HAB parameters: Few examples of the lift, duration and burst altitude with respect to the balloon type, payload mass and amount of helium.
\r\n\t
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She worked as a post-doc and a visiting associate in the Biological Engineering Department at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She is currently working as a full professor at Hacettepe University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology. Her main study interests are clinical and medical aspects of toxicology, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and oxidative stress. She has published more than 150 papers in national and international journals. 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Experiments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72168",slug:"cost-effective-platforms-for-near-space-research-and-experiments",body:'Traditionally, the space industry was mainly founded by governmental or military organizations. Yet, in recent years, the “new-space” environment attracts several major private companies such as Google, Facebook and OneWeb, each having a large-scale communication project involving global coverage using low earth orbit (LEO) nano-satellite swarm.
The vision of having a reliable and affordable global network, which can be accessed from any location on Earth at any given time, is a challenging scientific task, which attracts both industrial and academic efforts during the last few decades. Currently, the majority of all proposed solutions are based on a network of numerous LEO nano-satellites, which will establish a global network using radio frequency (RF) communication data received on Earth. Major companies such as Google, Qualcomm, Facebook and SpaceX have each invested in similar projects, commonly referred as new-space and near-space projects. OneWeb is one example for such initiative project involving a large constellation of LEO satellites. Other projects such as Google’s Loon or Facebook’s Aquila Drone are not directly focused on satellite constellations but on near-space massive constellation of drones or balloons. The new-space industry includes various small to medium size companies, which are currently developing products for the near-space environment, e.g., Planet Labs and Spire companies are two examples for such effort, which is focused on global imaging and IoT.
Constructing a cost-effective global network requires the use of low-cost electronics, unlike the traditional space industry, which uses dedicated expensive hardware. In order to perform a “space-qualified” testing platform on such components, a flexible modulated testing platform is needed. In this work, we present a new generic methodology for performing near-space experiments based on advanced low-cost payload, which is tied to a weather balloon. The suggested strategy is based on more than dozen balloon-launch experiments encompassing a large number of components (electronics and mechanics), which were tested at 10–30 km heights.
High-altitude balloon (HAB) platforms have been used for direct atmospheric measurements for more than a century [1]. Measuring devices, which send data from HAB to a base-station located on the ground, using pocket-sized radio frequency (RF) transmitters and are widely known as radiosondes, were first invented by the French scientist Robert Bureau in 1929 [2]. Recently, HAB platforms have started to gain the ability of measuring, recording and transmitting other sources of data from a vast variety of instruments, substantially increasing HAB payload capabilities [3]. Furthermore, the increasing supporting evidence for climate change along with the understanding of real-time atmospheric composition measurements, both in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, is a key feature for studying radiative effects in our plant’s climate system [2, 4], emphasizing the need for developing upper-air climate observation platforms [5, 6].
Although the main objective for HAB measurements is to monitor changes in temperature and water vapor vertical profiles in the troposphere and stratosphere, several new upper-air radiation profile measurements indicate supplemental valuable information regarding atmospheric absorption and emission of radiation with respect to the recently revealed interesting insight regarding the radiation obsorbtion/emission dependency with altitude [2]. In addition, due to the fact that our plant’s atmosphere is continuously bombarded by energetic particles, mainly galactic cosmic rays (GCR), along with sporadic space weather events, additional particles are introduced into the stratosphere and troposphere [7]. Regardless of this recurring impact, the effects of energetic particles in the troposphere and lower stratosphere are still inadequately understood. There are numerous mechanisms for explaining how weather and climate could potentially be modulated [8], but the majority of energetic particle effects in the lower atmosphere are linked to their potential for ionizing the surrounding air. The formed ions can accumulate on cloud tops, contributing to the microphysics [9], may play a key role in the formation of aerosol (e.g., [10]). In addition, atmospheric ions can absorb directly infrared radiation (IR) [11, 12], and high-energy particles are also presumed to impact lightning rates [13].
