Peace revolution as a three-dimensional process.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"799",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Salmonella - A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"More than 2,500 serotypes of Salmonella exist. However, only some of these serotypes have been frequently associated with food-borne illnesses. Salmonella is the second most dominant bacterial cause of food-borne gastroenteritis worldwide. Often, most people who suffer from Salmonella infections have temporary gastroenteritis, which usually does not require treatment. However, when infection becomes invasive, antimicrobial treatment is mandatory. Symptoms generally occur 8 to 72 hours after ingestion of the pathogen and can last 3 to 5 days. Children, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals are the most susceptible to salmonellosis infections. The annual economic cost due to food-borne Salmonella infections in the United States alone is estimated at $2.4 billion, with an estimated 1.4 million cases of salmonellosis and more than 500 deaths annually. This book contains nineteen chapters which cover a range of different topics, such as the role of foods in Salmonella infections, food-borne outbreaks caused by Salmonella, biofilm formation, antimicrobial drug resistance of Salmonella isolates, methods for controlling Salmonella in food, and Salmonella isolation and identification methods.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-782-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4378-9",doi:"10.5772/1308",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"salmonella-a-dangerous-foodborne-pathogen",numberOfPages:452,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"ba452d8a24ef16b1267d2854b28f6e6a",bookSignature:"Barakat S. M. Mahmoud",publishedDate:"January 20th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/799.jpg",numberOfDownloads:140516,numberOfWosCitations:115,numberOfCrossrefCitations:37,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:126,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:8,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:278,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 23rd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 28th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92016/images/system/92016.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mahmoud is an international food safety expert with 30 years of experience in food safety. He was an Associate Professor in the Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Health Promotion at MSU. Prior to that, he held a postdoctoral position (in Food Safety) at Purdue University. He earned his Ph.D. in Marine Biosciences (Food Safety) from Hokkaido University (Japan). Prior to that he was a Visiting Scientist at the University of Lisbon (Portugal). He held a researcher position at the NRC (Egypt) between 1994 and 2000. He received his BSc/MSc degrees in Agricultural Sciences from Cairo University. The main goal of Dr. Mahmoud’s work is to protect public health, reduce the prevalence of foodborne illness and promote the introduction of safer food using novel technologies. Dr. Mahmoud received more than $1M from the USDA, States and Food Industry to support his research (between 2008 and 2016). Dr. Mahmoud published about 100 publications (in international journals and/or conferences), two book chapters and edited a book entitled \\'Salmonella-A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen” (His publications have been cited more than 1200 times). He served as an editor-in-chief, editor/editorial board member for several international journals including Food Microbiology, Journal of Food Protection, Foodborne Pathogens & Disease, and African Journal of Food Science. Dr. Mahmoud has provided technical assistance in food safety in several developing countries in Africa, Asia, Central America, Middle East, and the Caribbean including Egypt, Malawi, Mozambique, Lebanon, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, etc.",institutionString:"United States Department of Agriculture",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"26420",title:"The Burden of Salmonellosis in the United States",doi:"10.5772/28019",slug:"the-burden-of-salmonellosis-in-the-united-states",totalDownloads:5033,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Patricia L. 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Estimates have shown that 26% of the global population is under 15 years of age (Source: Statista.com), and is relishing in the opportunities provided by digital technologies.
Undoubtedly, digital technologies play a vital role in the lives of most children around the world, technological access is rapidly increasing among children and its integration is affecting their lives [1] in both positive and negative ways. By estimate, one in every three digital technology users worldwide is a child [2] and every activity from child protection, governance, economic, health to educational is being significantly changed as a result of technological penetration [3].
Digital devices provide children with levels of access to communication, entertainment and information while also providing an opportunity for self-expression, learning and participation [4, 5]. Digital devices also present a means to communicate, learn and publish to billions of individuals in an extraordinary way [6] that was unthinkable only twenty-five years ago. With all these unparalleled benefits come risks, for example, digital devices have made the creation and distribution of abusive images of children easier and have also presented new opportunities for abusers to contact children. Notwithstanding, multiple intertwining occurring in the lives of children can improve or discourage the use of digital technologies.
The spread of these technologies, specifically the internet, in almost all parts of the world, has been subjected to powerful critical reviews and scrutiny with regards to the opportunities and challenges brought about by this technological usage and integration. This discussion cover issues such as digital divide, infrastructure, intellectual property, opportunities, quality of information and, risk which are observed at both international, national and local levels (Urs [7]). An area that attract much interest is the influence of digital technology and its massive adaptation among children considering that a lot of children are vulnerable when accessing digital environment [8, 9].
Despite all the attention given, children’s digital right is hardly viewed from the human rights dimension and being an encompassing construct, the declaration of human right needs to be associated with digital right of children across the world. Digital access to technology for children is a human right issue on the premise that they are humans too, and the digital access for them is satisfying an appetite by choice, leading to a bounty of legitimate benefits within the realm of their liberty, yet protecting them from possible harm is a rightful necessity. The use of digital technology is a human right in general as suggested by Karppinen [10], so it would not be different in the case of children.
A novel approach to analysing children’s digital right is employed in this study by viewing it from the human right perspectives.
The Global North is home to a quarter of the world’s population and controls four-fifths of the global income. It encompasses countries like New Zealand, Australia, Israel, United States, Canada, Western Europe, some developed parts of Asia namely Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and Hong Kong. It is home to all the members of the G8 and four-fifths of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is characterised as the more developed and richer region of the world [11].
The Global South comprises of Africa, Latin America, Middle East and developing parts of Asia. It is home to three quarters of the world’s populations and controls one-fifth of the world income. The Global South is the poorer and less developed region [11].
Since the 1960s, the world has been divided between the wealthy and developed nations of the north and the poor developing and underdeveloped nations of the south. It is evident that digital divides can enhance the already existing social divides between the rich and the poor, rural and urban, children and adults, and between boys and girls [12, 13].
The digital divide is a metaphor used to describe the disadvantage of those who choose not or are unable to make use of the digital technologies [14]. Income is the greatest determining factor of the digital divide globally [15], while other factors such as the telecommunications gap and the quality of regulation also contribute, including behavioural and cultural attitude towards digital technology. Digital divides also exist between genders in both the Global North and Global South. For instance, in most countries in the Global South, girls would normally go directly to their home after school (with the possibility of completely missing school during festive periods) thereby missing after school computer classes. Similarly, boys in the United States are given better opportunities to interact with digital devices than girls [16].
When digital technologies were first introduced they were perceived as a Global North phenomenon and the expectation was that the users are going to be adults, however, even though reality has proven otherwise, the perception remains to a certain extent unchanged among regulators, legislators and internet governance [17].
Many children have now integrated technology as part of their daily lives across very diverse geographical and cultural settings in both the Global North and Global South. Children’s activities are currently built around mobile phones and the internet to the point where differentiating between the online and offline worlds is very difficult [18].
Multiple organisations have cited the importance of internet access with regards to economic growth and civil right awareness [19] and are currently researching ways to provide internet access to every corner of the globe. Children should be integral component of this activity, not just because of their widespread usage of the internet, but because of the bidirectional process of shaping that occurs between the children and the internet. As at 2009, 75% of children aged 6-17 in some Global North countries are reported to have access to the internet while some underperforming economies like Cyprus and Greece reported 50%, which is less than some Global Southern countries like Brazil with 63% [5].
Internet penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa remains at about 11.5%, which might be attributed to some obstacles that may hinder internet access, including social or traditional factors that may marginalise certain groups (e.g. people with disabilities or girls). Additional factors such as affordability, language and political instability also hamper internet access [16]. About 48% of people around the world use the internet and 70.6% of youth between the age of 15 and 24 are actively online. Approximately 81% of the people in developed countries use the internet, compared to 17.5% of the least developed countries and 41.3% of the developing countries. About 95.7%of youths in Europe access the internet, which far exceeds the level in Africa, which only has a total of 21.8% [6].
Children’s access to the internet in the Global South is often community based (e.g. cafes) or through mobile phones with erratic power supply, ethnic challenges, gender and socio-economic issues along with exploitation or harmful consequences, unlike the North where the sources of internet access for children are home and school based plus mobile phones [20]. The most common device children use to go online in the Global South is the mobile phone, which gives by privacy and flexibility but has reduced potential for parental mediation.
The UNCRC guarantees children from both the Global South and Global North equal political, civic, cultural, social and economic rights comprising the right to digital access. Nevertheless, the percentage of technological access is higher in the Global North, although countries in the Global South are catching up. Social imbalance has a significant influence on both access and usage. For instance, rich children in both the Global South and North have better access and usage of digital technologies than their poor counterparts [21].
