for 120 s until equilibrium between the ascending and descending currents in the atrium is reached.
\n
Figure 13.
The distribution of smoke in the atrium at different times. (a) 1320 s, and (b) 1440 s.
\n
\nFigure 14 shows the change in turbulent kinetic energy in the atrium. What is striking is the fact that there is an intense transfer of substances from the outbreak of the fire along the wall of the atrium to the dome, and then it slowly subsides. When smoke reaches the floor of the room, the turbulent kinetic energy is approximately zero.
\n
Figure 14.
Change in turbulent kinetic energy in the atrium.
\n
Modern computer programs for numerical modeling of processes related to the simulation of air exchange in atriums can alleviate some regulatory requirements for protected premises (atriums), which can lead to significant savings for investors. If necessary, openings may be left open in the premises. With the use of fire ventilation, they will not have a negative effect on the parameters of the fire. In large areas, flue products may only be contained above the fire. The ability to make new, more practical, and economical architectural decisions is increasing.
\n
Application of the FDS environment for predicting and restoring the spread of fires and damage in the building [21, 22].
\n
An analysis is made in the FDS environment to look at the basic features on which it is based. In analyzing the program, it should be emphasized that it is related to the numerical mechanics of the fluids and software products built on this basis. The same system of private differential equations is used, with the difference between the CFD and the FDS medium in the equations used to describe the turbulence. Fluent programs utilize turbulence models, which narrows their applicability in the study of fires in unlimited space. Large Eddy Simulation (LES) is used for FDS. This expands the applicability in the study of currents and fires in open space, as well as the effect of wind, etc. Weather conditions when solving problems. The program is also used to analyze the spread of hazards in the work environment, both industrial and residential sites, as well as in the environment. This program allows to restore the development of fire in past events [5, 9, 16].
\n
\n
4.1 Closed-loop fire development modeling using the PyroSim (FDS) program
\n
This simulation product is applicable to the modeling of fire development and the determination of the evacuation and extinguishing route indoors. The software environment offers intuitive function menus (graphical user interface) and provides results for the propagation of flue gases, hydrocarbons, and other substances during a fire, as well as the temperature distribution along the cross section of the model’s geometry. The program serves not only the prediction of the situation, but also the investigation of fire in the setting of the initial ignition zone, as well as training. The simulations in the program are based on the computational dynamics of fluids, and in particular, low-velocity convective currents. The capabilities of the software make it possible to investigate fires from cooking stoves to oil derivative stores (oil bases). The program is also applicable to simulation of flame-free processes, including building ventilation testing.
\n
A detailed description of how to work with the PyroSim interface is given in [17].
\n
Development of fire in a training building: The development of a fire in study building 2 of TU-Sofia is investigated. The fire is assumed to start from the ground floor—one of the laboratories (Figure 15).
\n
Figure 15.
Building 2 of TU-Sofia.
\n
Specific examples of the application of the PyroSim software product are shown in Figures 16–21 in a simulated fire in a training laboratory on the first floor of a technical building of the Technical University—Sofia. For the construction of the geometric model in Figure 16, the real barrier elements such as walls, doors, and windows, as well as the materials of which they are constructed with their respective melting/ignition temperatures, are taken into account.
\n
Figure 16.
Working environment for drawing the geometric model.
\n
Figure 17.
Flue gas propagation in the building within 50 s of the simulation.
\n
Figure 18.
Flue gas propagation in the building within 60 s of the simulation.
\n
Figure 19.
Flue gas propagation in the building at 440 s of the simulation.
\n
Figure 20.
Speed distribution for 3800 s of simulation.
\n
Figure 21.
Temperature distribution for the 480th second of the simulation.
\n
Instantaneous flue gas images of the building are shown in Figure 17 (for 50s), Figure 18 (for 60s), and Figure 19 (for 440 s). It is clear that the smoke is spreading as fast as possible on one of the stairs, which is a kind of chimney (chimney) for this part of the building. For the same period of time, smoke spreads down the corridor on the first floor. Since there are no smoke barriers (doors) installed between the same staircase and the corridors on the floors, it will spread to all floors and will make it difficult to evacuate people in the building. Partition doors are placed on the next staircase (to the right of the model shown in Figures 18 and 19), which are intended to prevent the smoke from burning the floors in the direction from the staircase to the corridors, but in this case the flue gases will meet on both sides. The same barriers and reduced visibility in this enclosure will cause additional evacuation difficulties, because people will not easily notice where the barrier on the second staircase is and are likely to collide with it glass shutter door, which is closed by a mechanical machine (mechanism), which is a prerequisite for an accident during the evacuation and may lead to an increase in the number of casualties in the building.
\n
\nFigure 20 shows the velocity distribution along the vertical section of a building for 3800 s of the simulation. It is clear that the first and last floors of the building and the staircase adjacent to the burning room are affected at the beginning of the process, and then the other floors.
\n
\nFigure 21 shows the temperature distribution along the vertical section of a building for the 480th second of the simulation. From here, it is reported that in the fire zone in the laboratory the temperature is above 200°C, and at the site in the hallway in front of it, where the nearby staircase is, the temperature is above 120°C. As the building climbs, the temperature drops to about 60°C until the third floor, indicating that there should be no escape route in this area without protective clothing. By linking the data from the previous figures, the instructions for the mandatory availability of respiratory protection may also be added, as this is also the main route for the distribution of flue gases.
\n
The results of the simulation of a fire occurring in a particular building give preliminary information about the flaws in its design with respect to fire safety. If taken into account, placing barriers in the right places, as well as revising the evacuation route from the building would lead to increased security in the event of a disaster or accident and to removal all people without damage to their health.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion
\n
The results obtained in this chapter are first and foremost a practical application that allows solving problems related to fire prevention and analysis in a restricted area.
\n
The technical solution to limit the spread of fires is to use protective water curtains, as they isolate burning vehicles from the environment and thus prevent the transfer of fire to other vehicles in the underground garage. The solution can be applied to any particular similar object.