Above land and within the boundary layer (~few hundred meters), the atmosphere is mainly ionized by the radiation emitted from radioactive isotopes decay in the Earth’s crust [3]. Hess [14] postulated that the ionization profile in the atmosphere should decrease with altitude due to the fact that the radioactive element source is located near the surface. However, after conducting balloon measurements, Hess discovered that the ionization increased at altitudes above 10 km and claimed that it is caused by GCR source. He also determined that penetration depth of these particles depends on the energy spectrum of the incoming radiation [14]. Two decades later, Regener extended Hess’ experiments using HAB, measuring ionization rates up to altitudes of 20 km [15]. They discovered that cosmic ray ionization reaches its maximum value between altitudes of 17–24 km and is known as the Regener-Pfotzer maximum (RP max). The Pfotzer Maximum, which is also geomagnetic-latitude dependent [16], formed within the tropopause layer below the stratosphere where primary particles (pions and hadrons) decrease and secondary particles (muons) increase [17]. This is a major source of ionization in the Earth’s atmosphere. The establishment of an electromagnetic-muon stream results in ambient air ionization during the release of primary energies by the excitation of air molecules deeper in the atmosphere [17]. During this stream, a portion of the primary particles reach the ground as high-energy secondary particles [18]. The electromagnetic field also interacts with incoming particles, as the sun’s solar radiation penetrates the atmosphere. This mixing is directly associated with the pressure decrease as the differential absorption rate within tropopause heights varies [17].
The necessity for developing new techniques and platforms for measuring and identifying energetic ionizing radiation in the atmosphere becomes vital. However, despite numerical model simulations for estimating flight trajectories, high-precision global positioning system (GPS) technology and the relatively slow balloon descent, recovering high-cost payload yet remains challenging, difficult and time-consuming, specifically around mountains or coastal areas [2].
Retrieving the payload enables us to acquire all the recorded data during the flight and that we were not been able to send using wireless communications. This is easier said than done and in practice, HAB payloads are not expected to be retrieved. For retrieving the payload, one should know the exact landing location of the payload, and more important, one must have access to that location. Thus, knowing the payload’s exact landing location is not enough as it can “land” in the middle of the ocean or in a high peak of a mountain.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: in Section 2, we survey the basic principle of flying a high-altitude balloon (HAB). In Section 3, we present design for a disposable cost-effective payload for low-bandwidth applications, which provide the base platform for our experiments. In Section 4, we cover the HAB payload components, power supply behavior, thermal design and pre-flight tests. In Section 5, we present our investigations of long-range communications for low- and high-bandwidth applications. In Section 5, we present our own setup of a near-space return-to-home (RTH) micro-UAV for retrieving the payload with its recorded data. Finally, we discuss our efforts and future work.
In general, high-altitude balloon (HAB) is composed of the following components:
A latex balloon—comes in a wide range of weights, which basically reflects its ability to be inflated with helium, common use for HAB may weight 100–1200 g.
A payload—which includes all the necessary components for conducting the experiment and retrieving the data. In Figure 1, two payloads are connected (black and white ice-cream boxes).
A ground station (GS)—commonly includes an RF receiver. In Figure 1, the GS also includes a robotic telescope and transmitter to control the payload detaching process.
Launching a HAB—yet another day at the office.
Consider a balloon with a self-weight of 1000 g, about 1000 l of helium is needed in order to allow the balloon to start floating (for each m3 of helium—one can expect a lift of 1000 g—1 kg). Assuming 2000 l of helium were used, the 1000-g balloon should gain about 1000 g lift at 1 atm. Assuming a 500 g payload is attached to the balloon, one can expect an overall lift of 500 g. In Figure 2, a basic calculation of the expected balloon parameters is presented.
An HAB’s lift and burst calculator, from: http://habhub.org/calc/.
Given the desired requirements for the experiment, e.g., max altitude, payload weight and required floating duration, one can adjust the amount of helium in the balloon accordingly. Table 1 presents few examples for such adjustment.