Problems associated with the internet which are mostly related to the Global North include cyber bullying, grooming and solicitation. It would be a mistake to think that the issue is related to the Global North alone, since the rapid increase in internet access propelled by the penetration of smartphones and increase of broadband is indeed a worldwide phenomenon. Also in most Global South countries, the IFs and HOWs of internet access are not well understood, regardless of knowing what the resultant consequence may be, therefore, bolstering digital technological access to all children around the globe without exclusion and discrimination and at the same time enhancing digital citizenship and responsibility should be the main aim for policymakers interested in promoting opportunities for children.
Equal opportunity and gender parity are part of the problems majority of the local and international organisations wish to address, despite the fact that some groups get leeway compared to others. For instance, boys in Indonesia, the Philippines, Ghana and Bolivia have a more secure feeling while utilising internet cafes and probably get more resources to use digital devices than girls [22]. Additionally, the work of Goulds [23] presented to Plan International indicates that 79% of girls in China have unsecure feeling while utilising the web, which is assumed to be restraining their participation online and limit their development.
Various researches have proven that girls below the age of 10 are majorly targeted for actual or potential abuse, where in abusive images girls appear four times more than boys [24]. Wolak et al. [25] state that almost all sexual crimes that occur against kids online are conducted by males, even though in 2009, it was found that ladies in the United Kingdom were abusing boys too. Kleine et al. [12] discover that in a few communities, majorly in the Global South, girls are viewed as women, therefore are married off at an early age. In those communities, a dad can grant technological access to his son but denies his daughter, despite the fact that when presented with technological devices girls utilise the opportunity for education whereas boys mostly indulge in game playing [26, 27]. It was also found that a few families in Pakistan and India do not permit girls to utilise smartphones even for learning purposes while boys are permitted to utilise them to play [8, 9], which is restricting the opportunities that come with technology and at the same time denying the girl child her rights.
The degree to which girls are short-changed has resulted in eventual collapse of a few ventures being produced for girls. For example, a South African project (mobile4girls) that was meant to venture focus on girls could not succeed based on the fact that it never considered the needs or focused on the girls [3]. The gender disparity is almost everywhere. A study in the United States discovers that boys are preferentially trained to be innovative and explore through the use of digital technologies, which present an edge for them over the girls [24].
The instant internet growth joined with readily as well as cheaply accessible information have presented large portion of children to utilise the internet, to either search through multiple documents as well as databases or browsing. The convenience and ease to access the immense accumulated data and information is integrating the internet and the World Wide Web in to an integral part of common individuals’ daily activities. Freedom of expression and speech brought by the internet has given courage to populace, to the extent that even the marginalised individuals can freely conduct different types of business as well as publish various contents [28, 29].
One can find every sort of stuff on the internet, all the user needs is the appropriate searching methodology. It provides conducive atmosphere for all kinds of marketable from activist to terrorist agenda, from buyers of products or ideas to infatuations [30], this inherent strength has already turned the internet into an avenue of training terrorists, extremists as well as criminal organisations [31]. Our lives have been assimilated by the internet producing a noteworthy shift in the manner in which we form communities or associate [1]. All geographical boundaries have been eliminated by the internet, to the degree that your roommate or office colleague is a click away, likewise a person in another country or city.
A number of children view the internet as a source of learning & playing [32]. Therefore, numerous kids search the internet looking for experience [33] and friendship [34, 35]. There is an increase of 5.7% in the world internet users from 2016 taking the total to approximately 3.6 billion, [36] of which substantial percentage is assumed to be children.
As the internet availability increases, access to images and videos that are questionable and also misuse among children is progressively expanding [37] and turning into a matter that worries numerous guardians and parents [35, 38]. A case of inappropriate use of the internet is surely cyber-bullying, where laptops and smartphones are utilised to harass and intimidate children [39, 40]. Contrary to conventional bullying, cyber-bullying follows casualties anytime, anywhere [41].
The worst problem associated with the internet is its age-blindness, regards children and adults as equivalent, and only occasionally treating children in conformity with their “evolving capacity” as required by the CRC in Article 14 [42]. While the internet provides chances to learn as well as communicate via means that just were impracticable just a decade ago, it additionally has some costs that few parents as well as certain groups think are useless. For example, the presence of numerous online risks like, many forms of manipulation and exploitation, misinformation, grooming, hate speech, cyber-bullying and child trafficking are sections that attract great worry [38]. The greatest confounding element is how to mark a boundary as to what constitutes a risk online, a typical instance is when a child is exposed to pornography as it presents a discussion regarding whether this is in connection to the child getting knowledge about sex early or maybe other elements. Subsequently, making both defining and measuring the accompanying harm a difficult task [43]. Additional confounding issue is in connection with the procedure children figure out when a message online from an outsider is an initial step toward grooming or a cordial move. This has made drawing an unmistakable line between risk and opportunity extremely difficult, as it can obviously take away the “risky opportunities”. Another issue is that of clarity with respect to who is at fault if children experience online harm, especially at sites that are multi-owned.
Risks online encountered by children are often classified based on content, conduct and contact [5]. Content risks are used to explain those risks linked to illegal item viewing such as pornography. Conduct is related to online children’s behaviour, for instance downloading contents that are illegal. Contact refers to the risks linked to harmful communication or harassment like grooming or bullying. During the design phase of these classifications, researchers plainly state that children do not always occur as the victims, they may likewise be the offenders and that exposure to online risks does not necessarily imply harm, since kids have a method to develop shield that may lead to risk elimination [5].
Drawing a line between the activities that lead to risks and those that lead to opportunities on the internet is not easy [44], therefore, making effort towards understanding the difference between risk and harm is clearly necessary. Initially, researchers focused more on probable harm and technologically aided risks associated to children’s privacy, safety and information overload but this focus more recently shifted to opportunities related to children’s digital technology utilisation [45]. It is in this regard that children’s digital right was reviewed.
Children from the Global South can rarely access the internet at home, and are more likely to go online via cybercafés where the possibility of encountering inappropriate content, and offline/online solicitation are high. Economic conditions, parental knowledge and awareness and weak regulatory procedure can further aggravate the risk and the possibility of harm. Another area of concern is that children do not consider the people they contact as strangers but rather as virtual or online friends [46, 47].
As stated by the European Union, the more parents use the internet, the more internet skills they acquire and the better opportunities they have to mediate their children’s internet usage [48]. This is largely because of the increased tendency that children will report more upsetting or unwanted content or contact to guardians or parents who understand the internet, since parental mediation has consistently been depicted as very effective method of risk reduction, enhancing resilience and improving digital literacy among children [49].
Many victims of internet crime find it hard to disclose due to complicity and shame until images are discovered by law even in the Global North [37], which might have led to the implementation of strict measures and a reduction in the level of risk or even protection for those whom have later become victims.
Different types of risk exist for different societies; for example, children in Kenya are willing to meet strangers if they will give them some minutes on their phones [50] or the use of internet cafes which are deemed to be hazardous and expose children to adults who use pornography or drugs [48]. Nevertheless, it is the second most used source of internet in the Global South. The weak state structure in many Global South countries and wide-spread poverty can cripple children’s legal and social protection, which will therefore increase their vulnerability [24].
The borderless nature of technologies like the internet makes it difficult for agencies or government to address what has now become a highly integrated and broadly scattered set of interests, similarly, its global nature has made imposing highly restrictive internet regulation a difficult task. As active agents, children will continue to indulge in risky behaviour online despite the awareness of the risks because of their exploratory nature, misplaced confidence and self-belief.
It is of vital importance that governments develop child friendly and accessible reporting systems as strongly recommended by the Committee on the right of a child and there is a need for awareness programs in most of the Global South countries [51]. For example, the Research Institution Plan India [52] in their report stated that over 90% of the participants are unaware of where to report online sexual exploitation and abuse.
The utilisation, vulnerabilities and conduct of children online vary with age. While ICT cannot be seen as a creator of crimes, it has given all forms of old crimes a new dimension [24]. It would consequently be a mistake to believe that all children are comfortable or equally proficient in the digital environment [48].
There is limited research on children’s digital rights. Among the little number of researches, very few attempted to present a common view into children’s view on risk and privacy in the digital settings and the usage procedure as well as knowledge of online protection apparatus [53]. A cross-section of studies has proposed ways in which children’s well-being as well as the risk of harm have been extended by the internet [54].
