\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6240",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Adaptive Robust Control Systems",title:"Adaptive Robust Control Systems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book focuses on the applications of robust and adaptive control approaches to practical systems. \nThe proposed control systems hold two important features: \n(1) The system is robust with the variation in plant parameters and disturbances\n(2) The system adapts to parametric uncertainties even in the unknown plant structure by self-training and self-estimating the unknown factors.\nThe various kinds of robust adaptive controls represented in this book are composed of sliding mode control, model-reference adaptive control, gain-scheduling, H-infinity, model-predictive control, fuzzy logic, neural networks, machine learning, and so on. The control objects are very abundant, from cranes, aircrafts, and wind turbines to automobile, medical and sport machines, combustion engines, and electrical machines.",isbn:"978-953-51-3797-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3796-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4070-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68813",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"adaptive-robust-control-systems",numberOfPages:362,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"19601f78e28ac1956912e5eeb6b834ac",bookSignature:"Le Anh Tuan",publishedDate:"March 7th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6240.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21768,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:33,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 18th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 9th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 5th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"180551",title:"Prof.",name:"Anh Tuan",middleName:null,surname:"Le",slug:"anh-tuan-le",fullName:"Anh Tuan Le",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180551/images/6926_n.png",biography:"Le Anh Tuan received his BE and ME degrees in Mechanical Engineering and Marine Machinery from the Vietnam Maritime University in 2003 and 2007, respectively. He received his PhD degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Kyung Hee University, South Korea, in 2012. He was a research fellow at the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; a visiting scholar at the University of Birmingham, UK; and an endeavor research fellow at the University of Technology Sydney, Australia. He is a contract research professor at the Center of Wind Energy System, Kunsan National University, \nKorea, since 2016. He is currently an associate professor at the Department of Automotive Engineering of the Vietnam Maritime University. His research interests are nonlinear robust adaptive control, dynamics, vibration, and control of industrial machines.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Viet Nam Maritime University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"115",title:"Control Engineering",slug:"engineering-control-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"57419",title:"Robust Adaptive Controls of a Vehicle Seat Suspension System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71422",slug:"robust-adaptive-controls-of-a-vehicle-seat-suspension-system",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work proposes two novel adaptive fuzzy controllers and applies them to vibration control of a vehicle seat suspension system subjected to severe road profiles. The first adaptive controller is designed by considering prescribed performance of the sliding surface and combined with adaptation laws so that robust stability is guaranteed in the presence of external disturbances. As for the second adaptive controller, both the H-infinity controller and sliding mode controller are combined using inversely fuzzified values of the fuzzy model. In order to evaluate control performances of the proposed two adaptive controllers, a semi-active vehicle suspension system installed with a magneto-rheological (MR) damper is adopted. After determining control gains, two controllers are applied to the system and vibration control performances such as displacement at the driver’s position are evaluated and presented in time domain. In this work, to demonstrate the control robustness two severe road profiles of regular bump and random step wave are imposed as external disturbances. It is shown that both adaptive controllers can enhance ride comfort of the driver by reducing the displacement and acceleration at the seat position. This excellent performance is achieved from each benefit of each adaptive controller; accurate tracking performance of the first controller and fast convergence time of the second controller.",signatures:"Do Xuan Phu, Ta Duc Huy and Seung Bok Choi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57419",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57419",authors:[{id:"58128",title:"Prof.",name:"Seung-Bok",surname:"Choi",slug:"seung-bok-choi",fullName:"Seung-Bok Choi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57990",title:"Adaptive Robust Guidance Scheme Based on the Sliding Mode Control in an Aircraft Pursuit-Evasion Problem",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72177",slug:"adaptive-robust-guidance-scheme-based-on-the-sliding-mode-control-in-an-aircraft-pursuit-evasion-pro",totalDownloads:1094,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a robust guidance scheme utilizing a line-of-sight (LOS) observation is presented. Initial relative speed and distance, and error boundaries of them are estimated in accordance with the interceptor-target relative motion kinematics. A robust guidance scheme based on the sliding mode control (SMC) is developed, which requires the boundaries of the target maneuver, and inevitably has jitter phenomenon. For solving above-mentioned problems, an estimation to the target acceleration’s boundary is developed for enhancing robustness of the guidance scheme and the Lyapunov stabilization is analyzed. The proposed robust guidance scheme’s brief characteristic is to reduce the effect of relative speed and distance, to reduce the effect of target maneuverability on the guidance precision, and to strengthen the influence of line-of-sight angular velocity. The proposed scheme’s performances are validated by the simulations of different target maneuvers under two worst-case conditions.",signatures:"Jian Chen, Yongjun Zheng, Yuan Ren, Yuan Tian, Chen Bai, Zhang\nRen, Guangqi Wang, Nannan Du and Yu Tan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57990",authors:[{id:"210867",title:"Prof.",name:"Jian",surname:"Chen",slug:"jian-chen",fullName:"Jian Chen"},{id:"210868",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan",surname:"Tian",slug:"yuan-tian",fullName:"Yuan Tian"},{id:"210869",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhang",surname:"Ren",slug:"zhang-ren",fullName:"Zhang Ren"},{id:"219540",title:"Dr.",name:"Chen",surname:"Bai",slug:"chen-bai",fullName:"Chen Bai"}],corrections:null},{id:"58006",title:"High-Gain Observer–Based Sliding Mode Control of Multimotor Drive Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71656",slug:"high-gain-observer-based-sliding-mode-control-of-multimotor-drive-systems",totalDownloads:993,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multimotor drive systems have been widely used in many modern industries. It is a nonlinear, multi-input, multi-output (MIMO) and strong-coupling complicated system, including the effect of friction, elastic, and backlash. The control law for this drive system much depends on the determining of the tension. However, it is hard to obtain this tension in practice by using a load cell or a pressure meter due to the accuracy of sensors or external disturbance. In order to solve this problem, a high-gain observer is proposed to estimate the state variables in this drive system, such as speeds and tension. An emerging proposed technique in the control law is the use of high-gain observers together with adaptive sliding mode control scheme to obtain a separation principle for the stabilization of whole system. The theory analysis and simulation results point out the good effectiveness of the proposed output feedback for the drive system.",signatures:"Pham Tam Thanh, Dao Phuong Nam, Tran Xuan Tinh and Luong\nCong Nho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58006",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58006",authors:[{id:"210304",title:"Dr.",name:"Pham",surname:"Tam Thanh",slug:"pham-tam-thanh",fullName:"Pham Tam Thanh"},{id:"210746",title:"Dr.",name:"Dao",surname:"Phuong Nam",slug:"dao-phuong-nam",fullName:"Dao Phuong Nam"},{id:"227510",title:"Prof.",name:"Cong Nho",surname:"Luong",slug:"cong-nho-luong",fullName:"Cong Nho Luong"}],corrections:null},{id:"56926",title:"Stator-Flux-Oriented Sliding Mode Control for Doubly Fed Induction Generator",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70714",slug:"stator-flux-oriented-sliding-mode-control-for-doubly-fed-induction-generator",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) is the most implemented electric machine in wind energy conversion systems (WECSs) due to reduced size converter, active and reactive power control, and economic factors. However, the power electronic stage needs an accurate controller that allows to follow the stator power regulation despite the presence of disturbances. On the other hand, sliding-mode control (SMC) offers a fast-dynamic response and provides insensitivity to matched and bounded disturbance/uncertainties, and its natural discontinuous control signals can be used for direct switching of power electronic devices. Switching frequency must be maintained inside acceptable values to avoid exceeding the maximum admissible switching frequency of semiconductors. The contribution of this chapter is a stator-flux–oriented SMC with a hysteresis band that limits the switching frequency of power electronic devices to a set value. Furthermore, the proposed SMCs ensure robustness against bounded low-voltage grid faults. Unlike other nonmodulated techniques like direct torque control (DTC), there is no necessity of modifying the controller structure for withstanding low-depth voltage dips. The controller injects negative sequence voltage/currents to compensate the unbalanced conditions. The advantages of the proposed SMC control are validated via simulations.",signatures:"Ivan Villanueva, Antonio Rosales, Pedro Ponce and Arturo