Balloon type | Volume (L) | Payload (g) | Neck (g) | Burst altitude (m) | Ascent rate (m/s) | Duration (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
300 Kaymont | 600 | 200 | 316 | 27,890 | 2.96 | 157 |
600 Kaymont | 1500 | 200 | 1453 | 29,280 | 5.95 | 82 |
1000 Kaymont | 2000 | 500 | 1053 | 35,070 | 3.95 | 148 |
1000 Kaymont | 3000 | 1000 | 2080 | 32,135 | 4.84 | 111 |
1000 Kaymont | 3000 | 1500 | 2080 | 32,135 | 3.54 | 151 |
1000 Kaymont | 4000 | 2000 | 3106 | 30,053 | 4.44 | 113 |
HAB parameters: Few examples of the lift, duration and burst altitude with respect to the balloon type, payload mass and amount of helium.
As the balloon inclines, its surrounding air pressure decreases. Table 2 presents the expected air pressure with respect to the balloon height.
Altitude (m, 15 cel) | Air pressure (atm) | Balloon volume (L) | Balloon diameter (m) |
---|---|---|---|
0 | 1.0 | 1000 | 1.24 |
2361 | 0.75 | 1333 | 1.36 |
5477 | 0.5 | 2000 | 1.56 |
10,278 | 0.25 | 4000 | 1.97 |
16,096 | 0.1 | 10,000 | 2.67 |
32,230 | 0.01 | 100,000 | 5.76 |
48,330 | 0.001 | 1,000,000 | 12.41 |
Expected air pressure at a given altitude.
In a typical HAB configuration using latex balloon, the balloon will ascend and expand as the air pressure decreases with height due to the thin atmosphere. At a certain point, it will inflate up to its elastic point, explode and fall. This means that if we can make the balloon float in a relatively constant altitude, we can extend its lifespan and endurance. Moreover, fixing the balloon at high altitudes could also enable to test any desired hardware under near-space conditions.
Google’s “loon project” is a good example for an HAB setting that is capable of floating up in the atmosphere for a long duration. However, such settings are expensive and complicated, thus they are not a practical solution for scientific researchers.
Our approach for “fixing” the balloon’s altitude was directed toward a simple constriction, i.e., a main latex balloon and a cluster of foil balloons. Foil balloons are not elastic and cannot expand, thus their volume can be approximated as constant. This means that as the outer pressure drops due to the thin atmosphere, its upthrust force will weaken and might even change its direction as dictated by the buoyancy force equation:
where
A single 1000 g main latex balloon with a capability of 1300 g neck-lift.
Five non-lasting foil balloons with a fixed volume of about 110 l each, with a self-weight of approximately 90 g. Combining these balloons implies a weight variance of about 500 g.
A two-parted payload:
Main payload (above) 500-g: Iridium transceiver, GPS, Solar panel, battery, Geiger counter and an autonomous release mechanism for a secondary payload.
Secondary payload (lower) 400-g: A long-range HD video streaming system based on Wi-Fi and a directional antenna pointing down (14 dBi flat panel antenna).
A long-lasting HAB experiment. This setting retained its floating state for about 2.5 h before the main balloon exploded.
In this test setting, each foil balloon has a net weight of approximately 0 g on ground level, while the expected weight at an altitude of 10 km is about 70 g. The overall setting provides a lift force of about 400 g on ground level. When reaching to 9–10 km height the system’s net lift force should be about 0, making the system relatively altitude-stationary (Figure 4).
The retrieved payloads from the above experiment were found on a distant field, about 100 km from the point of launch. The crashing location was transmitted by the iridium communication system after the crash. In the picture, the upper box is the secondary payload and the main is the lower box.
In this subsection, we cover the HAB payload components. First, we present the common needed and used sensors in “near-space” experiments. Then, a brief discussion on energy and thermal design is presented—followed by a discussion of how to test a potential payload (on the ground) for its ability to operate under near-space conditions.
GNSS (e.g., GPS): Global Navigation Satellite Systems refer to a positioning sensor commonly used for computing the 3D position in a typical horizontal accuracy of 2–3 m in the open sky (the vertical accuracy is often not as accurate as the horizontal – errors of 10–20 m are common even in the open sky). We have mostly used U-blox GNSS relievers which are becoming the industry standard for most COTS (Commercial Off-The-Shelf) drones. Remark: one should configure the GNSS receiver to a “balloon-mode” (Airborne) else the positioning might be limited to a low altitude of 12 km or less. Due to the nature of the balloon “Airborne < 1 g” is the preferred model.