The OECD [55] noted that most researches on ICT and digital right were conducted in and on the Global North, with lots of projection with regards to the way children use the digital environment in Global North and how they use them in the Global South. The impediments to children gaining access to digital technologies are completely different, most of the legislations and policies come from the Global North, therefore missing the explicitness needed in research and hence leading to problems during the adoption process in the Global South. SaferNet Brazil, thinkuknow website, the Slovak Safer Internet Centre and Hands for Children Venezuela are examples of initiatives in countries in the Global North and Global South that are now trying to secure their children online.
Given that most researches on risk and usage have been conducted in the Global North, the transfer of findings to other cultural and socio-economic settings must be approached with discretion. Nevertheless, there is sufficient research fact in the Global South to predict potential dangers and patterns [50]. No research evidence has been found to support the assertion that the internet endangers children. Nonetheless, genuine risks can be associated with the internet. However, there exist adequate scientific facts to suggest a pattern for potential problems in the Global South. Encouraging studies on the rights of children’s in the digital world in the Global South requires genuine thought, as it will enable the scholars in the Global North with an avenue to comprehend their very own characteristics, albeit studies presently emerging in the South [56].
End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism (ECPAT), in their work with children in some Global South countries to create awareness on safety and the responsibilities of internet service providers and also governments in ensuring better online protection for children, noticed that children have a unique perspective in planning and skills as well as in support mobilisation and are more up-to-date when it comes to the latest technology. This assertion is corroborated by other initiatives in Africa [16].
‘Early Adopter’ are those countries who were first to encounter the problem and tried to solve it long before others had access to ICT. However, adopting their best practice might be hazardous because of the difference in usage (due to culture and language) and adoption (like landline before mobile in the North and mobile before landline in the South). Another question is related to the extent that policies and research designed for Global North in relation to the Global South. For example, Livingstone and Haddon [5] propose a “ladder of opportunities” which raised the question as to whether the ladder takes a different pattern when implemented in different cultural settings.
The UNCRC was the first treaty that viewed children as right holders [57]; it was also the first to perceive children’s right to privacy as a fundamental right [58]. Nevertheless, UNCRC is a less active mechanism to turn to with regard to children’s digital technology preventive practices.
It may not be rational to assume that all children are confident or proficient in the digital world [48] and the rapidly evolving and transnational nature of the internet providers and online services is limiting the powers of states to establish online children’s right under their area of jurisdiction [8, 9]. Hence most responsibilities for children’s digital right fall on companies and intermediaries.
While designing policies for the rights and well-being of children in the digital world, skills, risks and access should be kept in mind. Additionally, children are not a homogeneous entity therefore the risks and opportunities of internet usage can be categorised according to their place of access, digital skill level and age; in addition to the special considerations to the most vulnerable children such as ethnic minorities, rural or poor, migrants, those with physical disabilities and others with special needs [37]. Numerous actors responsible for children’s positive internet usage and safety (civil societies, private and public) have an imperative undertaking to formulate policies that are balanced, inclusive and factual. Be that as it may, the facts on which these policies base are very rare, particularly in the Global South.
Going by the consistent frame of reference, an overall framework as well as assessment of the issues linked to technologies as they correspond to children’s rights is always confounding when we view that the lives of children rely upon confusing and conflicting government strategies and legal principles [59]. For example, to protect children against pornography and hate speech, a few countries have embraced harsh regulatory practice like blocking, monitoring and filtering some internet contents. Nevertheless, these nations ought to be careful about the probability of unforeseen outcomes; for example, in Kenya where pornography punishment extends to children and high percentage of the children were seen to search, view and download pornographic videos and images [50].
The freedom attached to the internet has had an important positive political and social effect in most parts of the world, which has led to authoritarian and conservative governments mostly from the Global South perceiving the internet as something they need to control, unlike countries like the UK who are allowing the ICT industry to self-regulate, or the USA which relies on cooperate social responsibility.
While policy frameworks such as the EU Agenda for the Right of the Child, the Council of Europe Recommendation on Empowering Children in the New Information, the European Commission’s Strategy for a Better Internet for Children, and Communication Environment and so on are ever present in the Global North, the same cannot be said in the Global South.
To cope with the ever-increasing technological developments, Europe has adopted a multi-stakeholder approach with a strong dependence on self-regulation by the international regulatory bodies and forms of governance to tackle the global and complex nature of the internet. On the other hand, the US depends strongly on the Federal Trade Commission (and, to a lesser extent the Federal Communication Commission). Most of the countries in the Global South have embraced rigid regulatory practices like filtering, blocking and monitoring public access to online contents.
Various policies have been designed like the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Right of the Child on the Sales of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography which defines child pornography and insists on governments creating child friendly legal proceedings and was ratified by all but 43 UN members with 42 of them from the Global South [60]. The Protocol to Prevent Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially women and children, supplements the Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (The UN trafficking protocol), which also defines trafficking and that children or their parents cannot consent to being trafficked. The Council of European Convention on Cybercrime first treaty was designed to address crimes committed via the internet encouraging a common criminal policy as its main goal to globally tackle computer related crime. Although designed by Europe, other non-European Global North countries are members, whereas South Africa is the only country from the Global South. The Council of European Convention on the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse’s (Lanzarote Convention) first international instrument that addressed all forms of sexual violence against children, which may occur within or outside the family, like grooming. The convention was aimed at preventing and tackling the sexual exploitation and abuse of children [61]. All the conventions were either designed by the United Nations with various states of implementation or by Global North countries, which makes the adaptation of these policies by Global South countries vulnerable to failure.
In 2006, the UN Secretary-General study on violence against children recommended the strengthening of efforts to tackle the use of ICT for the sexual exploitation of children, by educating parents and children with regards to the dangers involved, punishing the perpetrators, distributors and consumers of the online child pornographic content and at the same time, encouraging the ICT industry to implement global standards for child protection. However, the final communiqué of the G8 meeting in 2011 made reference to children as potential victims of exploitation, sexual abuse and trafficking, therefore calling the international fora to enhance their cooperation while tackling internet governance [62]. Nevertheless, numerous legal jurisdictions mostly from the Global South failed to criminalise grooming or tackle child pornography [22], while the European parliament and council adopted a directive on combating sexual abuse and sexual exploitation, which replaced the council’s 2014 framework to criminalise any form of child exploitation and abuse and also mandated the removal and optional blocking of those website hosting contents among member countries. Singapore, Australia, Canada, UK and US introduced legal actions against grooming [63]. In 2008, Brazil also amended the statute of children and adolescents [64]. Japan passed series of laws on digital child protection and example of other legislation includes the Philippines Cybercrime Prevention Act 2012, South Africa’s Protection against Harassment Act 2011 and Argentina’s grooming law.
The European Commission’s Safer Internet (now Better Internet for Kids) implementation of child digital rights not only requires adherence to the rights and values, but also children’s empowerment and participation so that their societal engagement innovation and creativity can be encouraged. Countries that adopted the EU safer internet policies now teach internet safety to children in schools [65].
It should be noted that international treaties can only provide an action framework, but states have to implement them at national levels, which may require the development of policy appropriate laws, preventive strategies, child protection measures and victim support for children. According to Chinn and Fairlie [15], one third of the internet penetration will be closed if Global South counties employ the same regulatory practices as the US.
To promote the benefits of the internet at insignificant risk for children, there is a need for a global framework and internal response and there is the need for policy makers to understand that for a reduction in digital child abuse and a boost in benefits, a harmonised international action and global policy framework is required. The framework should encompass an ethical inspiration and a strategic vision for public empowerment.
When it comes to children’s digital world protection, the private sector has to play an important role of designing a framework that will be global, given its fundamental nature. And, as stipulated by the business and human rights guiding principles implemented in the United Nations framework [24], this sector has the authority to implement new instrument as well as design program for safer internet utilisation among children. Nonetheless, the private sector till date has not designed any global framework [24].
As indicated by Asthana [59], adding as a new category “participation right” (act and be heard), and expanding the rights to “provision” (access to food, clean water, shelter and health care) and “protection” (against exploitation, violence and harm), to the existing children’s rights, UNICEF has designed a system currently referred to as 3P’s.
Gasser & Cortesi [7] propose actors’ perspectives as well as issues to be the themes for debate when it comes to the design of children’s digital rights framework. They proceed with further explanation that perspectives can be split into different parts: political, which involves political parties integrating digital children’s rights into their respective campaign; intellectual, which draws researchers from diverse fields researching on the link within digital technology as well as social perception among children for them to gestate the right framework [8, 9]; legal, which involves enacting policies and creating laws; children’s perspective which involves seeking children’s opinions.
A report on Child Safety Online by the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre [24] on the other hand, proposed the accompanying key approaches for legislation framework and law enforcement design, having four primary objectives of promotion of rehabilitation and recovery procedures for exposed or abused children, reduction in access to online harmful material, abolishing all impunity tendencies from the abuser and promoting children’s resilience and empowerment.