\n
The results of the two simulations of fire in specific buildings indicate the possibility of Fluent and FDS-PyroSim software in analyzing fire spread, smoke, temperature, and harmfulness in confined spaces. As shown, these simulations can be used:
in the case of designing buildings with fixed sprinklers and evacuation routes.
in judicial analysis of the consequences of the fire by initiation of its development over time.
\n\n
\n\n',keywords:"fire simulation, FDS, garages, buildings, numerical simulation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72285.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72285.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72285",totalDownloads:571,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:71,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 30th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 20th 2020",datePrePublished:"May 22nd 2020",datePublished:"November 4th 2020",dateFinished:"May 22nd 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The mathematical models of fire distribution in a confined space–in underground garages and in buildings—are described. Integral and computational fluid mechanics methods are used. The chapter presents the results of a fire simulation using the software Fluent. It uses Reynolds-type turbulence models of the Fire Dynamic Simulation or PyroSim graphical interface with a solution model describing a turbulence. For both cases, the pictures of the spread of fire and smoke over time in an atrium of an administrative building and a five-story building of the TUS were presented.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72285",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72285",book:{id:"10032",slug:"fire-safety-and-management-awareness"},signatures:"Ivan Antonov, Rositsa Velichkova, Svetlin Antonov and Kamen Grozdanov",authors:[{id:"312707",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rositsa",middleName:null,surname:"Velichkova",fullName:"Rositsa Velichkova",slug:"rositsa-velichkova",email:"rositsavelichkova@abv.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"316939",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Antonov",fullName:"Ivan Antonov",slug:"ivan-antonov",email:"mfantonov@abv.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"316940",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlin",middleName:null,surname:"Antonov",fullName:"Svetlin Antonov",slug:"svetlin-antonov",email:"mfantonov.com@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"316941",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamen",middleName:null,surname:"Grozdanov",fullName:"Kamen Grozdanov",slug:"kamen-grozdanov",email:"kamen_65@abv.bg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fire extinguishing system in large underground garages: integral methods for investigation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Operating principal",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Mathematical model of convective non-isothermal jet",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Thermal impact",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Determination of the intensity of water curtain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Required flow rate for air curtain",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Numerical simulations: mathematical model of flow in a confined space",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 A characteristic equation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Modeling the turbulence using CFD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 FDS turbulence modeling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Computer modeling and numerical simulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1 Closed-loop fire development modeling using the PyroSim (FDS) program",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nPuzach SV, Chumachenko AP, Kozlov YI, Bubnov VM, Rodin BC. Method of calculation with a computer program for determining the actual limits of fire resistance and modeling of actions of fire extinguishing systems. In: Mechanical Ventilation and Smoke Removal During Fires. Moscow: VDPO; 2004\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nPyroSim Example Guide. 2012. Available from: https://www.thunderheadeng.com/pyrosim/tutorials/\n\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nAntonov I, Velichkova R, Grozdanov K, Uzunova M. The possibility of replacing solid walls with water curtain applicable to a large underground garage. In: EFEA’2016, Belgrade, Serbia. 2016. DOI: 10.1109/EFEA.2016.7748805. Available from: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/774880/; electronic ISBN: 978-1-5090-0749-3\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nAntonov IS. About a modification of k-ε model applicable to heat and mass transfer processes in two-phase turbulent flows. In: EMF\'98 Science Conference Energy Efficiency and Environmental Protection. September 17–20, 1998, Sozopol, Proceedings. 1998. pp. 7-14\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nCFD modeling of a large complex fire. Report 3120. Lund; 2000\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nDrysdale D. An Introduction to Fire Dynamics. UK: Wiley; 2011\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nStoyanov V, Terziev A, Uzunova M. Numerical study of distribution of smoke and hazards in underground parking areas considering the operation of ventilation. In: 2014 3rd International Symposium on Environmental Friendly Energies and Applications (EFEA); St. Ouen. 2014. pp. 1-6\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nTerziev A. Study of the fire dynamics in a burning car and analysis of the possibilities for transfer of fire to a nearby vehicle. In: 8th International Conference on Thermal Equipment, Renewable Energy and Rural Development. E3S Web of Conferences TE-RE-RD 2019; Targoviste; Romania; 6 June 2019 through 8 June 2019; Vol. 112. 2019. Article number 01015; Code 151155\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nAntonov I. Applied Fluid Mechanics. Sofia: Technical University of Sofia; 2016\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nMarshall AM, di Marzo M. Modeling aspects of sprinkler spray dynamics in fires. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2004;82(2):97-104\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nLaunder BE, Spalding DB. Lectures on Mathematical Models of Turbulence. London: Academic Press; 1972\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nLeonard A. Energy cascade in large-eddy simulation of turbulent fluid flows. Advances in Geophysics. 1975;18(Part A):237-248\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nRodi W, Spalding DB. A two-parameter model of turbulence and its application to free jets. Warms and Stoffuberrtrag. 1970;3:585-595\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nAbramovich GN. Theory of Turbulent Jets. Moscow; 2011. ISBN: 978-5-4365-0031-\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nVelichkova R, Antonov I, Nikolov K, Grozdanov K, Uzunova M. Modeling of the occurrence of fire in closed cars garages. In: EFEA’ 2016. DOI: 10.1109/EFEA.2016.7748807. Available from: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7748807/. Electronic ISBN: 978-1-5090-0749-3\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nPichurov G, Stankov P, Ivanov M. Radial jet predictions based on computational fluid dynamics. In: Healthy Buildings 2006: Creating a Healthy Indoor Environment for People, Proceedings, Vol. 5. 2006. pp. 125-128. ISBN: 978-1-62276-998-8\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nAntonov SV, Antonov IV, Grozdanov K. Modelling and Simulation of Fire. Sofia: Technical University of Sofia; 2018\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nAntonov I, Terziev A. Tutorial on Applied Fluid Mechanics. Sofia: Technical University of Sofia; 2012\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nFluent Inc. Chapter 10. Modeling turbulence. UK: Fluent; 2001\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nGrozdanov K. TS. Modeling of fire in auto accident with the purpose of event identification [PhD thesis]. Sofia; 2017\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nFDS-SMV Official Website. Ford Dynamics Simulator and Smokeview. Available from: https://pages.nist.gov/fds-smv/\n\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nPuzach SV. Mathematical Modeling of Gas Dynamics and Heat and Mass Transfer in Solving Fire Safety Problems. Moscow: Russian Academy of Medical Science; 2003\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ivan Antonov",address:null,affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Nowadays, scientists are focusing on efficient control of the occurrence of xenogenous constituents in foodstuffs which might be risk for the public health. Spices native to India were grown as early as the 8th century BC in the gardens of Babylon. Spices are considered one of the valuable crops in the world due their important characteristic such as flavoring, colouring and aromatizing as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant effect [1]. Spices are extensively used as a staple crop and cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
Spices are considered as the non-leafy fragments of plant such as seed, bud, bark, fruit, rhizome or bulp. However, the leaf and flower are designated as different group known as herbs. However, all parts of a plant should be considered to be spices if they possess the aforementioned properties for meal enhancement such as its color, flavor or even texture [2]. Unfortunately, many spices are very susceptible to toxigenic fungal strains and are likely to produce aflatoxins (AFs) contamination [3, 4, 5]. Fungal growth is also exaggerated by the landform, soil natures and properties along with interactions between the micro-fungus and micro- or macro-organisms in soil. In addition, harvesting, drying, handling, packing, carrying, due to probable physical rupturing, insect damage, growth and metabolic action of fungal are also responsible to propagate the fungal proliferation. Moreover, spices purchased in loose or open packing are proved to be considerably more contaminated than spices purchased in sealed or close packing [6].