Modern GPS can support 10 Hz position sampling rate—yet for most coming measurements, such sampling rate is not needed—as the dynamics of the balloon is very low. Lowering the positioning rate may also help reducing the energy consumption of the GNSS receiver.
9DoF: is basically a set of MEMS sensors: three axis magnetic field, three axis accelerometers, three axis gyroscopes. Combined they can be used to compute orientation. We have used Bosch BNO055 sensor which also has a true orientation filter—and found it both affordable and robust.
Barometer: this sensor measures the atmospheric pressure and temperature. This combination enables us to compute a naïve estimation of elevation in submeter accuracy. However, in our experiments, we noticed that in altitudes higher than 10 km, the barometer’s altitude estimation started to slow its elevation in a certain pattern, which repeated itself. Using the GPS sensor measurements, we were able to estimate its true altitude, which consists with the expected altitudes. It should be denoted that although barometers mostly have an elevation accuracy of submeter (in some models subfeet), in high elevation the accuracy gets worse, below is an example of real data of “faulty” barometer (Figure 5).
Temperature: thermocouple sensors are simple and robust sensors and being used to measure the inner and outer temperature of the payload. These values are significant for the proper operation of the electronic components and the batteries.
The balloon altitude over time, as recorded by the barometer sensor and our true altitude estimation.
It should be noted that performance of all batteries drops drastically at low temperatures starting −10°C. At high elevation such as 10–30 km the outer temperature is expected to be [−60–45]°C, respectively. This makes the task of keeping the payload at “room level” temperature (i.e., [0, 45]°C) vital. Packaging the payload with COTS boxes made from materials that provide proper thermal insulation such as expanded polystyrene (EPS) is sufficient for such need. Recall that in height of 16 km, the expected air pressure is 0.1 atm, while at 31 km, it is about 0.01 atm, so air-based passive cooling is significantly less efficient than on the ground.
In practice: taking into an account the above considerations and the fact that most IoT components are suited for operating in near-space conditions it is easy to construct a thermal-balanced payload. Most of the required tests for the payload performances under near-space conditions can be performed with a simple setup, which consists of a vacuum chamber, a home freezer and a simple thermal camera (Figure 6). Table 3 depicts a thermal analysis of a Samsung Galaxy S6 mainboard under low ventilation conditions.
Thermal analysis of an android phone using a thermal camera (Op-gal’s Therm-app).
Platform | Max altitude [m] | Max horizontal velocity [m/s] | Max vertical velocity [m/s] | Sanity check type | Max position deviation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Portable | 12,000 | 310 | 50 | Altitude and velocity | Medium |
Stationary | 9000 | 10 | 6 | Altitude and velocity | Small |
Pedestrian | 9000 | 30 | 20 | Altitude and velocity | Small |
Automotive | 6000 | 100 | 15 | Altitude and velocity | Medium |
At sea | 500 | 25 | 5 | Altitude and velocity | Medium |
Airborne <1 g | 50,000 | 100 | 100 | Altitude | Large |
Airborne <2 g | 50,000 | 250 | 100 | Altitude | Large |
Airborne <4 g | 50,000 | 500 | 100 | Altitude | Large |
Wrist | 9000 | 30 | 20 | Altitude and velocity | Medium |
Form: U-blox M8 N manual—make sure you use airborne mod (the default is portable—so the GPS will not work above 12 km).
A typical payload will include a GPS, microcontroller, LoRa modem, Geiger counter, barometer and humidity sensor (Figure 5). The total energy consumption is about 250 mW (Figure 7).
A typical thermal-balanced-payload, notice the ventilation hole marked with a circle.
In most cases, we usually direct our efforts toward recording and transmitting low-bandwidth sensor data or testing electronics at near-space conditions. As retrieving the payload with its data is not always certain, we designed the payload to be cost-effective and disposable and yet capable of long-range low-bandwidth communications.