In a government survey conducted by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), it was found that the primary problem is associated protecting children online, which prompted the design of statistical framework for online child protection for digital child protection measurement [55]. Similarly, the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) within its national framework has created a means for multi-actor policy debate, with child protection issues discussed frequently and various stakeholders as participants from national, regional and global level [2].
Notwithstanding, the framework chosen by either the children or the researchers, effective or right focused or alternative viewpoint, the things that should attract attention are the political as well as intellectual engagement to go after the compliance and implementation of the framework.
Previous years have seen an array of laws, policies and practices, frameworks and comprehensive strategies focusing on the rights of children in the digital world established, analysed as well as recommended in few instances [7]. Nonetheless, children’s digital rights significance was not limited to international but national, and with the shift in focus by previous research to opportunities as the core from risk and protection [8, 9] with digital participation recently included, children’s digital right is currently part of numerous internet bills which are part of the international rights [66]. Moreover, even though children are not particularly specified by some bills, but instead utilise universal phrases like “a person” or “every-human”, some particularly focus on children, for instance iRight [66].
With the current online risks faced by children, concern from the public, policy makers and researchers are now entrusted with obligations of remodelling children’s rights, especially the ones certified to cater for the “digital age” by the UNCRC, which include rights to provision and participation. Generally, among the maiden laws centred on internet drafted by a country was in the United States, where they aim to protect children against improper exposure to online contents [67]. The 1996 Communication Decency Act is an obvious example, which focused on reducing exposure to internet contents that are indecent for children.
According to the European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (2016/679), children now require more online protection than ever before, hence the need for a data approach for subjects that are not age-blind. Consequently, the GDPR in its attempt to bring forth the desired protection, provide a wide range of changes while operating on personal but appropriate data of children [68]. Nevertheless, the absence of apparent interpretation of the concept is a serious challenge even in the nations of the Global North. For example, the lack of clear definition to children data consent, as even directive 95/46/EC does not plainly spell the required consent age for the children [68].
The association of different multi-partner children’s digital rights methodologies has expanded over the years. The Internet Governance Forum has evidently turned into a basic platform for developing as well as discussing accepted procedures with respect to children’s digital technology access and utilisation. Moreover, the Committee on the Rights of a Child in 2014 shows commitment at the international level, by dedicating a complete day to discuss child rights and digital media, amid which they focused on online children engagement [7].
Pundits have examined the regularisation as well as the all-inclusive terminologies backing the UNCRC, describing the ideas and debate on harmful effects of capitalism and children’s rights on the lives of the Global South children [69]. Studies have shown that the idea of a right-bearing free autonomous person is not synonymous with the way of life of children in underdeveloped nations [59]. Kids in the underdeveloped countries largely live in extended families, villages as well as in communities, rather than in nuclear family as it is in the developed countries [50]. Accordingly, the 2013 – 2014 suggest plans that place rights, flexibility as well as value as core part of the UNICEF agenda [22] in the least developed nations.
As depicted in the existing studies, children’s digital rights are a long way from accomplishment in spite of the striking development in both access and digital literacy. Kids are for the most part mentioned in terms of protection, whereas provision and participation rights are excluded. All the same, utilisation of children’s digital rights ought not to be limited only to the values and rights of kids as people, but empowerment and participation of users that are children as well. Scientists keep on demonstrating that numerous educational, interactive and participatory aspects are still utilised [56], and at the same time, thought for framework development as well as techniques focusing on the advancement of children’s rights in the present-day world and endeavours be made by various sectors to implement and equally advocate the guidelines set around by the Committee for the Rights of a Child (CRC), such as Ombudsmen.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (UDHR) adopted (as sacrosanct) document composed by the United Nations General Assembly on the 10th day of December 1948 in Paris is the basis for subsequent proclamations of human rights globally and locally by member states and their territories, upon which the contemporary matters of human rights are being approached. The 30-article document makes explicit the right every human being is entitled to, which should not for any reason be deprived or violated by any individual or government [70]. Article 1 of the declaration clearly states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”. This captures children as human beings with full rights, digital right inclusive. Article 2 goes on to pronounce that “everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status”. The last part of the article rules out any ground for discrimination, hence the alignment of children’s digital right to the general human rights. Article 3 clarifies, that, “everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person”. The right to digital access for human beings including children is one of the many things required by human life, at the same time a catchment area of liberty that ought to be prioritised [8, 9].
As rationally argued by Hospers [71], right being a moral principle sanctioning man’s freedom of action based on choice, only right to life is fundamental, all other rights are its affixed subordinates. The right to engage in self-generated action for self-sustenance and all that is required by the nature of every rational being for the support, fulfilment and enjoyment of the life are also rights, of which right to digital access is one. Human rights issues have multidimensional faces but all lead to realisation of the ultimate right to life.
For the avoidance of ambiguity, the United Nations in 1989 convened the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), an iconic landmark in the history of children’s right. It was clearly defined that rights of the child are legitimate sector of universal human rights. It was a celebrated treaty that emphasised on the idea that children are human beings with their own rights, and must be allowed to grow, learn, develop and flourish with dignity like every other adult. Against this background, children are equally members of family and community with appropriate rights and responsibilities independent of any individual’s pleasure [72]. This follows their being humans and subject of their own rights. In addition, children have some peculiar rights as demanded by their special needs [73]. By the convention, the right of children is equally human right, because they belong to human family and with special needs, so they deserve more considerations as rights than adults. Digital right of children is most rationally therefore closely aligned to general human rights as declared by the United Nations.
Although information age has brought forward different types of citizens with distributed responsibilities and different perspectives as stated by Hermes [74], the accompanying challenges are worrisome especially to children, hence the necessity to protect them. However, restricting online time as a means of preventing cyber victimisation and cyber bullying is practically infeasible because of the digital nature of the children. This makes the development of means that will attract the interest of the children very important.
Right denotes obligation and vice versa. The fact that society is obliged to cater for the children’s needs necessarily warrants that those needs are human rights indeed which therefore makes it paramount that policy makers, researchers and societies at large develop how to moderate these online activities and at the same time striking a balance where children are allowed to go online to satisfy their needs without engaging in harmful activities. It would therefore be safe to claim that the digital right of children is a human rights issue, not because it is specifically mentioned in the United Nations declaration, but because it is depicted by inference. It is one of the fragments that constitute the wholesome human rights. Children are humans, and therefore their right, of any sort, makes list of the general human rights [75]. The mention of “human” does not preclude children as it connotes only the specie, not age.
There is a paucity of research on parental internet mediation with special reference to those that tried to evaluate its effectiveness even in the Global North [76]. So also parental mediation as the act of parents interacting with children on media use but little is known on how certain factors like neighbourhood or cultural norms affect children’s internet usage habits and resultant risks.
The Israeli-Palestinian is a classic case of intractable conflict where ordinary citizens are at the middle of the struggle. It is a lengthy fight where generation after generation is born into the reality of violence, despair, and suffering. The conflict seems to operate as a destructive evolutionary system that has a life of its own. Almost any substantial attempt to generate the conditions for a positive change in the Israeli-Palestinian case, so far, has failed and complicated the situation beyond imagination. The main argument of this essay is that a revolutionary peace process is required in order to break the evolutionary progression of violence and despair.
A revolutionary change-building program requires applying peacemaking, peacebuilding, and peacekeeping measures simultaneously.1 However, peacemaking, peacebuilding, and peacekeeping are controversial concepts that should have different interpretations in different situations. For example, following the Second World War, the UN was established as a major peacekeeping institution. The aim was to create an institution that would be able to manage, stop, and prevent clashes between armies.2 The Israeli-Palestinian case—an intractable conflict where ordinary civilians are at the center of the confrontation—is a different type of conflict. It requires the establishment of different mechanisms to build, keep, and maintain order and stability.
The struggle to build a peaceful social order has to cope with different types of conflicts and crises. The three elements of a peace revolution—peacemaking, peacebuilding, and peacekeeping—should be formulated according to the logic of the situation.3 This paper suggests a multidimensional process, which might be appropriate for crises similar to the Israeli-Palestinian case. Peacemaking is a consensus-building process that involves different societal elements (leaders, political elites, and ordinary citizens) in efforts to conclude a negotiated peace deal.4 Peacebuilding means constructing international, bilateral, and domestic frameworks for a peaceful social order that copes with the needs and concerns of the conflicting parties.5 Peacekeeping suggests creating political, civilian, and militaristic means to maintain order and stability (Table 1).6
Category | Meaning | Means |
---|---|---|
Peacemaking | Consensus building | Diplomacy in three dimensions: political-elite diplomacy, public diplomacy, and people-to-people diplomacy |
Peacebuilding | Building a framework for a peaceful social order | International support, peaceful relationship-building between the parties and domestic reforms within each one of them |
Peacekeeping | Building mechanisms to keep law, order, and stability | Political, civilian, and militaristic mechanisms to cope with tensions, disputes, and crises |
Peace revolution as a three-dimensional process.