AFs are naturally occurring metabolites mostly created by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. A. bombysis, A. ochraceoroseus, A. nomius, and A. pseudotamari are rarely AFs-producing species. From the mycological viewpoint, each strain shows different qualitative and quantitative abilities to produce AFs. For instance, only about half of A. flavus strains produced AFs-producing species more than 106 μg/kg [7]. Aflatoxins B and G are produced by the A. parasiticus and more improved to a soil environment with limited spreading. Presently, 18 different types of AFs have been recognized, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2) is considered more toxic but AFB1 is the most recurrently arising amongst all of them [8]. The order of chronic and acute poisonousness is AFB1 > AFG1 > AFB2 > AFG2. AFs are among the most studied mycotoxins globally. AFs are linked with several diseases such as aflatoxicosis in humans, birds, fishes and livestock domestic animals [9]. AFs are the most harmful and tremendously mutagenic mycotoxins [10]. Moreover, AFs have been designated as the first class carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [11]. AFB1 is deliberated as most toxic due to its extreme hepatotoxigenic and hepatocarcinogenic ability. The liver is recognized as the prime target organ [12]. Furthermore, the cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase action in the heart, kidney, liver and brain tissues could be inhibited by AFB1. This results in the malfunctioning of these body parts.
Due to above declared facts; many countries have enforced strict guidelines concerning AFs occurrence in food and their products [4]. In addition, spices are frequently vulnerable to AFs contamination, as reported in assessments from various states [13, 14, 15]. Spices are mainly produced in tropical climatic regions with higher range of humidity, temperature and rainfall [16]. Moreover, inadequate storage, prolonged drying periods and higher moisture contents may cause improvement of AFs in spices. The lacking of infrastructure against fungal attack on food commodities in developing countries (e.g. India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan) causes AFs problems. Limited execution of Good Hygienic Practice (GHP), Good Agricultural Practice (GAP), Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), Good Storage Practice (GSP), improper storing and inadequate shipping could also liable to Aspergillus growth and proliferation the hazard of AFs contamination. The condition regarding AFs contamination in spices is well accepted [3]. Still there is a need to collect information regarding AFs in different states around the world. Consequently, this chapter provides the comprehensive facts regarding occurrence of AFs in spices.
2. Worldwide spices cultivation
During the last 5 years (2015–2019), the average production of spices was c. 602126902 tonnes and 127787137 tonnes in 2019. These spices includes anise, badian, fennel, coriander, chilies and peppers, cinnamon, cloves, garlic, ginger, nutmeg, mace, cardamoms, mustard seed, pepper (piper spp.), peppermint and vanilla”. Asia is considered the largest producer of spices in the world with the production share of 76.2% (197818212 tonnes in 2019). Whereas, India provides most to this segment (9508837 tonnes in 2019), followed by China (5307696 tonnes in 2019) [17]. Currently, the global spices and seasonings market is undergoing a healthy growth. Looking forward, the market is predicted to reveal a CAGR of around 4.7% during 2020–2025 [18].
3. Suitable climatic conditions for AFs production
The climate is considerably influence on the accessibility and quality of the spices. The change in climate simultaneously impacts the complex of AF-producers to change its fungal community’s structure. The temperature and water activity (aw) in the atmosphere alters by the climate which further impacts the gene appearance to produce AFs [19]. The AF-producing genes are clustered on the genome and express the main regulatory genes as transcription activator aflatoxin (aflR), pathway regulator aflatoxin (aflS) as well as structural genes such as reductase aflatoxin (aflD) which are subjective by the contact of temperature and aw conditions [20]. As revealed by the [21], the expression fraction of aflR/aflS significantly connects with the amount of AFB1 produced. Most examinations in regions with warm climates have emphasized the occurrence of fungal species of the genus Aspergillus in spices. Generally, the greater contamination is found in warm, humid and even hot deserts and drought environments [22]. However, ideal situations for the AFs formation is considered as moisture content between 18 to 20%, water activity >0.82, pH 3.0 to 8.5 and ambient temperature between 12 to 40 °C (54 to 104 °F) with an optimal at 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F). Nutrition aspects such as carbohydrate, nitrogen sources, zinc, phosphates and other trace metals also influence the development of AFs [23].
4. Regulations of aflatoxins in spices
Though large number of mycotoxins occur in nature however only few toxins (e.g. Aflatoxins) creates food safety and security problems. Therefore, it is necessary, to prevent dangerous outbreaks of these toxins in humans and animals, also to control them within tolerance limits assigned by international agencies. The international regulatory agencies & authorities establish maximum tolerated limit (MTL) for AFs in spices because of severe toxicity of these toxins. The MTL relating to AFs differ from country to country, as developed nations have set lower tolerance limits as compare to developing countries where these susceptible commodities are produced [24]. In addition, the MTL differ from one country to another because of different agricultural practices and climatic conditions. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has stated that nearly 100 countries have been established MTL for mycotoxins or minimum only for AFs. While 13 countries are uncertain to provide specific regulations and almost 50 countries have no regulations or no data exist [25].