Molina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56926",authors:[{id:"181149",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Ponce",slug:"pedro-ponce",fullName:"Pedro Ponce"},{id:"181151",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Molina",slug:"arturo-molina",fullName:"Arturo Molina"},{id:"210747",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Rosales",slug:"antonio-rosales",fullName:"Antonio Rosales"},{id:"210875",title:"Mr.",name:"Iván",surname:"Villanueva",slug:"ivan-villanueva",fullName:"Iván Villanueva"}],corrections:null},{id:"57213",title:"Robust Adaptive Output Tracking for Quadrotor Helicopters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70723",slug:"robust-adaptive-output-tracking-for-quadrotor-helicopters",totalDownloads:1349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quadrotor helicopters are drawing considerable attention both for their mobility and their potential to perform multiple tasks in complete autonomy. Moreover, the numerous limitations characterizing these aircraft, such as their underactuation, make quadrotors ideal testbeds for innovative theoretical approaches to the problem of controlling autonomous mechanical systems. In this chapter, we propose a robust model reference adaptive control architecture and design an autopilot for quadrotors, which guarantees satisfactory output tracking despite uncertainties in the vehicle’s mass, matrix of inertia, and location of the center of mass. The feasibility of our results is supported by a detailed analysis of the quadrotor’s equations of motion. Specifically, considering the vehicle’s equations of motion as a time-varying nonlinear dynamical system and avoiding the common assumption that the vehicle’s Euler angles are small at all times, we prove that the proposed autopilot guarantees satisfactory output tracking and verifies sufficient conditions for a weak form of controllability of the closed-loop system known as strong accessibility. A numerical example illustrates the applicability of the theoretical results presented and clearly shows how the proposed autopilot outperforms in strong wind conditions autopilots designed using a commonly employed proportional-derivative control law and a conventional model reference adaptive control law.",signatures:"Keyvan Mohammadi and Andrea L’Afflitto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57213",authors:[{id:"209389",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",surname:"L'Afflitto",slug:"andrea-l'afflitto",fullName:"Andrea L'Afflitto"},{id:"209390",title:"Mr.",name:"Keyvan",surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"keyvan-mohammadi",fullName:"Keyvan Mohammadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57334",title:"Attitude Control of a Quadcopter Using Adaptive Control Technique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71382",slug:"attitude-control-of-a-quadcopter-using-adaptive-control-technique",totalDownloads:2012,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents an adaptive control technique to stabilize the attitude dynamics of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) type quadrotor in the presence of disturbances and/or uncertainties in the parameters due to changes in the payload, nonlinear actuators, and change in environmental conditions. To address the above problem, MRAC (model reference adaptive control) strategy is used. In this schema, a cost function is defined as a function of the error between the output of the system and a desired response from a reference model. Based on this error, the controller parameters are updated. To guarantee the global asymptotic stability of the system, Lyapunov’s theory is applied. Simulation results using MATLAB-Simulink platform are presented to demonstrate the convergence of the controller parameters.",signatures:"Ramiro Ibarra Pérez, Gerardo Romero Galvan, Aldo Jonathan\nMuñoz Vázquez, Silvia Florida Melo and David Lara Alabazares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57334",authors:[{id:"219756",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ramiro",surname:"Ibarra",slug:"ramiro-ibarra",fullName:"Ramiro Ibarra"},{id:"220729",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Romero",slug:"gerardo-romero",fullName:"Gerardo Romero"},{id:"220790",title:"Dr.",name:"Aldo Jonathan",surname:"Muñoz",slug:"aldo-jonathan-munoz",fullName:"Aldo Jonathan Muñoz"},{id:"221012",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Lara",slug:"david-lara",fullName:"David Lara"},{id:"221991",title:"MSc.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Florida",slug:"silvia-florida",fullName:"Silvia Florida"}],corrections:null},{id:"58282",title:"Matlab-Simulink-Based Compound Model Reference Adaptive Control for DC Motor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71758",slug:"matlab-simulink-based-compound-model-reference-adaptive-control-for-dc-motor",totalDownloads:2217,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to develop a compound Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC) of the dc motor by using the Matlab/Simulink software. The purpose of the chapter is to serve as a tutorial for the students or researchers in the field correlating step by step the presented theory with the Matlab/Simulink programming environment. The supraunitary relative degree model reference adaptive control is proposed as a solution to the parameters variation of the electric drives. The numerical simulation results confirm the robustness of the proposed solution at unmodelled dynamics or parameter variation of the process. The conventional control of the dc drive based on the cascaded loops is also treated in this chapter.",signatures:"Marian Găiceanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58282",authors:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu"}],corrections:null},{id:"57843",title:"Model Reference Adaptive Control of Quadrotor UAVs: A Neural Network Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71487",slug:"model-reference-adaptive-control-of-quadrotor-uavs-a-neural-network-perspective",totalDownloads:1418,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adaptive models and online learning are two equivalent topics under different umbrellas of research – control systems and machine learning. This chapter will tackle one such application of a neural network-based model reference adaptive controller on a quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle while stating the general principles behind each design decision so the knowledge can be generalized to other practical applications. The application-oriented presentation of this chapter will run parallel to most research and development processes in the field, where the physical system or a simulator is usually available and a simple control system (such as PID) has already been implemented as a baseline. The black-box nature of a neural network can truly be leveraged to improve performance after reading this chapter. Several practical considerations when approaching such a problem have been discussed together with their general and implemented solutions. The simulation results for the problem have been presented to demonstrate the success of this control strategy.",signatures:"Nikhil Angad Bakshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57843",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57843",authors:[{id:"209863",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikhil Angad",surname:"Bakshi",slug:"nikhil-angad-bakshi",fullName:"Nikhil Angad Bakshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57323",title:"Adaptive Nonlinear Regulation Control of Thermoacoustic Oscillations in Rijke-Type Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70683",slug:"adaptive-nonlinear-regulation-control-of-thermoacoustic-oscillations-in-rijke-type-systems",totalDownloads:1294,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adaptive nonlinear control of self-excited oscillations in Rijke-type thermoacoustic systems is considered. To demonstrate the methodology, a well-accepted thermoacoustic dynamic model is introduced, which includes arrays of sensors and monopole-like actuators. To facilitate the derivation of the adaptive control law, the dynamic model is recast as a set of nonlinear ordinary differential equations, which are amenable to control design. The control-oriented nonlinear model includes unknown, unmeasurable, nonvanishing disturbances in addition to parametric uncertainty in both the thermoacoustic dynamic model and the actuator dynamic model. To compensate for the unmodeled disturbances in the dynamic model, a robust nonlinear feedback term is included in the control law. One of the primary challenges in the control design is the presence of input-multiplicative parametric uncertainty in the dynamic model for the control actuator. This challenge is mitigated through innovative algebraic manipulation in the regulation error system derivation along with a Lyapunov-based adaptive control law. To address practical implementation considerations, where sensor measurements of the complete state are not available for feedback, a detailed analysis is provided to demonstrate that system observability can be ensured through judicious placement of pressure (and/or velocity) sensors. Based on this observability condition, a sliding-mode observer design is presented, which is shown to estimate the unmeasurable states using only the available sensor measurements. A detailed Lyapunov-based stability analysis is provided to prove that the proposed closed-loop active thermoacoustic control system achieves asymptotic (zero steady-state error) regulation of multiple thermoacoustic modes in the presence of the aforementioned model uncertainty. Numerical Monte Carlo-type simulation results are also provided, which demonstrate the performance of the proposed closed-loop control system under various sets of operating conditions.",signatures:"William MacKunis, Mahmut Reyhanoglu and Krishna Bhavithavya\nKidambi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57323",authors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"},{id:"196268",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"MacKunis",slug:"william-mackunis",fullName:"William MacKunis"},{id:"196423",title:"Mr.",name:"Krishna Bhavithavya",surname:"Kidambi",slug:"krishna-bhavithavya-kidambi",fullName:"Krishna Bhavithavya Kidambi"},{id:"206617",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Rubio Hervas",slug:"jaime-rubio-hervas",fullName:"Jaime Rubio Hervas"}],corrections:null},{id:"58151",title:"Adaptive Gain Robust Control Strategies for Uncertain