The structure of the paper follows the logic of the central argument—peace needs to be made, built, and kept. It is divided into sections: peacemaking, peacebuilding, and peacekeeping. Each section focuses on different aspects of the challenge of change in the Israeli-Palestinian situation. However, each of the sections concretizes that the distinction between peacemaking, peacebuilding, and peacekeeping is more of a theoretical outline that helps us to understand the complexity of the situation, shed light on the challenge of peace, and assist in developing new creative ideas.7
The paper combines theoretical research, comparative case studies, and experimental practice. It grows out of the literature on peacemaking, peacebuilding, and peacekeeping. It draws lessons from peace processes in different situations of intractable conflict, such as the struggle for change in Northern Ireland during the “troubles” and the struggle to dismantle the Apartheid system in South Africa. It offers practical insights from the Minds of Peace Experiment (MOPE)—a short-term Israeli-Palestinian public negotiating assembly—which has been taking place in different forms, variations, and places. This multifaceted methodology intends to tackle the study of peace revolution from different points of view.
There is an agreement among peace researchers that peacemaking means negotiating a peace contract that can put an end to a conflict. This paper suggests a revolutionary peacemaking approach that attacks the challenge of reaching a negotiated contract from different angles and viewpoints. It offers a look at a peacemaking revolution as a consensus-building process, which involves key elements of the conflicting parties—leaders, elites, and people—in a multidimensional negotiating process. It is a more conclusive strategy than the dominant peacemaking experience in the Middle East, which, often enough, involves only leaders and elites.8
A revolutionary peacemaking approach, according to this paper, is a consensus-building process that operates on three levels: political elite, “ordinary” people, and the interactions between the two. It suggests a three-level structure of peacemaking diplomacy: political-elite diplomacy, public diplomacy, and people-to-people diplomacy (Table 2).
Level of operation | Mechanisms | Description |
---|---|---|
Top | Political-elite diplomacy | Peacemaking engagement between political elites |
Middle | Public diplomacy | Interactions between political elites and ordinary people |
Bottom | People-to-people diplomacy | Peacemaking engagement between ordinary people |
Peacemaking diplomacy in three dimensions.
Classical examples, such as the Oslo Accords of the 1990s, demonstrate that political-elite diplomacy offers efficient operative channels for helping leaders and elites reach innovative agreements in stalemate situations. Its main disadvantage is that it does not offer effective methods to involve the publics in the peacemaking efforts, prepare the people for a change, and help them deal with ongoing crises along the peace road. As a result, political-elite diplomacy is vulnerable to violent acts of spoilers, radicals, and extremists, who are determined to use aggressive means to crush any effort to reach a negotiated peace contract. Indeed, violent events made a major contribution to the collapse of the Oslo Accords of the 1990s. The cumulative effect of the ongoing violence has led to a loss of public belief in the possibility of creating a constructive change. The decrease of public support of the peacemaking gives the momentum to the opposition of the peace process, who makes sure that the conflict will continue.10
This paper suggests creating a (peacemaking) public diplomacy institution—an Israeli-Palestinian Public Negotiating Congress. A public negotiating congress (PNC) is a democratic peacemaking institution that invites representatives of the conflicting people to negotiate different solutions to their conflict. All congress participants, who reflect the political spectrum in the conflicting societies, would have to commit to principles of non-violent discourse.16
The congress is built to involve the conflicting publics in the peacemaking efforts, prepare the people for change, and motivate the leaderships to reach agreements. The idea to establish an Israeli-Palestinian Public Negotiating Congress is inspired by the multiparty negotiations that enabled a revolutionary change in the struggle against Apartheid in South Africa and in Northern Ireland during the “troubles.”17
In South Africa and Northern Ireland, leaders came to the conclusion that they need a public diplomacy device to involve the public in the peace process. These leaders used diplomatic interactions to create the multiparty congresses. In the Israeli-Palestinian situation, so far, leaders do not even consider creating a similar public diplomacy device. They mainly focus on political-elite diplomacy in the effort to stabilize the situation. As an alternative choice, it is worth examining the possibility that an Israeli-Palestinian Public Negotiating Congress—which can be regarded as an Israeli-Palestinian version of the multiparty negotiations in South Africa and Northern Ireland—will emerge from people-to-people interactions. One people-to-people project that is designed to reach this goal is the Minds of Peace Experiment.
The Minds of Peace Experiment (MOPE) is a short-term Israeli-Palestinian public negotiating assembly. The MOPE invites teams of Israelis and Palestinians to negotiate a peace deal, generally over a 2-day period of five sessions. The assembly is co-moderated by Israelis and Palestinians, who lead the interaction in a framework of general rules. The dialog is open to the public and invites its participation.
The Minds of Peace Experiment was conducted in various sizes and formats and in different locations. It has been demonstrated as a powerful instrument for people-to-people diplomacy. The various rounds of the MOPE indicate that the initiative is effective in involving ordinary people in the struggle for peace, preparing them for painful compromises, and creating peacemaking coalitions. However, without extensive use of public diplomacy, the influence of the MOPE is doomed to remain marginal. There is a necessity to create domestic and international pressure to institutionalize the initiative. The MOPE needs to grow, develop, and transform into a major revolutionary institution—an Israeli-Palestinian Public Negotiating Congress with substantial political influence.18
This paper suggests looking at a peacemaking revolution as a consensus-building development that involves the different societal elements—leaders, elite, and people—in the struggle for peace and stability. To reach this goal, it is necessary to create a balance between political-elite diplomacy and public diplomacy. Political-elite diplomacy provides diplomatic channels for leaders to reach agreements. Public diplomacy intends to involve the public in the peacemaking efforts, prepare the people for a change, and motivate the leaderships to accomplish a settlement. A major public negotiating congress is a public diplomacy instrument that has the potential to create the equilibrium.19 On the one hand, it can serve as a political tool for leaders to create public support in a negotiating process that can produce a peace contract (top-down). On the other hand, it can serve as political instrument for people to influence leaders and demand that they initiate an effective peacemaking policy (bottom-up).20 Moreover, a public negotiating congress can be discovered as a revolutionary device that could invite new political groups and leaders to the political arena.21
The multiparty negotiations in Northern Ireland and South Africa taught us that an Israeli-Palestinian Public Negotiating Congress can be an effective peacemaking institution that could open new political opportunities and push the train of change in unimagined directions. In both cases, political leaders established the multiparty talks in order to generate public support in the peacemaking. In the Israeli-Palestinian case, political-elite diplomacy is the main peacemaking setting. There are no signs of leadership interest and motivation to establish a public diplomacy device for involving the publics in the change-making efforts. As a desperate choice, this paper suggests considering the option of a public negotiating congress growing from people-to-people interactions.
The Minds of Peace Experiment is a grassroots initiative that intends to demonstrate the peacemaking potential of a major public negotiating congress, to help evaluate its possible outcomes, and to generate support for its creation. However, I did not find any example where a major public negotiating congress emerged of people-to-people activities.22 Perhaps, the Minds of Peace initiative is doomed to fail like almost all other peacemaking initiatives so far. Nevertheless, it is impossible to predict the future.23
Peacebuilding, in this paper, means building the conditions for a peaceful social order that can cope with the fears, needs, and concerns of the opposing factions. It is a multidimensional configuration, which needs to cope with challenges in three main dimensions: international, generating international support for a peaceful social order and marginalizing the impact of international spoilers; interparty, building peaceful relationships between the conflicting parties; and intraparty, domestic reforms within the opposing parties in order to cope with internal obstacles for peace and stability (Table 3).
Level of operation | Goal | Means |
---|---|---|
International | Generating international support for peace and stability | Diplomacy |
Interparty | Building peaceful relationships between adversaries | Sociopolitical initiatives, such as economic collaboration, education for peace, and reconciliation projects |
Intraparty | Building the foundations for order and stability in the opposing parties | Domestic reforms within the opposing parties |
Peacebuilding as a three-dimensional configuration.
Coping with the problem of the Palestinian refugees, which will, probably, need to relocate in different locations,25 and the urgent need to marginalize the impact of an international spoiler, such as Iran, are two examples of major problems for which Israelis and Palestinians will need international assistance and intervention. This means that any realistic peace initiative needs to establish working relationships with the international community in order to guarantee its commitment and support.