As it is evident from these data, at present, a fair number of the Codex member states have fixed the maximum limits on AFs in spices. These limits range from 1 μg/kg (Honduras) to 30 μg/kg (India) [4]. The first tolerance level of 30 μg/kg for total AFs in all foods was legislated in 1965 by the USFDA. Later, it was reduced to 20 μg/kg due to the potent toxicity of AFs [26]. The European Union’ Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) established the MTL in spices i.e. 5 μg/kg for AFB1 and 10 μg/kg for total AFs [27]. In 2017, the National Standard of China has been updated by the National Food Safety Standard for Maximum Levels of Mycotoxins in Foods (GB 2761–2017) and in January 2020, the public consultation on its revision was launched. While under the National Standard, the maximum level is set at 5 μg/kg for AFB1 in spices [4]. In India, the MTL prescribed for AFs in spices by the Food Safety and Standards Authority is 30 μg/kg. Also, MTL have also been established for AFs in different spices in many countries as listed in Table 1.
Country
Commodities
Maximum acceptable limits (μg/kg)
AFB1
AFBl+AFB2 + AFG1 + AFG2
United States (FDA & FAO)
All foods
—
20
EU
Spices
5
10
Bulgaria
Spices
2
5
Croatia
Spices
30
15
Brazil
Spices
—
20
China
Spices
5
—
Czech Republic
Spices
20
—
Finland
All Spices
—
20
Indonesia
Spices powder
15
5
Brazil
Spices
20
30
India
All foods
30
—
Turkey
Spices
10
—
Iceland
All Spices
30
—
Iran
Spices
5
10
Republic of South Africa
All foods
5
10
Australia
All foods
—
5
Uruguay
All Spices
5
20
Hong Kong
All foods
—
15
Malaysia
All foods
—
35
Japan
All foods
10
—
Singapore
All foods
—
0
New Zealand
All foods
—
5
Sri Lanka
All foods
—
30
Pakistan
Selected Spices
—
30
Table 1.
MTL as established by various countries for AFB1 and AFs (Bl, B2, G1 and G2) in spices and foods.
5. Aflatoxins detection techniques in spices
To develop effective and valid analytical methods extensive researches have been carried out for qualitative and quantitative detection or determination of AFs in spices. Generally, the determination of AFs is performed in two steps, (i) extraction or clean-up of samples and (ii) detection or quantification of AFs. The purpose for the use of different extraction and clean-up methods is to separate AFs from other matrix components and to minimize the impact of heterogeneous distribution of AFs [28]. As a result, reduce the background signal during the instrumental analysis. Conventional extraction approaches are unable to precisely & accurately analyse AFs in spices. It is because of the presence of natural colour/pigment producing background interference in HPLC Analysis results masking of toxin [29]. In addition, the complexity of natural constituents in spices matrix frequently makes it challenging to efficiently extract the AFs. Various extraction solvents are currently is in use such as Methanol: Water (80:20), Acetonitrile: Water (60:40), Acetone: Water (75:25) and Methanol: Water (60:40). The reported maximum recovery was achieved by Methanol: Water (80:20) [30, 31]. However, various clean-up methods have been proposed as mentioned below:
Liquid–Liquid Extraction (LLE)
Solid Phase Extraction (SPE)
Immunoaffinity Column Clean-up (IAC)
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Energy-Assisted Extraction (EAE)
To clean up AFs in foodstuffs, SPE using a silica gel column, a florisil column, or multifunctional columns has been used. Recently, immunoaffinity (IA) chromatography utilizing immunological interaction which has a high clean-up effect has been employed as well [32]. In addition, the Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS) method is a simple and straightforward technique has also been utilized for AFs extraction [33, 34]. Furthermore, the detection methods are based on the emission and absorption characteristics such as thin layer chromatography (TLC), 2D-TLC (Two Dimensional), Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Fluorometric determination, High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Gas chromatography (GC) and Liquid chromatography linked with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS–MS). Still, there are certain advantages and disadvantages linked with these developed techniques e.g. reduced sensitivity, unsatisfied accuracy, scope restriction, cost, laborious and sometimes extended analysis time [35, 36].
Thin layer chromatographic technique is considered as preliminary analytical testing method for mycotoxins. From time to time, TLC is performed for the confirmation of other methods or techniques outcomes & effectively being practiced in developing countries because of low cost. The difficulties of TLC method of analyses are low sensitivity, sometimes poor separation and unsatisfactory accuracy. Special skills are also required to observe the separated spots of compounds (toxin) on TLC cards in presence of ultraviolet or fluorescent lamps. The analyte is difficult to separate from sample matrix in this technique. Also, the poor reproducibility or repeatability in TLC because of factors e.g. sample extraction in solvents, application of extracted sample as spots on TLC card or plate and observer visualization [37]. The fluorometric system is relatively sensitive and accurate as compare to conventional spectrophotometric systems. More consideration and sensitive equipment technique is also prerequisite regarding environmental factors [38].
ELISA technique is widely applied since few years, because of its simplicity, sensitivity and fast quantification of AFs. More benefits of ELISA include simplicity of sample preparation and probably low analysis cost. However, ELISA is established on the immunological mechanism & it needed very specific monoclonal & polyclonal sera for sensitive and specific quantification of antigen. Also, it consume long incubation time, mixing & washing steps and it is unable to analyse AFs individually [39].
On the contrary to ELISA & TLC, the HPLC method has taken more attention because of its accuracy, sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility, also, the HPLC instrumental analysis is capable to measure single toxin exclusively. In other food matrices, HPLC has increased attraction where determination of AFB1 is necessary requirement solely. HPLC determination is remarkably sensitive as compare to the TLC system and it can measure AFB1 toxin even if less than 0.1 μg/kg [40]. Conversely, the disadvantage of HPLC is the toxins need derivatization to improve their fluorescence properties. AFs have natural fluorescence characteristics due to the rigid and conjugated molecular structure. In these circumstances, small alterations in the molecular structure may increase fluorescence characteristic significantly. Hence, prerequisite derivatization with aid of chemicals boosts their fluorescence property. For instance, AFG2 and AFB2 are more fluorescent in comparison with AFB1 and AFG1.