Our basic HAB payload setup typically includes the following components:
Arduino MCU.
433 MHz LoRa radio transceiver.
Versatile GNSS module capable of GPS, GLONASS.
Environment conditions sensors (barometric pressure/altitude/temperature/humidity/Dewpoint).
An actuator for releasing the payload on command.
Geiger counter-based on the new solid-state technology (which reduces the weight and price of Geiger counter).
Such payload’s BOM (Bill of Material) will cost about 100–120$. The weight of the payload can be reduced to a sum of 150 g, making it suitable for 300 g HAB. The total cost including the cost of the launch will cost less than 200$. In case there is no need for a Geiger counter, the overall BOM of the payload and balloon can be below 100$.
Using this affordable payload design, we were able to perform several experiments in which we measured Gamma counts with respect to altitude and location in relative high accuracy. Figure 8 shows the real-time Geiger count as received at the GS from the payload (over 120 km range).
Gamma count vs. altitude.
Radiosonde is the most common type of payload which is capable of long-range communications suitable for HAB. A radiosonde can be regarded as a black-box which includes a variety of sensors and a radio transmitter. Radiosondes may come in various shapes and technologies, but in general, they measure: position (GPS), barometric pressure, humidity and temperature. They also may include some other related sensors such as Ozone meter. These data are transmitted to the GS using RF communications, commonly—UHF 400–406 MHz, and 1675–1700 MHz. This solution’s range is typically between 50 and 200 km that depends on environmental conditions.
As mentioned above, radiosonde payloads are closed systems that limit the user’s ability to customize them. This means that in order to transmit additional sensors data, an additional communication device is required as well. Moreover, they provide low-bandwidth and half-duplex (download only) communications. It should be noted that the RF, which is used by a radiosonde, is not an ISM band, and therefore, it might require RF approval by local authorities. Other concerns about using radiosonde communication abilities include the lack of frequency reusability and security in most Radiosonde payloads.
Providing high-bandwidth communications enable us to obtain real-time measurements such as multi-spectral images and conducting high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometer measurements. Full-duplex communications enable us to interact with the payload, so we can remotely control the payload or the balloon motion. The ability to adapt the modem communications setting, i.e., reprogramming it in real-time makes it a more flexible solution that provides bandwidth and range according to the user’s needs or environmental conditions. In our experiments, we consider the minimally required coverage range to be about 40–50 km that is required for conducting HAB missions.
Cellular 3G/LTE communications are intuitively a natural solution for full-duplex and high-bandwidth communications that is communally used by “makers”. However, a cellular device that has been used at high altitudes can be easily detected by multiple base-stations simultaneously. Generally, such device will be blocked by the cellular providers thus making its 3G/LTE communications inoperable till the device returns to ground level.
This makes smartphones not suitable as a real-time communications solution for high altitudes. On the other hand, for low altitude applications or when it is known that the payload will fall in a cellular covered area, smartphones might be considered as a suitable communication solution. Denote that in many countries (e.g., USA) mobile phones are required to operate in “flight mode” while “in-air”.
UHF RF communication such as 433, 866, and 915 MHz which are ISM RF bands can provide low-bandwidth and long-range communications solution. We have investigated many drones remote control (RC) two-way communication solutions, and we found that while they can provide long-range communications their high-energy consumption and cost make them less appealing for day-to-day HAB missions. As an example, the DragonLink RC technology, which is the gold standard for flying long-range drone’s communications, required in our experiments 1.5 W transmitter for achieving the range of 40 km and a data rate of 19.2 kbps.
In our experiments, we found that LoRa technology-based devices are the most suitable and preferable solution for HAB missions’ requirements. Meaning, they are robust, programmable, with a very low-energy consumption and affordable. With the right setting, we were able to achieve full-duplex communications with a 25 mW transmitter more than 120 km range and a data rate of 0.4 kbps.