Diplomacy, as a key instrument of foreign affairs, is the tool to reach international support. Naturally, there are major disagreements between Israelis and Palestinians upon the very essence of the desired international intervention in the peace process. For example, who are the international players that should take part in the peace process? What will be their role? Where is the line between legitimate and illegitimate intervention?26
According to the methodology suggested in this paper, Israelis and Palestinians need to reach a peace agreement in bilateral negotiations (peacemaking), while the international community should support it, marginalize the influence of spoilers, and assist in implementing the agreements. The boundaries of international intervention should be negotiated and determined early in the peacemaking stage.
Israelis and Palestinians will need to create mechanisms for building peaceful relationships, which are critical for maintaining peace, order, and stability. The challenge necessitates multidimensional peacebuilding measures, including joint economic projects, education for peace and tolerance, and reconciliation. Let me demonstrate the challenge by focusing on certain aspects of these three dimensions:
Economic cooperation: Ordinary Palestinians and Israelis are struggling in their daily life. Palestinians are struggling to make a decent living and support their families in a difficult situation of developing their society, while Israelis are struggling under the burden of the high cost of living in Israel. Economic cooperation can benefit the two sides. For example, Israelis are interested in buying quality low-price goods, which Palestinians know how to manufacture and sell.
Creating Israeli-Palestinian free-trade zones can benefit the two sides.28 Israelis, who are interested in buying quality goods at reasonable prices, can create a market for Palestinians who can manufacture quality goods at a low cost. The economic interests of the two sides can be a vehicle for peaceful relation building. For example, it can demonstrate to the people the interdependence of the two societies; it can assist in developing friendly relationships between adversaries (or more precisely former adversaries); and it has the potential of reducing hostility and the impact of prejudice on the attitude of people of the opposing sides toward each other.
Education: Hostile relationships between neighbors, which are destined to live side by side, are a proven recipe for clash. To live in a peaceful social order, the two sides—Israelis and Palestinians—will need to overcome classical symptoms of intractable conflict, such as chronic mistrust, prejudice, and dehumanization of the other. Education, in general, and peace education, in particular, can play an important role in coping with the challenge.
Education has a critical influence on worldview and the sociopolitical attitude of human beings, especially of the young generation. Israelis and Palestinians will need to do major reforms in their educational curriculum—such as stopping the incitement, teaching the very essence of tolerance and pluralism, and even teaching the other’s culture and traditions. However, changing educational programs is not easy. The old system has its own dynamic evolution and protective mechanisms.
Observations show that in transition periods, between war and peace, educational systems, often enough, are transformed or more precisely revolutionized, by force. For example, after the Second World War, the Allied Forces forced major domestic reforms in the educational systems of Japan and Germany. They insisted that the new educational system be based on liberal values.29 These paradoxical cases, where peace and liberal education were forced by coercive means, have a general lesson. They demonstrate that building the conditions for peace and stability, by establishing a new framework of rules and institutions, cannot be free from elements of force, power, and manipulation.30 Good intentions are not enough.
Reconciliation: In the middle of the twentieth century, after the Second World War, it was almost impossible to imagine peace and reconciliation in Europe. About 50 years later, former entrenched enemies, such as Germany and France, established a confederation, the European Union. Today, it is almost impossible to imagine a violent conflict between members of the EU. It looks that there is a reconciliation in Europe. Is reconciliation possible in the Middle East? Is reconciliation possible between two national communities, Israelis and Palestinians, whose ethnic, religious, and cultural identities seem to be so different? Is reconciliation possible after about 120 years of intractable conflict that seems to have a life, dynamic, and evolution of its own?
Analyzing the situation in the light of Huntington’s theory—the clash of civilization—leads to pessimism.31 In this framework, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a point of clash between different cultural units (civilizations). Therefore, it is impossible to solve the conflict and reconcile between the parties. The old city of Jerusalem, which is extremely important to believers of different religions, demonstrates the problem.
In contrast to Huntington’s theory, this paper suggests analyzing the situation from a different perspective. Huntington’s theory globalizes the problem and calls it a symptom of “clash of civilizations,” while our approach examines the conflict as a communal struggle—a conflict between two national communities. Our approach holds better chances of coping with a difficult situation. Huntington’s theory offers despair in advance. Israelis and Palestinians cannot afford to be engaged in a cold peace. For peace and stability, it is mandatory to develop tools for reconciliation.
From a practical perspective, there are good reasons for optimism in this direction. Palestinians, who believe that the Arab states have part of the blame in their situation, see the deteriorating situation of the Arab world in contrast to the prosperity of the West and Israel. It is reasonable to assume that they have a desire (or, at least, a secret desire) to be part of the success. Israelis have aspired, for a long time, to become part of the new Middle East and stop being a fortified isolated castle. Peace and reconciliation between Israelis and Palestinians may open a gate to fulfill these aspirations.
There are grassroots initiatives that focus on reconciliation between the two parties.33 These successful programs operate on a very minor scale. They need to expand, integrate into educational systems, and operate on a mass-scale level.
In our context, domestic reforms that improve the internal cohesion of each society, the rule of law, and the accountability of political leaders may help the opposing populations to discover the value of peace, to start believing that it can be achieved, and to explore possibilities for reaching it. These necessary measures could potentially create an effective framework for a substantial peace process and reduce the impact of radicals, extremists, and spoilers. The “paradox of violence” can demonstrate the importance of reforming major elements within each of the opposing societies.34
A classical characteristic of intractable conflict is the paradox of violence—almost any progression toward a positive change is likely to cause a growth in the level of violence. It is possible to identify two main reasons for this observation. The first is spoilers—radical elements increase efforts to sabotage almost any kind of peace process by violent means. The second is internal tensions—any progress toward peace between opposing societies tends to increase tensions within each one of them. This symptom characterizes developing societies that lack sufficient instruments to cope with domestic tensions and disagreements by peaceful means. Let me elaborate on the second reason, which is more related to the focus of this section (domestic reforms in the conflicting societies).
A society is built of various elements, such as individuals, ethnic groups, economic corporations, religious congregations, and political associations. These different social elements do not necessarily hold similar priorities, preferences, and sociopolitical agenda. Intractable conflict is a unifying force. Opponents may collaborate in order to fight a joint enemy. However, as soon as there is progress toward peace, tensions within each of the conflicting parties appear and become a dominant factor. For example, the struggle against the Apartheid system in South Africa had unified the nonwhite people. This “unification” made the impression that the struggle is between the “black” population and the “white” one. However, the progress toward a new governmental system exposed the diversity within the “black” people and led to violent clashes within the nonwhite camp.35
Israeli academics have emphasized that the Palestinian authority is a developing entity.36 It lacks instruments to cope with social crises that can follow transition from one sociopolitical order to another. The unilateral withdrawal of the Israeli forces from the Gaza Strip, led by the former Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon in 2005, demonstrates the difficulties and the obstacles.
Sharon’s plan to withdraw Israeli troops, and about 8000 Jewish settlers, from Gaza and 4 small areas in the West Bank had a dramatic effect on the situation. Following the unilateral withdrawal, Israel—a modern country with established democratic institutions—survived the shock, but the Palestinian authority collapsed. The events that followed were a coup by Hamas in Gaza and a bloody civil war within the Palestinian society. Since then the Palestinian society is politically divided. The radical Islamic movement, Hamas, which is committed to radical Islamism, controls Gaza, while the secular nationalist movement Fatah, whose official agenda is building an independent Palestinian civil society based on the 1967 cease-fire line (two-state solution), administers the major parts of the West Bank.
Israeli scholars point out that the tragic situation in the Gaza case enfolds a general lesson—any intention to divide the land endangers the security of Israel. The Palestinian authority in the West Bank is a developing entity that lacks instruments to cope with social crises that can follow a transition from one sociopolitical order to another. There is a grave danger that any Israeli withdrawal from the West bank will lead to a repeat of the Gaza scenario—collapse of the Palestinian authority, radical elements, such as Hamas and the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), taking control and launching missiles at the center of Israel.37
In any framework of partition of the land between the two peoples, domestic reforms in the Palestinian society are a precondition to a successful peace process. For the sake of peace and stability, it is necessary for the Palestinians to establish the foundations of a modern independent state: building public institutions; creating a stable, efficient, and transparent administration; disarming violent groups; and developing all other mechanisms of a decent civil society.
The difficult task of creating the conditions for peace and stability requires preparing the opposing societies, Palestinians and Israelis, for coexistence in any possible framework. This means that domestic reforms in the Palestinian society are not enough to create a long-lasting change. There is a need for domestic reforms within the state of Israel, especially, in regard to the sensitive issue of “national identity” and its practical implications.