Several derivatization methods of AFB1 and AFG1 are presently in practice. The frequent techniques include (i) pre-column treatment with trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) [41], (ii) post-column derivatization with iodine [42], (iii) cyclodextrins [43] and (iv) pyridinium hydrobromide perbromide [44]. The drawbacks related to the TFA based treatment method are the longer reaction time with elevated temperature, TFA toxicity and its corrosiveness [45]. Similarly, iodine based method also does have prolonged reaction time (up to 2 min) at elevated temperatures along with chromatogram peak broadening and need of supplementary HPLC pump. Also, daily preparation of the iodine solution is not recommended because of its corrosiveness to avoid capillary blockage and draining of the reagent pump seals [46]. All of the above four methods are prolonged and linked with the some weaknesses. In these circumstances, an exciting methodology of photochemical derivatization is known as Kobra Cell™ (R-Biopharm, Rhone Ltd., UK). This derivatization does not need everyday preparation of any reagent. There is no instability or corrosiveness issues and photochemical derivatization time is 4 seconds only at ambient temperature [40]. Likewise the method with a low maintenance cost no supplementary pump is needed.
The Gas Chromatography methodology is also operated for the determination of particular AFs which are challengingly measured by HPLC. Unfortunately, this technique is time-consuming and expensive. Sometimes it is required to transform analyte into the volatile compound compared to other methods [47]. Sometimes, pre-derivatization is prerequisite for the AFs before GC injection. Thermal stability of the AFs extract is also an issue because AFs decomposes at high temperature. In addition, the GC is not widespread using for the commercial testing of AFs because of greater running cost than HPLC analysis.
Nowadays, the advanced version of Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry i.e. LC/MS/MS system has achieved more attention for AFs determination. The LC/MS/MS benefits over other techniques are of extra ordinary sensitivity (lower level detection), greatly specific and the confirmation support of mass spectral fragments and identification of interfering impurities [48]. A single run of LC/MS/MS can support the quantification and determination of multiple mycotoxins [49]. Conversely, to get desire selectivity and sensitivity, there is need of additional accuracy in the sample preparation steps. The LC/MS/MS is an expensive equipment unit and it requires more skill for analytics hence it is more recommended for R & D. The extraction specific solvents for LC/MS/MS sample preparation is an additional requirement.
The variation in these approaches could be established because of the effect of matrix and matrix parameters, the intensity of AFs contamination in product. A validated method is desirable in these situations, a method which avoid maximum matrix effect and close by the tolerable limits as obligatory by the international legislative authorities.
6. Worldwide contamination of aflatoxins in spices
This section of the chapter describes the studies regarding AFs in spices over the last few years. A total of 27 studies altogether covering 19 spices were included. AFs incidence in spices differs place to place due to temperature & moisture differences, microflora and agronomics variations [31]. The worldwide occurrence of AFB1 and total AFs with respect to each unique spice are shown in Table 2. In terms of AFs, studies are most often concerned with red chilli, black pepper, caraway, cinnamon, aniseed, cumin, ginger, red pepper, clove, fenugreek, coriander, cardamom, turmeric, paprika, curry, garlic and mix spices. The occurrence of total AFs in the above-mentioned spices is usually high to very high.
The worldwide occurrence of AFB1 and total AFs with respect to each unique spice.
AFB1 = Aflatoxin B1, Total AFs = Total Aflatoxins, n = number of tested samples.
Number of spice category: [1] Red chilli; [2] Aniseed; [3] Black pepper; [4] Caraway; [5] Cinnamon; [6] Coriander; [7] Cumin; [8] Ginger; [9] Red pepper; [10] Clove; [11] Sweet cumin; [12] Sweet pepper; [13] Turmeric; [14] Curry; [15] Paprika; [16] Cardamom; [17] Garlic; [18] Fenugreek; [19] Mix spices.
Composite spices are common in South Asian countries (Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) due to enrich aroma, color and flavor in variety of cooked meals. Yet no survey is accessible on AFs incidence in composite spices. Some studies have informed that spices are considerably more contaminated with AFs than other foods [71]. Furthermore, chilli, red and black peppers were found to be more contaminated as compare to other spices as reported from India, Pakistan, Turkey, Iran, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Nigeria [4, 72]. The samples of ground chilli were found more exposed to AFs occurrence than whole or uncut red chilli. It is because of the possibility of inferior raw material usage for powder chilli production. Also, the tendency of powder to be hygroscopic makes it susceptible for high AFs contamination [73]. The inappropriate handling, processing and high amount of fat content in black pepper and the solubility of AFs in fat is most likely the reason of high level of AFs contamination. In addition, the presence of essential oils may prevent the occurrence of AFs in crude spices [74].
The antifungal and anti-toxicogenic properties of ginger, turmeric, clove, cinnamon, garlic and cumin can maintain the AFs occurrence at lower level [75, 76]. Some spices show antifungal activity and disrupt the integrity of fungi cell wall which creates AFs [77]. Also, some stated that the extract of turmeric can downregulate the gene expression in the biosynthesis of AFs in A. flavus [78]. The lack of AFs in cinnamon and cumin is due to the inhibition of the aflatoxigenic fungi by essential oils and aromatic constituents in these plants. The cinnamon is likely not to be a good substrate for aflatoxigenic fungi development and accumulation. Additionally, the effect of 09 oils studied against the growth and the toxicity of A. parasiticus [79]. The clove oil was found capable to inhibit the development of fungi to limit the formation of discontinue the AFs biosynthesis [80].
Considering highly reported contamination with AFs in spices particular chillis and peppers regular monitoring of the imported spices are highly recommended to maintain the food quality. Advance studies are still needed to address the source of occurrence and to control the AFs level in the spice from pre-harvesting to post-harvesting and from packaging, storage and shipment stages. A worldwide potential risk for AFs contamination may occur during prolonged storing of spices in poor temperature and moisture control. The factor of storage environmental conditions plays a major role in the occurrence of secondary metabolites such as AFs.