Dynamical Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71733",slug:"adaptive-gain-robust-control-strategies-for-uncertain-dynamical-systems",totalDownloads:1030,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, adaptive gain robust control strategies for uncertain dynamical systems are presented. Firstly, synthesis of centralized adaptive gain robust controllers for a class of uncertain linear systems is shown. The design problem of the centralized controller is reduced to the constrained convex optimization problem, and allowable perturbation regions of unknown parameters are discussed. Next, the result for the centralized robust controller is extended to uncertain large-scale interconnected systems, that is, an LMI-based design approach for decentralized adaptive gain robust controllers is suggested.",signatures:"Shunya Nagai, Hidetoshi Oya, Tsuyoshi Matsuki and Yoshikatsu\nHoshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58151",authors:[{id:"213615",title:"Prof.",name:"Hidetoshi",surname:"Oya",slug:"hidetoshi-oya",fullName:"Hidetoshi Oya"},{id:"213724",title:"MSc.",name:"Shunya",surname:"Nagai",slug:"shunya-nagai",fullName:"Shunya Nagai"}],corrections:null},{id:"57600",title:"Robust Control Applications to a Wind Turbine-Simulated System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71526",slug:"robust-control-applications-to-a-wind-turbine-simulated-system",totalDownloads:1211,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wind turbine plants are complex dynamic and uncertain processes driven by stochastic inputs and disturbances, as well as different loads represented by gyroscopic, centrifugal and gravitational forces. Moreover, as their aerodynamic models are nonlinear, both modelling and control become challenging problems. On one hand, high-fidelity simulators should contain different parameters and variables in order to accurately describe the main dynamic system behaviour. Therefore, the development of modelling and control for wind turbine systems should consider these complexity aspects. On the other hand, these control solutions have to include the main wind turbine dynamic characteristics without becoming too complicated. The main point of this chapter is thus to provide two practical examples of development of robust control strategies when applied to a simulated wind turbine plant. Experiments with the wind turbine simulator represent the instruments for assessing the main aspects of the developed control methodologies.",signatures:"Silvio Simani and Paolo Castaldi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57600",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57600",authors:[{id:"209626",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvio",surname:"Simani",slug:"silvio-simani",fullName:"Silvio Simani"},{id:"209627",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Castaldi",slug:"paolo-castaldi",fullName:"Paolo Castaldi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57640",title:"Adaptive Robust Control of Biomass Fuel Co-Combustion Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71576",slug:"adaptive-robust-control-of-biomass-fuel-co-combustion-process",totalDownloads:1161,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The share of biomass in energy production is constantly growing. This is caused by environmental and industry standards and EU guidelines. Biomass is used in the process of co-firing in large power plants and industrial installations. In the existing power stations, biomass is milled and burned simultaneously with coal. However, low-emission combustion techniques, including biomass co-combustion, have some negative side effects that can be split into two categories. The direct effects influence the process control stability, whereas the indirect ones on combustion installations via increased corrosion or boiler slagging. The effects can be minimised using additional information about the process. The proper combustion diagnosis as well as an appropriate, robust control system ought to be applied. The chapter is devoted to the analysis of modern, robust control techniques for complex power engineering applications.",signatures:"Konrad Gromaszek and Andrzej Kotyra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57640",authors:[{id:"24059",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Konrad",surname:"Gromaszek",slug:"konrad-gromaszek",fullName:"Konrad Gromaszek"},{id:"210627",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Kotyra",slug:"andrzej-kotyra",fullName:"Andrzej Kotyra"}],corrections:null},{id:"57494",title:"A CMAC-Based Systematic Design Approach of an Adaptive Embedded Control Force Loading System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71420",slug:"a-cmac-based-systematic-design-approach-of-an-adaptive-embedded-control-force-loading-system",totalDownloads:890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, an adaptive embedded control system is developed to measure yield strength of the material plate with an applied load. A systematic approach is proposed to handle special requirements of embedded control systems which are different from computer-based control systems as there are much less computational power and hardware resources available. Efficient control algorithm has to be designed to remove CPU burden so that the microcontroller has enough power available. A three-step approach is proposed to address the embedded control issue: Firstly, the mathematical description of the whole system is studied using both theoretical and experimental methods. A mathematical model is derived from the physical models of each component used, and an experiment is retrieved by employing Levy’s method and least square estimation to identify specific parameters of the system model. Secondly, an adaptive feedforward plus feedback controller is designed and simulated as a preparation for the embedded system implementation. The Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller (CMAC) is chosen as the feedforward part, and a PD controller is used as the feedback part to train the CMAC. Finally, the proposed algorithm is applied to the embedded system, and experiments are conducted to verify both the identified model and designed controller.",signatures:"Jian Chen, Peng Li, Gangbing Song, Shubo Wang, Zichao Zhang,\nGuangqi Wang, Yu Tan and Yongjun Zheng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57494",authors:[{id:"210867",title:"Prof.",name:"Jian",surname:"Chen",slug:"jian-chen",fullName:"Jian Chen"},{id:"219541",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng",surname:"Li",slug:"peng-li",fullName:"Peng Li"},{id:"219542",title:"Prof.",name:"Gangbing",surname:"Song",slug:"gangbing-song",fullName:"Gangbing Song"}],corrections:null},{id:"58441",title:"Multi-Loop Integral Control-Based Heart Rate Regulation for Fast Tracking and Faulty-Tolerant Control Performance in Treadmill Exercises",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71855",slug:"multi-loop-integral-control-based-heart-rate-regulation-for-fast-tracking-and-faulty-tolerant-contro",totalDownloads:965,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to offer a reliable, fast, and offset-free tracking performance for the regulation of heart rate (HR) during treadmill exercise, a two-input single-output (2ISO) control system by simultaneously manipulating both treadmill speed and gradient is proposed. The decentralized integral controllability (DIC) analysis is extended to nonlinear and non-square processes especially for a 2ISO process, namely multi-loop integral controllability (MIC). The proposed multi-loop integral control-based HR regulation by manipulating treadmill speed and gradient is then validated through a comparative treadmill experiment that compares the system performance of the proposed 2ISO MIC control loop with that of single-input single-output (SISO) loops, speed/gradient-to-HR. The experimental validation presents that by simultaneously using two control inputs, the automated system can achieve the fastest HR tracking performance and stay close to the reference HR during steady state, while comparing with two SISO structures, and offer the fault-tolerant ability if the gains of the two multi-loop integral controllers are well tuned. It has a vital implication for the applications of exercise rehabilitation and fitness in relation to the automated control system.",signatures:"Yi Zhang, Kairui Guo, Qin Yang, Pang Winnie, Kai Cao, Qi Wang,\nAndrey Savkin, Branko Celler, Hung Nguyen, Peng Xu, Limei Xu,\nDezhong Yao and Steven Su",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58441",authors:[{id:"169908",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"V. Savkin",slug:"andrey-v.-savkin",fullName:"Andrey V. Savkin"},{id:"198713",title:"Prof.",name:"Steven",surname:"Su",slug:"steven-su",fullName:"Steven Su"},{id:"210783",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yi-zhang",fullName:"Yi Zhang"},{id:"210795",title:"Prof.",name:"Branko",surname:"Celler",slug:"branko-celler",fullName:"Branko Celler"},{id:"210796",title:"Prof.",name:"Hung",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hung-nguyen",fullName:"Hung Nguyen"},{id:"219903",title:"Ms.",name:"Winnie",surname:"Pang",slug:"winnie-pang",fullName:"Winnie Pang"},{id:"219904",title:"Ms.",name:"Qin",surname:"Yang",slug:"qin-yang",fullName:"Qin Yang"},{id:"219905",title:"Mr.",name:"Kairui",surname:"Guo",slug:"kairui-guo",fullName:"Kairui Guo"}],corrections:null},{id:"57398",title:"Robust Control of Crane with Perturbations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71383",slug:"robust-control-of-crane-with-perturbations",totalDownloads:1073,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the presence of persistent perturbations in both unactuated and actuated dynamics of crane systems, an observer-based robust control method is proposed, which achieves the objective of trolley positioning and cargo swing suppression. By dealing with the unactuated and unknown perturbation as an augmented state variable, the system dynamics are transformed into a quasi-chain-of-integrators form based on which a reduced-order augmented-state observer is established to recover the perturbations appearing in the unactuated dynamics. A novel sliding manifold is constructed to improve the robust performance of the control system, and a linear control law is presented to make the state variables stay on the manifold in the presence of perturbations in unactuated dynamics. A Lyapunov function candidate is constructed, and the entire closed-loop system is proved rigorously to be exponentially stable at the equilibrium point. The effectiveness and robustness of the proposed observer-based robust controller are verified by numerical simulation results.",signatures:"Yiming