Israel is a multicultural society. The Israeli population includes a majority of Jewish citizens who came from different parts of the world and a large minority of non-Jewish citizens (about 20% Arabs). Nevertheless, Israel is considered a Jewish state. It is true that a major part of Arab-Israelis’ integration in the Israeli society is expressed through participation of the Arab population in the democratic processes of Israel.38 Nevertheless, the fact that a non-Jewish population belongs to a Jewish state holds many elements of exclusion. The politics of exclusion is expressed in many dimensions of Israeli social life. For example, in the psychological dimension, many Arab-Israelis see themselves as second-class citizens, and in the symbolic sphere, the national symbols of the country are taken from Jewish tradition.
According to pluralist perception, having a national home is a basic need. Human beings need a place that will accept them simply because they belong.39 The non-Jewish citizens of Israel have a problem seeing the Jewish state as their national home. As Professor Joseph Agassi [38] noted, this problem has direct and indirect implications on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
According to Agassi, establishing a stable decent Palestinian state will necessarily lead to tensions within Israel. The reason is that Arab-Israelis, who live in different parts of the country and have difficulties seeing the Jewish state as their national home, can see the new Palestinian state as their natural national homeland. The inevitable result, according to Agassi, is that they will aspire to live (on their land in Israel) under a Palestinian rule. Jewish Israelis are likely to object and reject such a drastic political motivation. The different motivations can lead to a dangerous clash.
Due to the situation of the Arab world, in general, and the Palestinian society in particular, the establishment of a decent and stable Palestinian state looks like a dream at this stage. However, Agassi’s analysis enfolds a lesson—Israelis will have to think seriously about how to better integrate ethnic minorities in Israel. The existence of Arab citizens of Israel has many important effects upon the conduct of the country in general and its relations with Palestinians in the territories in particular.40 Improved relationships between the Arab minority and the Jewish majority in Israel might pave the way for better relations with a future Palestinian polity and create direct and indirect opportunities for peacemaking. It can help the Jewish population in Israel to overcome the obsessive fear of losing the Jewish character of the state. The implications can be substantial and dramatic. For example, the people in Israel might overcome prejudice against Arabs, be more receptive to examine seriously creative solutions to the conflict, and even consider including Arab representatives in Israeli delegations for future negotiations.
Transition from one social order to another is difficult for almost any society. A transitional period for developing entities, which have hardly developed political and social mechanisms to cope with new challenges, can end in disaster. Huntington [26] pointed out that the lack of an effective framework of rules and institutions in changing societies can be used and abused by a new sociopolitical force to take control. The new political player who comes to power is not necessarily able to, interested to, or knowledgeable about how to establish a new sociopolitical order that can benefit the members of society.
The collapse of Gaza to the hand of the radical movement Hamas demonstrates the danger of drastic unilateral moves in the West Bank situation. Moreover, it shows that the three elements of peacebuilding (international support, relationship building, and domestic reforms) are intertwined. For example, it is quite clear that Palestinian domestic difficulties are not the only internal Palestinian problems. They are also an Israeli problem and a regional problem. It is in the best interests of Israelis, Egyptians, and Jordanians to help the Palestinians establish a viable stable polity that could fight the expansion of religious fanaticism.
The analysis of the peacebuilding challenge in the Israeli-Palestinian situation also demonstrates that peace revolution is a composite of peacemaking, peacebuilding, and peacekeeping. These elements are intertwined and need to be applied simultaneously. Peacebuilding measures (international support, relationship building, and domestic reforms) can help in providing a safety net for stability during a peacemaking process. It helps to guarantee that if the negotiation fails, the outcomes will not be disastrous as they have been in the past.
After the Second World War, peacekeeping was understood as division between entrenched enemies.41 The guiding principle was “Good fences create good neighbors.” The end of the Cold War and the growing numbers of intrastate struggles have led to alteration in this view of peacekeeping. The concept of peacekeeping was extended to cases where it is impossible to hermetically separate enemies.42
The unavoidable contact between Israelis and Palestinians shows that it is mandatory to design and implement a nontraditional peacekeeping strategy. A nontraditional strategy involves different societal elements—such as citizens, political leaders, and special security forces—in the efforts to maintain peace, order, and stability.
The challenge of peacekeeping is multidimensional. To simplify and demonstrate the need to design a multidimensional strategy to keep peace and stability, the paper suggests focusing on three levels of peacekeeping: political, military, and civilian: An Israeli-Palestinian Congress for Peace and Security can be a political institution for monitoring joint activities and coping with tensions, disputes, and ad hoc sociopolitical problems between the two sides. A joint border security force can be established to protect the east border of a new Palestinian state in the West Bank (the border between the new Palestine and Jordan in a framework of two-state solution). A joint civil guard can be established to help in keeping order and stability in places where Israeli and Palestinian civilians are in direct contact (Table 4).
Level of operation | Goals | Mechanisms |
---|---|---|
Political | Coping with sociopolitical problems, coordinating joint activities, and monitoring shared mechanisms | Israeli-Palestinian Congress for Peace and Security |
Military | Protecting the border between a new Palestinian state and Jordan | A joint border guard |
Civilian and police | Coping with civilian problems and keeping law and order in friction points | Security cooperation and a joint civil guard |
Peacekeeping in three dimensions.
Let me elaborate.
The peacemaking section of this paper proposes establishing a powerful instrument for the peacemaking part of a peace revolution—a major Israeli-Palestinian Public Negotiating Congress. The congress is a consensus-building institution that is planned to involve different societal elements of the conflicting societies (leaders, elites, and people) in the peace efforts. Its main tasks are to offer political alternatives to the violent struggle, prepare the publics for a change, and motivate the leaderships to reach agreements. However, once a peace agreement has been achieved, this peacemaking institution needs to be transformed, or it will become useless. The logic of the evolutionary progression of a peacemaking revolution proposes that a pubic negotiating congress—a major peacemaking institution—should be transformed into a major peacekeeping institution, which could be labeled as congress for peace and security.44
The inevitable friction between Israelis and Palestinians will require political instruments to cope with inevitable tensions, disagreements, and joint problems. In the post-conflict phase, a joint peacekeeping congress could deal with tensions, disputes, and ad hoc problems, initiate and coordinate joint projects in various fields (such as education, economics, and politics), and establish mechanisms for reconciliation.
Similar to the UN, which is the global peacekeeping institution, the main actual power of the peacekeeping congress (Israeli-Palestinian Congress for Peace and Security) is its very existence. In the peacemaking stage, a public negotiating congress involves the publics in the struggle for peace and generates public pressure to reach a settlement. In the post-conflict phase, the peacekeeping congress should remind everyone of the high cost of conflict and the precious value of peace.
A difficult question is how to start and build this institutional evolution (from peacemaking congress to a peacekeeping congress), which is so necessary for a peace revolution. Unfortunately, this critical discussion is not in scope of this paper.45
In different rounds of the Minds of Peace Experiment (MOPE)—a small-scale Israeli-Palestinian public negotiating assembly, which was conducted in different locations with different delegations of Israelis and Palestinians—the delegations agreed on the creation of a joint Israeli-Palestinian security force that will operate in a security zone near the border.46 This idea has different versions with different implications. For example, in some of the assemblies, the delegations agreed that the joint security force would become part of the IDF. In other assemblies, Palestinians were concerned that soldiers, with IDF uniforms, in Palestinian areas would remind the people of the occupation and the consequences could be harmful. To prevent such complications, the delegations in these assemblies agreed that the border guard unit would have their own special uniforms. In addition, it is worth considering that the border guard unit will be linked to Israel, Palestine, and the Israeli-Palestinian Congress for Peace and Security (which was, previously, proposed as a political peacekeeping institution). Of course, the details need to be discussed and negotiated by the two sides.
Another option which was raised by some scholars is that, eventually, the Palestinians will need to be in charge of protecting their border. They propose a two-stage process. In the first stage, an international force will protect the border and train a Palestinian border guard unit. In the second stage, the international force will leave, and the Palestinian force will take responsibility.47
It seems that the first proposal has better chances of being accepted by Israelis and Palestinians. It is hard to imagine Israelis and Palestinians agreeing that an international force, and later a new Palestinian security unit, will be in charge of their security. A joint Israeli-Palestinian border guard unit, as in the first proposal, can indirectly serve also as a peacebuilding instrument. Its cooperative feature can help to explore possibilities of improving the relations between Israelis and Palestinians.