7. Mitigation of aflatoxins in spices
The widespread elimination or inhibition of AFs contamination during pre- and post-harvest steps is not an easy work however strategies to control fungal growth are essential to minimize the exposure to humans. Numerous methods for the detoxification or elimination of AFs by means of physical, chemical and biological approaches have been proposed [81]. The product safety outcomes of these methods and reducing agents are not clear.
Approaches to address AFs fall under two main areas. The first includes reducing AFs occurrence in the growing cycle by applying good agricultural practices and the other is mitigating the accelerated toxin growth in the post-harvest supply chain both approaches reduce AFs levels in food commodities. Farmers need to use those crop varieties robust to native growing environment, mainly drought, insects and pests, also show resistance to fungal contamination. Postharvest control of humidity is a key to reducing chances of AFs contamination. Irrigation and fungicides can develop plant health to resist the AFs-producing fungus. Solar dryer is also a solution to control moistness in spices earlier to storage.
AFs occurrence could be reduced by different inhibition methods. The toxins toxins levels could be minimized when the defected chilies like midget, dwarf, damaged and broken are physically sorted from achieving an average of 78% reduction in toxin content [82]. The use of gamma radiation can be helpful for the protection of chilies with respect to the production of AFs during storage [83]. In addition, some novel detoxification technologies including a microwave, ultraviolet, electrolyzed water, ozone, pulsed light, cold plasma and gamma irradiation in a support with biological, physical, chemical or genetic engineering methods have the potential to detoxify [84, 85, 86, 87]. The application of each technique has its benefits and drawbacks. Consequently, biocontrol processes in synchrony with other physical and chemical methods with improved packaging materials should be implemented to attain spices safety and security.
By the execution of advanced agricultural technologies, good agricultural practices, good manufacturing practices and good storage practices can mitigate the AFs occurrence or contamination [88]. AFs contamination occurs in pockets of high concentration which are not randomly dispersed throughout the commodity [89]. Thus, sampling is of key importance before sample preparation in laboratory. The sampling, sample handling and analyses are not yet standardized at growers and farmers eventually the users are at risk. Therefore, attention must be taken in the determination of laboratory results and quality testing should be performed from ISO-17025 accredited or similar laboratories.
Furthermore, the unpacked composite spices are susceptible to the AFs occurrence because of direct exposure to climate. The higher levels of AFs presence could be credited to tropical condition which may favor the spread of toxigenic fungi [90]. Organization of American States and Mayan Reserve Foundation jointly reported the corrective measures to reduce AFs contamination in chilies such as storage at low relative humidity and temperature, shorten the drying time and quick supplying to the user. And last but not least, the skilled personnel to involve in these processes [91]. Hence, consumers are guided to take measures such as procure from reliable retailers, store food in cool conditions and avoid unpacked products.
8. Conclusion
Aflatoxins contaminated spices are associated with severe risks to the consumers as these spices are part of food particularly in the Asian cooking. It is essential for legislative bodies to monitor AFs occurrence and harmful effects in spices to endorse that toxins are not prevailing at levels that may harmful to consumer health. Also, harvesting, drying, storage and transportation should be cautiously organized to control fungus growth. AFs occurrence can be controlled at pre- and post-harvest positions by applying good agricultural, good manufacturing and good storage practices. Further, the unique innovative processing technologies in combination either with genetic engineering or with physical, chemical or biological approaches have the potential to improve the capability of AFs decontamination as well as to overcome the limitations of any specific technology.
Acknowledgments
The authors are enthusiastically thanks to the Pakistan Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (PCSIR), Karachi Laboratories Complex, Pakistan for the support of Food & Feed Safety research.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"detoxification techniques, climatic variation, potential exposure in human",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75799.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75799.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75799",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75799",totalDownloads:263,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 7th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 18th 2021",datePublished:"February 9th 2022",dateFinished:"March 18th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"A wide range of spices are used in most dishes as seasoning, colouring, texture developer, palatability or preserving food and beverages worldwide. However, the spices are produced mainly in developing countries where tropical and/or subtropical climate such as high temperature, heavy rainfall and humidity encourage fungal growth leading to increased occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs) in spices. Moreover, the inadequate implementation of good agricultural practice, good manufacturing practice and good hygienic practice in these countries are great alarming situation. AFs are considered as a carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive to humans and are classified as hazardous food toxins. This chapter provides the worldwide production and regulations of spices, suitable conditions for the AFs production, worldwide occurrence of AFs, detection techniques and some aspect for the reduction of AFs in spices.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75799",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75799",signatures:"Farman Ahmed and Muhammad Asif Asghar",book:{id:"10502",type:"book",title:"Aflatoxins",subtitle:"Occurrence, Detoxification, Determination and Health Risks",fullTitle:"Aflatoxins - Occurrence, Detoxification, Determination and Health Risks",slug:"aflatoxins-occurrence-detoxification-determination-and-health-risks",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",bookSignature:"Lukman Bola Abdulra’uf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10502.