Wu, He Chen and Tong Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57398",authors:[{id:"215164",title:"Dr.",name:"Yiming",surname:"Wu",slug:"yiming-wu",fullName:"Yiming Wu"},{id:"215516",title:"Dr.",name:"He",surname:"Chen",slug:"he-chen",fullName:"He Chen"},{id:"220192",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Yang",slug:"tong-yang",fullName:"Tong Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"57675",title:"Nonlinear Control of Flexible Two-Dimensional Overhead Cranes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71657",slug:"nonlinear-control-of-flexible-two-dimensional-overhead-cranes",totalDownloads:1167,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Considering gantry cable as an elastic string having a distributed mass, we constitute a dynamic model for coupled flexural overhead cranes by using the extended Hamilton principle. Two kinds of nonlinear controllers are proposed based on the Lyapunov stability and its improved version entitled barrier Lyapunov candidate to maintain payload motion in a certain defined range. With such a continuously distributed model, the finite difference method is utilized to numerically simulate the control system. The results show that the controllers work well and the crane system is stabilized.",signatures:"Tung Lam Nguyen and Minh Duc Duong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57675",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57675",authors:[{id:"221357",title:"Dr.",name:"Tung Lam",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tung-lam-nguyen",fullName:"Tung Lam Nguyen"},{id:"222092",title:"Dr.",name:"Minh Duc",surname:"Duong",slug:"minh-duc-duong",fullName:"Minh Duc Duong"}],corrections:null},{id:"58407",title:"Robust Adaptive Control of 3D Overhead Crane System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72768",slug:"robust-adaptive-control-of-3d-overhead-crane-system",totalDownloads:1238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter an adaptive anti-sway controller for uncertain overhead cranes is proposed. The system model including the system uncertainties and disturbances is introduced firstly. Next, the adaptive controller which can guarantee tracking the desired position of the trolley as well as the anti-sway of the load cable is established. In this chapter, the system is proven to be input-to-state stable (ISS) which is supported by Lyapunov technique. The proposed algorithm is verified by using Matlab/Simulink simulation tool. The simulation results shown that the presented controller gives the good performances (i.e., fast transient response, position tracking, and low swing angle) when there exist system parameters variation as well as input disturbances.",signatures:"Nga Thi-Thuy Vu, Pham Tam Thanh, Pham Xuan Duong and\nNguyen Doan Phuoc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58407",authors:[{id:"228837",title:"Dr.",name:"Nga Thi-Thuy",surname:"Vu",slug:"nga-thi-thuy-vu",fullName:"Nga Thi-Thuy Vu"},{id:"228839",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh",surname:"Pham",slug:"thanh-pham",fullName:"Thanh Pham"},{id:"228840",title:"Prof.",name:"Phuoc",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"phuoc-nguyen",fullName:"Phuoc Nguyen"},{id:"236448",title:"Dr.",name:"Pham",surname:"Xuan Duong",slug:"pham-xuan-duong",fullName:"Pham Xuan Duong"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10972",title:"Control Systems in Engineering and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f92f65447d0f90b67465865d41a61cd1",slug:"control-systems-in-engineering-and-optimization-techniques",bookSignature:"P. 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Chitin is obtained at an industrial scale from a variety of natural sources including, crustacean and insect exoskeletons, fungi cell walls, squid pen, etc. Chitosan is biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic, water-soluble under acidic conditions, and linear cationic amino polysaccharide derived from the deacetylation of chitin. It contains free amino and hydroxyl groups that can be functionalized by binding with the cationic and anionic groups. It has numerous applications, especially in the environmental remediation, biomedical, pharmaceutical, agriculture, and food industries.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will present an update of articles addressing isolation, properties, and certain applications of chitin and chitosan, including films, fibers, nanoparticles, composite materials, hydrogels, polymeric complexes, water purification, antimicrobials, textile, cosmetics, biosensors, nanoporous scaffolds, and membranes. We invite world-class researchers from around the world, industry, academia, government, and private research institutions are encouraged to publish research or review articles on chitin and chitosan.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-693-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-692-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-694-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"69f009be08998711eecfb200adc7deca",bookSignature:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",keywords:"Solvent, Acidic, Microwave, Binding, Biodegradable, Biocompatible, FTIR, NMR, XRD, Fibers, Nanoparticles, Composite Materials",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Brajesh Kumar is a pioneering researcher in nanoscience and green chemistry. 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His research interest is in the development of sustainable and eco-friendly techniques for (a) nanoparticles synthesis and their applications for environmental remediation, (b) active films of organic solar cells, (c) nanomedicine, (d) sensors, (e) natural product extraction, purification, and analysis,(f) natural polymers, (g) peptide chemistry, (h) microwave and ultrasound-assisted organic synthesis and (i) organic synthesis. Dr. Brajesh Kumar has been credited for different national and international fellowships and he has also worked as a faculty member in various universities of India, Ecuador, and South Korea. He has also published numerous SCI/ SCIE/ Scopus research articles (h index = 29, Citations 2917) and is also an active reviewer of more than 50 Journals. 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Thus, one chemical element or compound can exhibit different properties in different dimensions. Some interesting examples about size effect are surface plasmon resonance in metal nanoparticles, quantum confinement in semiconductor particles, and superparamagnetism in magnetic nanomaterials.
\nIf one dimension is restricted, we have two‐dimensional (2D) or layered shape material. An interesting example of this kind of materials is graphene. This material is a monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into 2D honeycomb lattice that has attracted worldwide attention since it was discovered in 2004 [1, 2]. This new material has emerged with a promising future due to its amazing properties such as transparency, high‐charge mobility, thermal conductivity, and mechanical resistance. Due to these unique properties, graphene has been proposed as a good candidate for manufacturing transparent‐conducting electrodes, transistors, hydrogen‐storage devices, and gas sensors [3, 4]. The growing interest on graphene has highlighted the importance of another 2D material in technological applications such as transition metal chalcogenides (TMC) and layered ionic solids.
\nSeveral 2D materials can be obtained by exfoliation of a layered bulk crystal. However, this procedure is often difficult because the van der Waals interactions between adjacent layers must be overcome. Mechanical exfoliation provides good results, but mostly applied for fundamental research because it is arduous and expensive to produce the material at industrial scale by this way. Other methodologies such as solvent‐assisted ultrasound exfoliation [5] or chemical synthesis [6] allow obtaining large amounts of materials at low cost, although they present several disadvantages against mechanical exfoliation. One important disadvantage is related with the deposition of materials onto solids. Hence, for several technological applications, it is necessary to support 2D materials onto solid substrates [7, 8] and since the properties of 2D materials deposited onto solids are strongly affected by the film morphology, a deposition methodology becomes necessary, which allows a great control of the material density and packing. Several techniques such as drop casting [9] or spin coating [10] have been used to integrate these materials onto novel devices; however, they often lead to nonuniform films or films with aggregated materials due to uncontrolled capillary flow and dewetting processes during solvent evaporation. These aggregates decrease the specific properties of each material [2, 11]. An illustrative example of the aggregation produced by solvent evaporation can be seen in Figure 1. The figure shows a field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) image of a graphene oxide (GO) film deposited onto silicon by drop casting.
\nFESEM image of graphene oxide deposited onto silicon by drop casting.
An alternative technique is the Langmuir‐Blodgett (LB) methodology. This method consists on the transfer process of a water‐insoluble material from the air‐water interface onto a solid substrate by vertical dipping of the solid in the Langmuir monolayer [12]. This technique allows continuous variation of material density, packing, and arrangement by compressing or expanding the film using barriers. Consequently, it offers the possibility of preparing films with the control of interparticle distance necessary to exploit the 2D materials in technological applications. Despite this methodology being successfully used for transferring water‐insoluble molecules [12–14] and nanoparticles [15], it has been less employed to transfer graphene derivatives [16–19] or TMC materials onto solid substrates.
\nThis chapter reviews some strategies to build 2D material films by means of the LB methodology. The content is organized into three main sections. The first one introduces the LB methodology. The second one summarizes the production of thin films of graphene oxide derivatives by using this methodology [17–20]. The last section describes some representative results concerning thin films of Quantum Dots (QDs) of transition metal chalcogenides [21–26] and silver nanowires (AgNWs) [27]. All sections are focused on the possibility of tuning the morphology of the 2D material by modifying the surface composition of the Langmuir monolayer and the deposition methodology.