Order and stability within Palestine: As already mentioned, the Palestinian society is suffering from symptoms of a developing entity. Israelis, who object to the “two-state solution,” claim that any attempt to implement this type of solution is doomed to fail and would endanger the security of Israel.48 The fear is that a new Palestinian state in the West Bank will collapse into civil war similar to the Gaza crisis in 2008. Since civil wars usually end in the victory of one party and not power sharing,49 the results can be a hostile regime (such as Hamas and ISIS) in the West Bank. That would be a serious security threat near Israeli towns.
Building a strong and efficient Palestinian police force is necessary to prevent this dangerous scenario. Israel can help in training the Palestinian police. The cooperation between security forces of the two sides, which works quite well in the West Bank, could be modified, tailored, and expanded for the new situation. In addition, a joint civil guard can be established in order to help in stabilizing a new social order.
Jewish settlements in the West Bank: Any form of solution, which is based on the establishment of a Palestinian state, has to cope with the presence of Jewish settlements (about 400,000 settlers) in the West Bank. The “optimal” solution to the problem is probably a mix of three options: (1) border modifications and land exchange: annexation of Jewish settlements to Israel and compensation to Palestinians in return; (2) evacuation of Jewish settlements; and (3) Jewish settlements in the West Bank will remain under Palestinian sovereignty.50
The settlements in the West Bank that cannot be annexed to Israel (option 1) and cannot be evacuated (option 2) will need to remain under Palestinian sovereignty (option 3). This will create major security problems. For example, who will solve disputes between Jewish neighbors? Should religious Jewish settlers call Palestinian police in such matters? Can a Palestinian police officer serve as a moderator in a dispute between religious Jews?
A joint Israeli-Palestinian civil guard can be helpful in such situations. It could assist in coping with such sensitive problems that are beyond the capacity of a regular police force. Of course, the two sides will need to discuss and negotiate the very essence of any joint civil guard. This project—the creation of a joint civil guard—has also peacebuilding implications. It can contribute to the transformation of hostile relationships between entrenched enemies who fight one another into cooperative relationships between neighbors who are trying to cope with joint problems.
The holy places in Jerusalem: The holy city of Jerusalem, the walled area, which is so important to believers of different religions, needs to be administered with much care, sophistication, and creativity. A joint civil guard, which will be subject to a joint municipality, can take into consideration the needs of those who care about the city. It can become a symbol of pluralism, tolerance, and peace.
This section suggests three peacekeeping mechanisms that operate in three intertwined dimensions: congress for peace and security (politics), a joint border guard (military), and a joint civil guard (civilian). It would be important, efficient, and beneficial that Israelis and Palestinians discuss and negotiate the structure, authority, and operation of any peacekeeping mechanism beginning as early as the peacemaking step. It could help avoid future complications when implementing any negotiated peace contract. Moreover, it could be a trust-building move that demonstrates to the people that any peace agreement would be signed and implemented only when mechanisms to keep security, order, and stability are established.51
Intractable conflict is a severe crisis. It is a longtime struggle where generations in turn are born into the reality of aggression, despair, and violence. The conflict seems to have a life of its own. It is like a disease that controls the body. A revolutionary process is needed to create a sustainable change.
Revolution is an “overthrow of an established social order” Friedrich ([41], 5). Peace revolution is a conclusive attack on the foundations and structure of the conflict and the sociopolitical destructive mechanisms that constantly feed it. Peace revolution is planned to involve, at least, three key elements of the opposing parties (leaders, elites, and people) in a change-building process that tackles the conflict from different levels, sides, and directions.
A revolutionary peace process needs to take into consideration that peace needs to be made, built, and kept. Peacemaking suggests diplomatic instruments to involve key social elements of the conflicting parties (leaders, elites, and people) in a multidimensional negotiation of a peace contract. Peacebuilding offers a program to construct a negotiated framework for a new social order, which copes with the needs, fears, and concerns of the conflicting factions. Peacekeeping advocates the creation of a multidimensional system of different operating mechanisms (political, militaristic. and civilian) to maintain law and order.
Distinguishing between the three elements of a peace revolution (peacemaking, peacebuilding and peacekeeping) is not always clear. Moreover, as this paper shows, these elements are intertwined. It will be a mistake to concentrate on one element of the challenge of peace (such as peacemaking) without taking into account the others. It can lead to the same old familiar failures.
Intractable conflict, similar to almost all phenomena in the social sciences, is a complex phenomenon.52 It is a composite of components, factors, and variables of different dimensions, such as psychology, economics, and religion. Peace revolutionaries need to take into account, as much as possible, the complexity of the situation and, accordingly, construct an innovative multidimensional approach to change. This is the main message of this paper.
Sapir Handelman is the co-laureate of the 2010 Peter Becker Award for Peace and Conflict Research. He is an associate professor (senior lecturer) and the head of the conflict studies division at Achva Academic College, Israel. Dr. Handelman founded and leads the Minds of Peace NGO, which is based on his concepts of conflict resolution in intractable conflicts.
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The Gram-positive pathogen is armed with battery of virulence factors that facilitate to establish infections in the hosts. The organism is well known for its ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotic classes. The emergence and spread of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains which are often multi-drug resistant in hospitals and subsequently in community resulted in significant mortality and morbidity. The epidemiology of MRSA has been evolving since its initial outbreak which necessitates a comprehensive medical approach to tackle this pathogen. Vancomycin has been the drug of choice for years but its utility was challenged by the emergence of resistance. In the last 10 years or so, newer anti-MRSA antibiotics were approved for clinical use. 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Clonal complex 398 (CC398), a predominant clonal lineage of livestock-associated-MRSA in domestic animals and retail meat, is capable of infecting humans. In order to monitor and prevent MRSA contamination, it is critical to understand its source and transmission dynamics. 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This group is often detected in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, including ulcerative colitis. That is why new rapid methods for their isolation, purification, and identification are important and necessary. In this chapter, the methods of mesophilic SRB isolation from various environments are described. Particular attention is paid to the purification of mesophilic SRB since they can be in close interaction with other microorganisms (Clostridium, Bacteroides, Pseudomonas, etc.), which are their frequent satellites. Moreover, the main methods of mesophilic SRB identification based on their morphological, physiological, biochemical, and genetical characteristics are presented.",book:{id:"8997",slug:"microorganisms",title:"Microorganisms",fullTitle:"Microorganisms"},signatures:"Ivan Kushkevych",authors:[{id:"252191",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kushkevych",slug:"ivan-kushkevych",fullName:"Ivan Kushkevych"}]},{id:"65773",title:"Life Cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi in the Invertebrate and the Vertebrate Hosts",slug:"life-cycle-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-in-the-invertebrate-and-the-vertebrate-hosts",totalDownloads:1506,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, a zoonotic disease that can be transmitted to humans by blood-sucking triatomine bugs. T. cruzi is a single-celled eukaryote with a complex life cycle alternating between reduviid bug invertebrate vectors and vertebrate hosts. This article will look at the developmental stages of T. cruzi in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate hosts, the different surface membrane proteins involved in different life cycle stages of T. cruzi, roles of different amino acids in the life cycle, carbon and energy sources and gene expression in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The author will also look at extracellular vesicles (EV) and its role in the dissemination and survival of T. cruzi in mammalian host.",book:{id:"8806",slug:"biology-of-em-trypanosoma-cruzi-em-",title:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi",fullTitle:"Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi"},signatures:"Kenechukwu C. Onyekwelu",authors:[{id:"245368",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenechukwu C.",middleName:null,surname:"Onyekwelu",slug:"kenechukwu-c.-onyekwelu",fullName:"Kenechukwu C. 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To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmental and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as “the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities”. Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strategies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5527",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",fullTitle:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites"},signatures:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti",authors:[{id:"191763",title:"Dr.",name:"Tebit Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Kwenti",slug:"tebit-emmanuel-kwenti",fullName:"Tebit Emmanuel Kwenti"}]},{id:"70336",title:"Plastics Polymers Degradation by Fungi",slug:"plastics-polymers-degradation-by-fungi",totalDownloads:1462,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The studies on plastic degradation are very important for the development of biodegradable plastics, and for reduction of pollution, since plastic waste can remain in the environment for decades or centuries. We have showed the degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic bags and green polyethylene by Pleurotus ostreatus. This fungus can also produce mushrooms using these plastics. The plastic degradation was possibly by three reasons: (a) presence of pro-oxidant ions or plant polymer, (b) low specificity of the lignocellulolytic enzymes, and (c) the presence of endomycotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. In this chapter, the plastic bags’ degradation by abiotic and microbial process using the exposure to sunlight and the use of a white-rot fungus will described. The physical, chemical, and biological alterations of plastic were analyzed after each process of degradation. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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