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-304-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-303-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-305-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"149347",title:"Dr.",name:"Lukman",middleName:"Bola",surname:"Bola Abdulra'Uf",slug:"lukman-bola-abdulra'uf",fullName:"Lukman Bola Abdulra'Uf"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"341929",title:"Dr.",name:"Farman",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",fullName:"Farman Ahmed",slug:"farman-ahmed",email:"ahmed.farman@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341931",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Asif",middleName:null,surname:"Asghar",fullName:"Muhammad Asif Asghar",slug:"muhammad-asif-asghar",email:"masif345@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Pakistan Council of Scientific & Industrial Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Worldwide spices cultivation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Suitable climatic conditions for AFs production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Regulations of aflatoxins in spices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Aflatoxins detection techniques in spices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Worldwide contamination of aflatoxins in spices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Mitigation of aflatoxins in spices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Alirezalu K, Pateiro M, Yaghoubi M, Alirezalu A, Peighambardoust SH, Lorenzo JM. Phytochemical constituents, advanced extraction technologies and techno-functional properties of selected Mediterranean plants for use in meat products. A comprehensive review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2020.'},{id:"B2",body:'Pitt JI, Miller JD. 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Journal of Chromatography B: Biomedical Sciences and Applications. 1994;659(1-2):127-137.'},{id:"B47",body:'Shephard GS. Determination of mycotoxins in human foods. Chemical Society Reviews. 2008;37(11):2468-2477.'},{id:"B48",body:'Jeswal P, Kumar D. Mycobiota and natural incidence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and citrinin in Indian spices confirmed by LC-MS/MS. International journal of microbiology. 2015;2015.'},{id:"B49",body:'Herebian D, Zühlke S, Lamshöft M, Spiteller M. Multi-mycotoxin analysis in complex biological matrices using LC-ESI/MS: Experimental study using triple stage quadrupole and LTQ-Orbitrap. Journal of separation science. 2009;32(7):939-948.'},{id:"B50",body:'Tosun H, Arslan R. Determination of aflatoxin B1 levels in organic spices and herbs. The Scientific World Journal. 2013;2013.'},{id:"B51",body:'Akhund S, Akram A, Hanif NQ , Qureshi R, Naz F, Nayyar BG. Pre-harvest aflatoxins and Aspergillus flavus contamination in variable germplasms of red chillies from Kunri, Pakistan. Mycotoxin Research. 2017;33(2):147-155.'},{id:"B52",body:'Karaaslan M, Arslanğray Y. Aflatoxins B 1, B 2, G 1, and G 2 contamination in ground red peppers commercialized in Sanliurfa, Turkey. Environmental monitoring and assessment. 2015;187(4):1-9.'},{id:"B53",body:'Golge O, Hepsag F, Kabak B. Incidence and level of aflatoxin contamination in chilli commercialised in Turkey. Food Control. 2013;33(2):514-520.'},{id:"B54",body:'Mozaffari Nejad AS, Sabouri Ghannad M, Kamkar A. Determination of aflatoxin B1 levels in Iranian and Indian spices by ELISA method. Toxin Reviews. 2014;33(4):151-154.'},{id:"B55",body:'Barani A, Nasiri Z, Jarrah N. Natural occurrence of aflatoxins in commercial pepper in Iran. Food and Agricultural Immunology. 2016;27(4):570-576.'},{id:"B56",body:'Jalili M. Natural occurrence of aflatoxins contamination in commercial spices in Iran. 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Advances in Microbiology. 2018;8(1):42-53.'},{id:"B66",body:'Zareshahrabadi Z, Bahmyari R, Nouraei H, Khodadadi H, Mehryar P, Asadian F, et al. Detection of Aflatoxin and Ochratoxin A in Spices by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. Journal of Food Quality. 2020;2020.'},{id:"B67",body:'Alsharif AMA, Choo Y-M, Tan G-H. Detection of five mycotoxins in different food matrices in the Malaysian market by using validated liquid chromatography electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Toxins. 2019;11(4):196.'},{id:"B68",body:'Ezekiel CN, Ortega-Beltran A, Oyedeji EO, Atehnkeng J, Kössler P, Tairu F, et al. Aflatoxin in chili peppers in Nigeria: extent of contamination and control using atoxigenic Aspergillus flavus genotypes as biocontrol agents. Toxins. 2019;11(7):429.'},{id:"B69",body:'Koutsias I, Kollia E, Makri K, Markaki P, Proestos C. Occurrence and Risk Assessment of Aflatoxin B1 in Spices Marketed in Greece. Analytical Letters. 2020:1-14.'},{id:"B70",body:'Wikandari R, Mayningsih IC, Sari MDP, Purwandari FA, Setyaningsih W, Rahayu ES, et al. Assessment of microbiological quality and mycotoxin in dried chili by morphological identification, molecular detection, and chromatography analysis. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2020;17(6):1847.'},{id:"B71",body:'El-Dawy EGAE, Yassein AS, El-Said AH. Detection of mycobiota, aflatoxigenic and ochratoxigenic genes, and cytotoxic ability in spices. Food science & nutrition. 2019;7(8):2595-2604.'},{id:"B72",body:'Jacxsens L, De Meulenaer B. Risk assessment of mycotoxins and predictive mycology in Sri Lankan spices: Chilli and pepper. Procedia food science. 2016;6:326-330.'},{id:"B73",body:'Iqbal SZ, Paterson RRM, Bhatti IA, Asi MR. Comparing aflatoxin contamination in chilies from Punjab, Pakistan produced in summer and winter. Mycotoxin Research. 2011;27(2):75-80.'},{id:"B74",body:'Hammami W, Fiori S, Al Thani R, Kali NA, Balmas V, Migheli Q , et al. Fungal and aflatoxin contamination of marketed spices. Food Control. 2014;37:177-181.'},{id:"B75",body:'Kaefer CM, Milner JA. Herbs and spices in cancer prevention and treatment. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects 2nd edition. 2011.'},{id:"B76",body:'Císarová M, Hleba L, Medo J, Tančinová D, Mašková Z, Čuboň J, et al. The in vitro and in situ effect of selected essential oils in vapour phase against bread spoilage toxicogenic aspergilli. Food Control. 2020;110:107007.'},{id:"B77",body:'Liu Q , Meng X, Li Y, Zhao C-N, Tang G-Y, Li H-B. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of spices. International journal of molecular sciences. 2017;18(6):1283.'},{id:"B78",body:'Mohajeri M, Behnam B, Cicero AF, Sahebkar A. Protective effects of curcumin against aflatoxicosis: A comprehensive review. Journal of cellular physiology. 2018;233(4):3552-3577.'},{id:"B79",body:'Juglal S, Govinden R, Odhav B. Spice oils for the control of co-occurring mycotoxin-producing fungi. Journal of food protection. 2002;65(4):683-687.'},{id:"B80",body:'Combrinck S, Regnier T, Kamatou GP. In vitro activity of eighteen essential oils and some major components against common postharvest fungal pathogens of fruit. Industrial Crops and Products. 2011;33(2):344-349.'},{id:"B81",body:'Jalili M. A review on aflatoxins reduction in food. Iranian Journal of Health, Safety and Environment. 2016;3(1):445-459.'},{id:"B82",body:'Khan M, Asghar M, Ahmed A, Iqbal J, Shamsuddin Z. Reduction of aflatoxins in dundi-cut whole red chillies (Capsicum indicum) by manual sorting technique. Science Technology and Development. 2013;32(1):16-23.'