\nThe LB methodology consists on the transfer process from the air‐water interface onto a solid substrate of a monomolecular layer of amphiphilic material adsorbed at the air‐water interface [12]. The amphiphilic material is dissolved in a volatile solvent and dropped on the air‐water interface. For optimal results, the solvent should have a positive spreading coefficient and be insoluble in the subphase [28]. After the spreading, the solvent evaporates and the material forms a monolayer. When the monolayer reaches the thermodynamic equilibrium, it is symmetrically compressed by using two barriers. The sequential isothermal compression changes the structure of the monomolecular film, which passes through a series of 2D states, referred to as gas, expanded and compressed liquids, and solid state. Consequently, knowing the 2D phase diagram of the film, it is possible to control its structure and associated physical and chemical properties. To transfer the film onto the solid, a flat substrate is immersed into the aqueous subphase and then extracted in a controlled way with the film adsorbed onto it, see Figure 2a. The transfer process can be repeated many times to obtain multilayers [12, 29] of different thickness and composition. During the transfer process, the surface pressure is maintained constant by barrier compression in order to compensate the loss of molecules transferred onto the solid. One variant of this methodology is the horizontal deposition technique, referred as Langmuir‐Schaefer (LS) method. In the latter, the solid substrate is placed parallel to the air‐water interface and deposition is done by contacting the substrate horizontally with the floating monolayer, see Figure 2b.
\nLangmuir‐Blodgett (a) and Langmuir‐Schaefer (b) transfer processes.
When the monolayer is transferred, its structure is often modified; therefore, to construct high‐quality films, a careful control of experimental parameters, such as stability and homogeneity of the monolayer, subphase properties (composition, pH, presence of electrolytes, and temperature), substrate nature, speed of immersion/emersion of substrate, surface pressure during the deposition process, and the number of transferred monolayers, is required [12, 29].
\nAs commented previously, due to its unique properties graphene has been suggested to be used in a great number of technological applications. Nevertheless, each application requires a different set of properties. Thus, graphene synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or micromechanical exfoliation renders high‐quality sheets suitable for electronic applications; however, these sheets cannot be used for the fabrication of composites or water‐soluble materials, because they do not contain functionalized groups. In these situations, graphene oxides [30] are preferred because they contain reactive oxygen functional groups that can attach small molecules, polymers, or nanoparticles to the graphitic surfaces for potential use in polymer composites [31], gas sensors [32], or photovoltaic cells [33, 34].
\nAnother important issue of the use of graphene in technological applications is related to its implementation in devices. In the particular case of graphene oxide derivatives, conventional deposition techniques such as drop casting [9] or spin coating [10] not only induce aggregation of flakes, as can be seen in Figure 1, but also force the sheets to fold and wrinkle, losing its excellent properties [2]. Therefore, to overcome these limitations other deposition techniques such as LB have been recently proposed [16, 35].
\nGraphene oxide can be considered as an amphiphilic material [36] because it is constituted by two different domains. The hydrophobic one corresponds to π‐conjugated sp2 carbon while the hydrophilic domain is constituted by O‐groups attached at the basal plane [37]. The existence of two regions allows obtaining stable water‐insoluble monolayers of the material. Accordingly, several properties such as rheological properties, morphology, and stability of GO monolayers have been recently reported [11, 16, 18, 19]. Several works seem to indicate a great influence of the chemical composition on the film properties [19, 38].
\nConcerning the chemical synthesis, graphene oxide is usually obtained by graphite oxidation [17, 19, 39] or carbon nanofibers [18–20, 40] by means of the Staudenmaier [41] or the Hummers [42] reactions. Then, graphene oxides are often reduced by chemical agents [17, 43, 44] or thermal annealing [45, 46] to restore the graphene structure. However, both the GO reduced by chemical agents, referred as reduced graphene oxide (RGO), and the thermally reduced retain some O‐groups attached to the basal plane of GO. These O‐groups decrease the amazing properties of graphene such as transparency and high electric conductivity.
\nDespite the interest raised by GO, the knowledge of its chemical structure remains still a challenge. The best‐known graphene oxide structure consists of two different carbon domains constituted by Csp2 corresponding to aromatic groups and Csp3 of alcohol and epoxy groups attached at the basal plane. The carboxylic acid groups are located at the edge of the sheets [37]. However, the main origin of the controversy is the percentage of each group into the flakes. Several are the causes of discrepancies, although the variability of the starting material and the oxidation process seem to be the most important ones [47]. On the other hand, the chemical structure of graphene oxide was recently revisited because it has been proved that the oxidation of carbon‐based materials originates highly oxidized fragment, named as oxidative debris (OD) [47–49]. The oxidized fragments remain strongly adsorbed onto the graphitic sheets due to π‐π staking interactions but can be removed by alkaline washing of graphene oxide. The purified GO contains lower O/C ratio than the non‐purified one, and consequently its chemical structure and solubility properties are quite different [47, 49].
\nIt is necessary to consider that in nanocomposites built with GO, the second component, polymers, nanoparticles, or small molecules, often interacts with the O‐groups of graphene oxide; therefore, to improve the quality of the composite, it is crucial to have knowledge of the chemical structure of graphene oxide to control interactions between components which have a great influence on the properties of nanocomposites. However, there is no systematic study related to the effect of the oxidation procedure, nature of the starting material, and purification process on the chemical structure and properties of graphene oxides. Recently, we have started the systematic study of the effect of the starting material, reduction protocol, and purification process on the chemical structure of graphene oxides and on the film morphology. With this objective in mind, we have synthesized graphene oxides using graphite, and GANF® nanofibers from the Grupo Antolín Ingenieria (Burgos, Spain) as starting materials. The oxidation procedure was Hummer\'s reaction modified to obtain more oxidized samples [17, 18–20]. As reducing agents, we used hydrazine, vitamin C, and sodium borohydride. The purification process consisted of alkaline washing of graphene oxide and is previously reported [48, 49].
\nTo quantify the oxidation degree of different materials, X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was employed. In all samples, the C1s core‐level spectrum is an asymmetric band that can be fitted to three components centered at 284.8, 286.4, and 287.9 eV. These peaks are assigned to C-C bonds of the aromatic network, C
Chemical composition of graphene oxides determined by XPS measurements. Data were taken from references [
Results in Figure 3 clearly show differences between the chemical composition of graphene oxides synthesized by the oxidation of graphite (GO) and nanofibers (NGO). Thus, the percentage of Csp2 is slightly higher for NGO than for GO, while the percentage of C
Another interesting result is that the percentage of Csp2 of reduced graphene oxide is almost independent on the reducing agent, and the averaged value of 65 ± 2 is lower than the value found for purified graphene oxide, 72 ± 4. This fact was previously reported for graphene oxide reduced by hydrazine [47] and was interpreted as follows: due to the basic nature of hydrazine, it cleans oxidative debris and simultaneously reduces the oxygen groups of graphene oxide; however, nitrogen atoms remain attached to RGO sheets decreasing the percentage of Csp2. This C
Graphene oxide nanoplatelets are insulators and to increase the electric conductivity chemical reduction has been postulated. However, RGO films prepared by conventional deposition methodologies present low electrical conductivity values. This is probably due to the platelet aggregation induced by dewetting processes. We have explored the Langmuir‐Blodgett methodology to obtain non‐aggregated and ordered reduced graphene oxide films. To prepare the LB film, it is necessary to select the proper surface state, which will be transferred. To identify the surface state of materials at the interface, the compressional modulus,
In Eq. (1),
The isotherm morphology is similar to that of surfactant molecules and can be interpreted as follows: monolayers of surface pressure close to zero correspond to low values of compressional modulus and were assigned to surface states in which the nanoplatelets are isolated in a two‐dimensional gas state. When the surface area decreases, the nanoplatelets are pushed closer to each other, resulting in small domains in which ε grows until it reaches a maximum value. This two‐dimensional region is commonly assigned to the liquid‐expanded (LE) state and corresponds to close‐packed sheets. Beyond the compressional elastic modulus maximum, the nanoplatelets form wrinkles, overlaps, and three‐dimensional (3D) structures [16].
\n(a) Surface pressure and (b) compressional elastic modulus isotherms of graphene oxide reduced by borohydride at 293 K.
In a previous work, the LE state of the GO monolayer [38] has been modeled by Volmer\'s model adapted to nanoparticles [51]. We have used this model to interpret the isotherms of different nanoplatelets of GO at the LE state. Our results demonstrated strong interactions between carboxylic acids at the edge of sheets through hydrogen bonds [18, 19].
\nBecause we are interested to build GO films of closely packed and nonoverlapped nanoplatelets, we transferred graphene oxide monolayers at the LE state by the LB methodology [18, 19]. Representative atomic force microscopy (AFM) and FESEM images of these films are collected in Figure 5.
\nRepresentative images of different graphene oxides films: (a) SEM image of graphene oxide obtained by oxidation of graphite; (b) TEM image of graphene oxide reduced by vitamin C. The inset is a magnification to show the morphology of RGOv nanoplatelets; (c) graphene oxide functionalized with DDPS and reduced by hydrazine. The inset shows a magnification of the AFM image; (d) graphene oxide functionalized with DDPS and reduced by vitamin C. The inset is a TEM image to show details of the film morphology. Reduced graphene oxides were obtained using graphite as starting materials. The surface pressure of the Langmuir monolayer precursor of the LB film was 1 mN m-1.
As can be seen in Figure 5, the solid coverage is higher for GO, Figure 5a, than for reduced graphene oxides, Figure 5b. Low coverage was also reported for purified graphene oxides [18, 19] and was attributed to the low percentage of O‐groups attached to sheets of purified oxides [19]. A high percentage of O‐groups favor the contact between silanol groups of the silicon wafer and sheets increasing the adhesion of nanoplatelets to silicon. Since the chemical composition of reduced and purified graphene oxides is almost the same, the low percentage of O‐groups at reduced samples can be responsible for the low coverage observed for RGO films.
\nIn an attempt to improve the solid coverage, the reduced graphene oxides were functionalized with the zwitterionic surfactant N dodecyl‐N,N‐dimethyl‐3‐ammonio‐1‐propanesulfonate (DDPS). We have proved that the surfactant remains adsorbed onto graphene oxide platelets playing two important roles: as surface active molecule, it favours attractive interactions between the silicon and the reduced graphene oxide and because it is attached at sheets minimizing the restacking of flakes. It is interesting to note that the surfactant is attached to sheets in a non‐covalent way, and consequently the chemical structure of graphene oxide is not significantly altered [52].
\nThe AFM images of functionalized reduced graphene oxide films, Figure 5c and d, show that the functionalization with the DDPS surfactant increases the solid coverage; however, it is lower than that for graphene oxide, Figure 5a. The AFM images of RGOhS, Figure 5c, also show the formation of the chained sheets suggesting lateral attractive interactions between flakes. These attractive interactions can be likely induced by the surfactant molecules attached to the sheets [17].
\nWe have great interest to study the effect of GO chemical composition on the electrical conductivity of GO films. However, in the case of reduced graphene oxide the electrical conductivity value is too small to detect significant differences; therefore, we employed an alternative method widely used by other authors. The method consists of measuring the conductivity of paper‐like graphene oxide films [53]. To analyze the electrical conductivity dependence with the chemical composition, we have plotted the electrical conductivity against the Csp2 and C
Variation of the electrical conductivity values of paper‐like graphene oxide films with the Csp2 (a) and (b) C
Results in Figure 6a show that the electrical conductivity increases as the Csp2 percentage. Moreover, the highest conductivity value is obtained for graphene oxide functionalized with the zwitterionic surfactant. In addition, samples with the lowest percentage of C
On summarizing, the LB technique can be presented as a good methodology of building graphene oxide films because it renders high‐coverage and ordered films. On the other hand, the conductivity of our surfactant‐functionalized RGO samples is higher than the values found in the literature for paper‐like films of reduced graphene oxide [5, 54] functionalized with ionic surfactants, although more efforts must be done to improve the solid coverage and to increase the electrical conductivity values of graphene oxide films.
\nNanoparticles of CdSe Quantum Dots are semiconductors which show size dependence in their optoelectronic properties with attractive applications in the fabrication of solar cells or light‐emitting diodes (LEDs) due to their band‐gap tunability.
\nThe most important optical advantages are a broad and continuous absorbance spectrum and a narrow emission spectrum whose maximum position and dynamic emission properties depend on its QD size. However, optoelectronic device applications based on nanoparticles require QDs assembly in controllable architecture to avoid the deterioration of the quantum film efficiency. Therefore, the thickness and uniformity of the assembled QD films are crucial factors in the emission properties of films [7, 55–58].
\nIn the particular case of CdSe QDs, the hydrophobic nanoparticles present the highest quantum efficiency. However, when these nanoparticles are transferred from the air‐water interface onto substrates such as glass, silicon, or mica without treatment to become the solid surface, hydrophobic, low coverage and nanoparticle agglomeration have been observed [59, 60]. These undesirable results decrease the quantum yield of nanoparticle films. To solve this problem, some approaches have been proposed. One of the most widely used strategies consists of mixing nanoparticles with surfactants or polymers and then transferring the mixture from the air‐water interface onto the solid substrate [61–63]. This approach seeks to control the assembly of hydrophobic nanoparticles at the air‐water interface. With this purpose, we have proposed three amphiphilic molecules of distinct nature, the copolymers poly(octadecene‐co‐maleic anhydride), PMAO, and poly(styrene‐co‐maleic anhydride) partial 2‐butoxyethyl ester cumene terminated, PS‐MA‐BEE, and the Gemini surfactant ethyl‐bis(dimethyl octadecylammonium bromide), 18‐2‐18. All these molecules present surface activity and can anchor to substrates such as mica, glass, or silicon, through their hydrophilic moieties [13, 14] favoring the QDs’ adhesion across its hydrophobic part. We have chosen the polymer PMAO because it interacts effectively with hydrophobic nanoparticles leading to excellent stability by avoiding 3D aggregation [64, 65]. In the case of the polymer PS‐MA‐BEE, it was chosen because it is a good component to organize hybrid nanomaterials used in submicrometric electronic devices [66]. This is due to its mechanical rigidity and good adhesion on solids [67]. Finally, the Gemini surfactant was chosen since it has been proposed in combination with DNA for biotechnological applications [68, 69].
\nOur results demonstrated that the QD aggregation is avoided by the addition of these polymer and surfactant molecules. Attractive interactions between the chains of these molecules and the hydrophobic moieties of the QD stabilizer, trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO), favor the adsorption of QDs on the matrices, while the hydrophilic groups of polymer or surfactant molecules increase the QDs’ adhesion in solid substrates, avoiding the nanoparticle agglomeration.
\nWe also found two different film features depending on the film composition. To illustrate this behavior, Figure 7 collects some AFM, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of QD films prepared with different matrix compositions.
\n(a) AFM image of a Gemini/QD film at the surfactant mole fraction of 0.98, (b) SEM image of a PMAO/QD LB film onto mica at the polymer mole fraction of 0.50. The Langmuir monolayers were transferred at the surface pressure of 30 mN m-1, (c) TEM image of mixed PS‐MA‐BEE/QD LB film of polymer mole fraction of 0.5 and deposited at the surface pressure of 14 mN m-1, and (d) AFM image of a mixed PS‐MA‐BEE/QD film of polymer mole fraction of 0.96 and deposited at the surface pressure of 30 mN m-1. The inset corresponds to the TEM image of the film.
Images in Figure 7 show two different morphologies, hexagonal networks and domains of different shapes, depending on the film composition. Thus, mixed films of QDs and PS‐MA‐BEE of high polymer mole fraction,
Differences between film morphologies were interpreted according to dewetting mechanisms [21, 22]. The two dewetting mechanisms considered in these cases are known as nucleation, growth, and coalescence of holes [70] and spinodal [71]. In the former, the gravity contribution predominates and the dewetting process starts with the nucleation of holes at film‐defect sites followed by the material displacement away from the nucleus. The material is accumulated in the rims of holes delimiting a mosaic [70]. Conversely, in the spinodal dewetting mechanism, the capillary waves break the film into nanostructures when the amplitude of the capillary waves exceeds the thickness of the film. Taking into account that the molecular weight of the polymer PMAO is around 50 times higher than the surfactant one, it becomes clear that the gravitational effect prevailed over the capillary waves even in films with small amount of the polymer PMAO. Therefore, the PMAO/QDs film morphology is driven by the mechanism of nucleation, growth, and coalescence of holes, while spinodal dewetting mechanism prevails in Gemini/QD films [21]. In the case of PS‐MA‐BEE/QD films, the interpretation of the behavior observed is not so evident and it is necessary to analyze the balance between the driving forces involved in the surface arrangement: gravitational and capillary forces. Thus, the elasticity values go through a minimum for PS‐MA‐BEE/QDs monolayers at the surface pressure of 30 mN m-1 and for polymer mole ratio above 0.95, while it reaches maximum values for monolayers at the surface pressure value of 14 mN m‐-1 and
Another interesting example is the preparation of silver nanowire films for manufacturing modern devices such as photovoltaic cells, touch panels, and light‐emitting diodes. Although the development of new materials is mainly by the requirements of each application [72], high transparency and electrical conductivity always constitute required requisites.