},{id:"B83",body:'Iqbal SZ, Bhatti IA, Asi MR, Zuber M, Shahid M, Parveen I. Effect of γ irradiation on fungal load and aflatoxins reduction in red chillies. Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 2013;82:80-84.'},{id:"B84",body:'Pankaj S, Shi H, Keener KM. A review of novel physical and chemical decontamination technologies for aflatoxin in food. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2018;71:73-83.'},{id:"B85",body:'Guo Y, Zhao L, Ma Q , Ji C. Novel strategies for degradation of aflatoxins in food and feed: A review. Food Research International. 2020:109878.'},{id:"B86",body:'Tripathi S, Mishra H. Enzymatic coupled with UV degradation of aflatoxin B1 in red chili powder. Journal of Food Quality. 2010;33:186-203.'},{id:"B87",body:'Kamber U, Gülbaz G, Aksu P, Doğan A. Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 in red pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) by ozone treatment and its effect on microbiological and sensory quality. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 2017;41(5):e13102.'},{id:"B88",body:'Watson I, Kamble P, Shanks C, Khan Z, El Darra N. Decontamination of chilli flakes in a fluidized bed using combined technologies: Infrared, UV and ozone. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies. 2020;59:102248.'},{id:"B89",body:'George W, Latimer J. Official method of analysis of AOAC. AOAC International. 2019.'},{id:"B90",body:'Afsah-Hejri L, Jinap S, Hajeb P, Radu S, Shakibazadeh S. A review on mycotoxins in food and feed: Malaysia case study. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2013;12(6):629-651.'},{id:"B91",body:'Sinha A, Petersen J. Caribbean hot pepper production and post harvest manual. FAO/Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Rome, Italy. 2011.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Farman Ahmed",address:"ahmed.farman@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Food and Feed Safety Laboratory, Food and Marine Resources Research Centre, Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR), Karachi Laboratories Complex, Karachi, Pakistan
Food and Feed Safety Laboratory, Food and Marine Resources Research Centre, Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR), Karachi Laboratories Complex, Karachi, Pakistan
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Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
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Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
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Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
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What makes IntechOpen a great place to work?
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IntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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If this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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The developed systems have been tested in a mass-spring-damper system to illustrate the effectiveness of the design.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Chieh-Chuan Feng",authors:[{id:"29268",title:"Dr.",name:"Chieh-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"chieh-chuan-feng",fullName:"Chieh-Chuan Feng"}]},{id:"51089",title:"Sliding Mode Speed and Position Control of Induction Motor Drive in Cascade Connection",slug:"sliding-mode-speed-and-position-control-of-induction-motor-drive-in-cascade-connection",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter deals with sliding mode application in control of an induction motor (IM) torque, speed, and position. Classical, direct approaches to control mentioned variables are described. Their drawbacks are presented and analyzed. Direct control structures are then compared with the proposed cascade sliding mode control structures. These structures allow to control all of the IM variables effectively, simultaneously ensuring supervision of all remaining variables. All of the analyzed structures are illustrated with block diagrams, as well as with simulation and experimental test results.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Grzegorz Tarchała and Teresa Orłowska-Kowalska",authors:[{id:"182057",title:"Dr.",name:"Grzegorz",middleName:null,surname:"Tarchała",slug:"grzegorz-tarchala",fullName:"Grzegorz Tarchała"},{id:"185730",title:"Prof.",name:"Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Orłowska-Kowalska",slug:"teresa-orlowska-kowalska",fullName:"Teresa Orłowska-Kowalska"}]},{id:"50689",title:"Event-Triggered Static Output Feedback Simultaneous H∞ Control for a Collection of Networked Control Systems",slug:"event-triggered-static-output-feedback-simultaneous-h-control-for-a-collection-of-networked-control-",totalDownloads:1557,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter considers the design of event-triggered static output feedback simultaneous H∞ controllers for a collection of networked control systems (NCSs). It is shown that conventional point-to-point wiring delayed static output feedback simultaneous H∞ controllers can be obtained by solving linear matrix inequalities (LMIs) with a linear matrix equality (LME) constraint. Based on an obtained simultaneous H∞ controller, an L2-gain event-triggered transmission policy is proposed for reducing the network usage. An illustrative example is presented to verify the obtained theoretical results.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Sheng-Hsiung Yang and Jenq-Lang Wu",authors:[{id:"2648",title:"Dr.",name:"Jenq-Lang",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"jenq-lang-wu",fullName:"Jenq-Lang Wu"},{id:"194140",title:"Dr.",name:"Sheng-Hsiung",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"sheng-hsiung-yang",fullName:"Sheng-Hsiung Yang"}]},{id:"50489",title:"Robust Adaptive Repetitive and Iterative Learning Control for Rotary Systems Subject to Spatially Periodic Uncertainties",slug:"robust-adaptive-repetitive-and-iterative-learning-control-for-rotary-systems-subject-to-spatially-pe",totalDownloads:1247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This book chapter reviews and summarizes the recent progress in the design of spatial‐based robust adaptive repetitive and iterative learning control. In particular, the collection of methods aims at rotary systems that are subject to spatially periodic uncertainties and based on nonlinear control paradigm, e.g., adaptive feedback linearization and adaptive backstepping. We will elaborate on the design procedure (applicable to generic nth‐order systems) of each method and the corresponding stability and convergence theorems.",book:{id:"5233",slug:"robust-control-theoretical-models-and-case-studies",title:"Robust Control",fullTitle:"Robust Control - Theoretical Models and Case Studies"},signatures:"Cheng‐Lun Chen",authors:[{id:"26775",title:"Prof.",name:"Cheng-Lun",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"cheng-lun-chen",fullName:"Cheng-Lun Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"965",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; 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