\nIndium tin oxide (ITO) currently dominates the field of transparent conductive electrodes as a result of its excellent optoelectronic properties [73]; however, it suffers important limitations due to the scarcity of indium, brittleness of its electrodes, and high manufacturing cost. Several materials such as carbon nanotubes [74, 75], graphene films [76, 77], conducting polymers, and metal nanowires [72, 78] are being analyzed to replace ITO. However, the properties of these materials, in terms of electrical resistance and transparency, are still inferior to ITO [78]. Among all, the silver nanowires arouse great interest due to the high conductivity of silver (6.3 × 107 S m-1) [79]. Since the nanowires are usually synthesized in solution, an important issue is the control of the transfer process from solutions onto the substrate. This is because to achieve low electrical resistance and high transparency, it is necessary to optimize the morphology, the placement of nanowires, and the junction resistance between them in the network. As commented previously, spin‐coating and drop‐casting methodologies present several disadvantages since water evaporation leaves discontinuous films with typical coffee rings that significantly decrease the quality of AgNW films [80, 81]. To overcome these limitations, we have reported a strategy based on the Langmuir‐Schaefer methodology to transfer hydrophobic AgNW from the air‐water interface onto Lexan polycarbonate substrate in an ordered and controlled way [27].
\nThe first step for building LB films is to obtain stable monolayers of hydrophobic materials. Therefore, it is necessary to synthesize hydrophobic nanowires, since the commercial ones are water soluble since they use polyvinyl pyrrolidone molecules as capping agents. To synthesize hydrophobic AgNW, polyvinyl pyrrolidone was replaced by octyl thiol molecules. The surface modification is achieved through the surface ligand exchange procedure reported by Tao [82]. After the synthesis of AgNW, they were deposited at the air‐water interface and different surface states were transferred onto the solid substrate by the LS methodology. The surface states of nanowire monolayers are characterized by the surface compressional modulus,
(a) Elasticity isotherm of silver nanowires capped with octyl thiol at 20°C, (b) FESEM image of a bilayer of AgNW of 645 mg m-2. Arrows indicate the orientation of the first (red) and second (blue) layers, and (c) variation of sheet resistance and transmittance with the nanowire surface concentration of LS films.
We have transferred AgNW Langmuir monolayers at LD and HD states by the Langmuir‐Schaefer methodology. With the purpose of achieving a network of nanowires, a second layer in which the nanowires are oriented perpendicular to the first layer was deposited. In the first and second layers, the surface density of the transferred Langmuir monolayer was the same [27]. The surface density is controlled by the surface pressure value. Figure 8b shows a representative FE‐SEM image of a nanowire film obtained by this methodology.
\nThe sheet resistance,
Results analyzed in this chapter allow us to discuss the ability of the Langmuir‐Blodgett and Langmuir‐Schaefer methodologies to build thin films of 2D materials such as graphene oxides, transition metal chalcogenide nanoparticles, CdSe Quantum Dots, and silver nanowires. We discuss the advantages of these methods against the most conventional ones such as drop and spin coating for built‐in 2D material films with applications in the fabrication of solar cells, LEDs, sensors, and transparent electrodes.
\nWe also review some strategies for improving the solid coverage, avoiding the nanoparticle aggregation, and modulating the film morphology. All these issues are crucial for increasing the quality of films and to modulate its properties according to the properties required for each application.
\nResults analyzed in this chapter indicate that the Langmuir‐Blodgett and Langmuir‐Schaefer methodologies combined with self‐assembled materials can be proposed as a non‐template reproducible technique for patterning at the nanoscale. However, most efforts have to be done for achieving more homogeneous films, higher coverage, and a greater control of the material arrangements to build good‐quality films to be used in technological applications.
\nThe authors thank financial support from the European Regional Development Fund, ERDF, Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (MAT 2010‐19727), and Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (IPT‐2012‐0429‐420000). TA and BMG wish to thank the European Social Fund and Consejería de Educación de la Junta de Castilla y León for their FPI grants. We also thank Ultra‐Intense Lasers Pulsed Center of Salamanca (CLPU) for the AFM measurements, to Microscopy Service (Universidad de Salamanca) for the TEM measurements, and Sala Blanca de Nanotecnología (USAL) for FE‐SEM facility. We thank Dr. García Fierro (Instituto de Catálisis y Petroleoquímica, Madrid) for XPS measurements.
\nIn recent years, the set of technologies encompassed under the name of the Internet of Things has experienced its greatest evolution and is currently approaching the slope of enlightenment of the hype cycle according to Gartner [1]. It has been applied in numerous areas, notably changing and improving the way in which different tasks and activities, both business and personal, are approached in daily life. Devices such as home assistants, home automation devices, and activity monitors are used more and more widely, providing information and functionalities that can be used quickly and easily.
One of the fields where there is more expectation about the application of this set of technologies is that related to healthcare and telehealth. Currently, there are several problems inherent in the health field that can be addressed thanks to the remote communication offered by the IoT. Advances in telehealth allow medical consultations and follow-up of patients in remote and isolated places, or with the limited mobility [2]. On the other hand, they enable the interconnection between health centers and remote systems that monitor elderly or disabled people who live alone or spend part of the time without company at all times, controlling vital signs or possible events such as falls that could endanger their lives [3].
Likewise, health services can be improved and optimized when health centers are provided with the capacity to integrate and interconnect devices that collect biomedical information with electronic health records [4]. Diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up in recovery from illnesses can be benefited in many cases by the continuous collection of these data [5], which complements the information obtained with specific observations that the medical professional can make during consultations, often limited in time. In addition, the data collected are a valuable source of information that can be used by Big Data and Artificial Intelligence applications to make new discoveries.
Although the advantages of these technologies applied to healthcare are clearly beneficial in many areas, there are also many aspects that make their implementation a challenging task. Due to the sensitive nature of the information, the technologies that must be implemented are those with characteristics that allow compliance with data privacy and security policies and standards [6]. On the other hand, they require health systems to have an appropriate infrastructure to accommodate these new technologies, as well as the adaptation of their protocols [7]. The training of health technicians, professionals, and patients to adapt them to these new systems is another relevant factor, and one that is related to usability and user experience [8].
Our purpose with this work is to analyze the evolution of IoT applied to healthcare and telehealth in recent years, the trends in application and what challenges currently exist. To address this objective, we will analyze the most relevant works in the recent years to draw conclusions about the global evolution of these technologies, check in more detail the problems they face, and identify whether there are standards, norms, or common complementary technologies to give a solution.
The rest of the article is divided as follows: In section two, the methodology of collection and analysis carried out are presented, detailing the aspects and characteristics on which we focus, in section three the results obtained are presented, and finally, the last section presents the conclusions.
The criteria established for the inclusion of studies in the analysis were that they had to be published in journals that appeared in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) or in conferences included in prestigious journal editorials and digital libraries. The search engine used for the search engine was Google Scholar. The search was limited considering articles published in the last 5 completed years, that is, from January 2017 to December 2021 inclusive. The queries created to be used in the search engine consisted of the combinations of the term “IoT” with “healthcare,” “ehealth,” and “telehealth.” The search for these terms was established to be carried out on the full text of each work, not only on the title and abstract. Since the purpose is to collect current advances and trends, we exclude from the analysis those articles with a scoping review nature. Similarly, we exclude studies that were written in a language other than English.
Regarding the results obtained after carrying out the search, the first three hundred were taken for each year in order of relevance, and one hundred for each of the three keywords considered in combination with “IoT,” that is, “healthcare,” “telehealth,” and “ehealth.” It was established to do a sequential filtering on the set, checking on each result that it meets each of the established inclusion requirements; otherwise, it will be discarded from the final set of results to be considered in the analysis. In the first place, the character of a high-impact journal paper or publication presented at a conference contemplated in prestigious digital libraries was verified, for which those results that were books or book chapters were also discarded. Next, the discarding of articles that were not written in English was applied. We considered that, to have a meaningful sample of current trends, a sample of 25 results would be taken for each combination of keyword and year. The most cited articles were used as a selection criterion. On this sample, studies consisting of bibliographic reviews were discarded. This last-filtering process was carried out firstly by analyzing the title of each publication and secondly by analyzing the abstract. Additionally, it was observed whether any study was replicated in the set or belonged to the same authors and the purpose was the same, in which case the study with the latest publication date was discarded.
For the initial purpose of filtering, basic information about these works was collected, specifically the title of the article, abstract, authors, access link to the publication, the number of citations, and character of the document according to Google Scholar. All the analyses of the information and filtering process were carried out jointly by the authors and verified between them.
Once the filtering process was carried out, the next step was to extract the relevant information for the analysis of the current situation, limitations, challenges, solutions, and current trends of IoT applied to healthcare and telemedicine. Mainly, we focus on extracting the most used communication technologies to provide solutions or address current problems in this area of research. Other relevant characteristics extracted were the scope of application from the point of view of what aspect of healthcare is intended to address or what characteristics of the infrastructure are intended to be addressed in the study. Related to the field, we also extract information on the technological aspects of the solution provided. Additionally, the country of the institution that supports each investigation was taken, in order to identify those countries that have the greatest impact worldwide in IoT for ehealth and telehealth fields.
After the filtering process, 186 [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194] results were obtained, 69 with healthcare and another 69 with ehealth. The article analysis screening process resulted in a greater elimination of works related to telehealth, obtaining 48 results. This is mainly associated with the fact that after analyzing the title and abstract, it was detected that several articles did not fit in the field of healthcare using IoT. However, the cause of the greatest impact on the screening of results was the nature of the scoping review of several studies. Around eight publications per keyword and year on average were removed for this reason. Analyzing by year, the appearance of reviews was greater in the most recent years, discarding approximately 35 of 75 results of the year 2021. This reveals the progress of previous years and the current trend in analyzing the actual scope of IoT and limitations, which is consistent with the status of this area on hype-cycle curve.
Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of publications according to the country of the institution of the corresponding author. In those cases in which the corresponding author was not reflected, the institution of the main author was taken as reference. The graph shows that the institutions with the greatest impact in recent years are India (19.3%) and China (13.4%). The rest of Asian countries (including those located in the Persian Gulf and Russia) contribute 25.8% to this statistic. Approximately 21% corresponds to institutions in European countries, approximately 6% to entities in Africa (mainly Egypt and Tunisia), and 4% to countries in Central and South America. The United States and Canada add 7.5% and Australia and New Zealand approximately 4.8%.
Publications with more impact per country (N = 186).
With the term “scope,” we refer to the topics on which each study focuses on contributing to the area of IoT systems applied to ehealth and telemedicine. After the analysis, we have found studies whose scope is related to the provision of a health service, proposing models, system designs, and/or implementations of a complete system or a component of an IoT system. On the other hand, scopes focused on improving some characteristic of IoT systems that are relevant when applied to healthcare have also been identified.
Figure 2 illustrates the scopes in the analysis. It can be seen that the majority of studies focus on providing solutions for the field of monitoring. The reader should know that a division has been made in this scope, distinguishing between studies that explicitly indicated or from which the character of real-time monitoring could be clearly inferred. The total number of studies that fit this domain was 83. These data show that the main purpose of the application of IoT to healthcare is to monitor patients, ubiquitously or integrated into rooms, for better control of vital signs or physiological parameters. This result is consistent with the main use for which IoT systems are used. Continuing with the analysis focused on areas of application, the next most common are those related to diagnosis. The creation of models that help the medical professional to give a diagnosis stands out mainly Machine Learning models that can be integrated into the system, sometimes complemented with architectures equipped with resources to apply Fog computing, as well as with the decentralization of processing with computing at the edge, trend that is currently increasing with the optimization of hardware and AI frameworks for model integration and consumption reduction [195]. Additionally, the applications are not restricted to the field of healthcare in the personal context, but also in the workplace [196]. To a lesser extent, we also find the use of IoT to facilitate the remote diagnosis of the patient. This last result may be related to the existing limitations to provide appropriate resources to remote centers or isolated areas that allow establishing reliable connections with sufficient transmission quality. The least relevant areas currently are self-care and remote rehabilitation. The first of these two areas mentioned was the one that had the greatest impact at the beginning of the use of IoT for healthcare, currently being on the slope of enlightenment or plateau of productivity in the hype-cycle curve. The low frequency of appearance of rehabilitation as a field of study may be due to the difficulty in carrying out rehabilitation tasks remotely.
Scope of the studies considered in the analysis.
Focusing on areas related to the improvement of system features, studies focused on maintaining the security of the IoT system are more frequent, that is, on avoiding transmission failures, network hacks, or data corruption. Additionally, we find studies focused on providing encryption protocols to ensure the authenticity and privacy of the patient. These last two scopes are often intrinsically related to system security. These results reveal the great challenges that exist in the integration of IoT systems in the Electronic Health Records of health systems: to be able to relate the data to the patient without compromising their privacy, as well as to manage the enormous amount of information collected avoiding losses, falsification information, and other security breaches. Very close in relevance we find the improvement of the performance of the system, that is, looking for better response times in the transmission and processing of information. Again, it is a challenging topic, especially in combination with equipping the system with authentication, privacy, and security protocols, which slows down IoT systems, which must be addressed for this type of system to be useful in terms of practicality.
In the results, we also observe that the studies related to the study of interoperability and the analysis of usability, user experience, and degree of acceptance have very little impact. These types of studies are not frequent, and yet, they address determining aspects in the adequacy of IoT systems to the health environment; its correct application depends on the fact that the implemented system is practical and perceived as useful. The little research on these issues may be the greatest limitation of these systems in the future.
Figure 3 shows the trend of these areas in the years considered for the analysis. Although a drop in the number of papers is perceived in 2021, this may be due to the fact that there has not yet been a stabilization in the number of citations on studies that contribute novelties to the field of research. Both graphs show how in recent years there has been a decrease in the impact of research aimed at providing solutions with IoT systems, and instead, there has been an increase in interest in research that focuses on improving some characteristics of the system architecture, mainly in security and privacy. This result again reveals indications of the situation of these systems in the hype-cycle curve, seeing reduced interest in deepen for new applications and consolidating their use by focusing on the greatest limitations that this set of technologies has, that is, aspects of security, privacy, and performance.
Scope trends. At top, classification grouped by year analyzed in the study. At left, scopes related to the system’s application approach. On the right, scopes focused on improving the characteristics of the IoT system.
Paying attention to communication technologies, the charts in Figure 4 reveal a varied set of alternatives. In these graphs, only those studies that have used and revealed the technologies applied in the implementation of IoT systems are taken into consideration. As a result, 87 articles were considered. The charts highlight the use of Bluetooth technology, in both its older versions and BLE, and Wi-Fi. Despite being a technology adapted to IoT, the use of LoRa is not frequent. GSM and GPRS technologies continue to be used, mainly because they have a greater network infrastructure for these technologies and because they are more in line with the user profile that these systems are aimed at, mainly older people or those who are not familiar with new technologies.
Most common communication technologies in studies that carry out an implementation of an IoT system (N = 87). Top-right chart considers only those studies whose sensing acquisition devices are wearable (N = 36).
Among the studies that reveal the communication technologies used, only 36 focus on the use of systems with exclusively wearable devices for data acquisition. In these studies, a lower use of MQTT is revealed in favor of the use of technologies such as Zigbee. Wi-Fi technology is still the most frequently used; however, there is a remarkable decrease.
The most frequent technologies identified in the analyzed studies include Machine Learning and Deep Learning for the fields of monitoring and diagnostic support. In the fields of security, privacy, and authentication, the use of Blockchain stands out. On the other hand, Fog computing and edge computing are the technologies for which the greatest interest is shown in the field of performance improvement. This is one of the most current trends, driven by systems equipped with more specialized hardware processing units [197].
The results obtained from the analysis of impact studies in recent years regarding IoT in healthcare show that Asian and Middle Eastern countries contribute to this area to a greater extent, especially India and China. With regard to the areas with the greatest impact today, we find the application to monitoring as the greatest representative. However, this type of study has reduced its relevance in recent years and instead has grown interest in the integration of security, privacy, and authentication measures to IoT systems, which gives indications of the stabilization of IoT technologies, and there is a tendency to investigate the improvement of the most important weaknesses. Infrequent and low-impact study topics are the analysis of the perceived usefulness of these systems, as well as interoperability, which may imply limitations and obstacles in the future in the implementation and use of these systems. The most used communication technologies are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, with a smaller representation of technologies such as LoRa, Zigbee, and mobile data transfer technologies. The design and implementation of systems exclusively equipped with wearable acquisition devices is reduced. Machine Learning, Blockchain as well as edge and fog computing are the most trending technologies.
This work has been supported by “Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional” (FEDER) and “Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad” of the Junta de Andalucía, under Programa Operativo FEDER 2014-2020 (Project US-1263715).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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