Wi-Fi technology can provide high-bandwidth communications, however it was designed for as Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). This means that with COTS hardware in a direct line of sight communications, its expected range is limited to hundreds of meters. We have designed a long-range Wi-Fi setting based on EZ-WiFiBroadcast settings. EZ-WiFiBroadcast is a special DIY design of Wi-Fi communications which is commonly used as a poor man’s long-range HD FPV solution. With our current long-range Wi-Fi setting, we have been able to capture 720P video from a HAB at 9.8 km height and located about 15 km from the GS.
Free-Space Optical (FSO) also known as laser communications are a less common high-bandwidth communication solution which can be achieved by the use of a robotic telescope which tracks in real-time the HAB. In a clear day, such device can track an HAB for over 50 km. In our experiments, we successfully tracked HABs for more than 70 km using low-cost Celestron StarBright XLT telescope with 127 mm aperture Schmidt-Cassegrain lens. As shown recently by Google in their Loon project “Demonstration of free-space optical communication for long-range data links between balloons on Project Loon”. This kind of high-bandwidth communications is still extremely complicated and requires technical skills and efforts which are not common in most research groups.
Another commercial solution is Global satellite communications (we have used Iridium’s two-way Short Burst Data—SBD), this kind of solution requires a “pay per message” data plan (~10 cents per 50 bytes)—so it is applicable for low-bandwidth missions. Yet it allows full control, two-way communication. Another satellite-related solution named “SPOT” is commonly used to track HABs. This one-way (transmission only) solution uses the “Global-Star” satellite network for near global coverage. Interestingly, we have found that the use of short message service (SMS) in cellular communications was relatively efficient and we were able to send and receive text messages from about 5000 m height when the expected height is about 2500 m.
In this section, we present methods for constructing simple (DIY) payloads based on COTS devices. We start by presenting a naive attempt to shoot high-resolution images from high altitude—as part of a class challenge in the undergraduate “Autonomous Robotics” course during the year 2017 (given in the Computer Science Department at Ariel University). All suggested solutions included an Android phone with an international sim card and an app which captures time-laps photos with position while attempting to upload them using existing cloud uploader tools (Figure 9). The balloon launches included the following setting:
A regular latex 600, 1000 g balloon.
Smartphone-based payload—100–200 g. Android phones with the needed apps for time-lapse camera (such as OpenCamera) and a cloud-based uploader app (such as Dropbox or Google drive). The phone was equipped with a sim card which can be used for uploading the data—using a prepaid data plan.
Thermal Box: the most common is polystyrene (ice-cream box)—which is needed to maintain a controlled temperature for the phone electronics and batteries.
Three payloads ready to be launched—each with a smartphone and software for uploading the gathered data. As part of the navigation graduated course in Ariel University (Israel). None of the payloads could actually transmit good and clear images from high altitude. All payloads eventually fall in Suraya. Over 200 km from launch.
Five different solutions were implemented (see Figure 10) mainly using the OpenCamera android open source. None of the payloads could capture reasonable images from high altitude—although at least three (out of five) phones made it back safely to the ground and two of them even sent few images—until it was discovered by a “lucky founder” or simply run out of power.
An image of the sky that was made by an android smartphone (Xiaomi Redmi 4A). In this experiment, the phone’s camera was out of focus. It might be due to ice on the camera lens. The images were successfully uploaded after the payload has made it to the ground.
Although the suggested concept failed the overall solution of using a software-only solution based on affordable smartphones seems to be a feasible cost-effective solution to many near-space applications.
Long-range and high-bandwidth communication solutions suitable for HAB missions are not common, especially not as COTS hardware. High-bandwidth data applications such as multi-spectral imagery or high-resolution measurements have a great value for exploring various electrical phenomena such as lightening discharges, sprites or blue-jets in the atmosphere and other aspects of this environment.
For providing high-bandwidth communication capabilities, we are directing our efforts on utilizing COTS communications hardware based on IEEE 802.11 standard WLAN which is also known as Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi networks can easily provide high-bandwidth communications but with COTS hardware they have a very limited range. Using a much more sophisticated hardware can extend its range dramatically to a few kilometers, but such systems are costly, with high-power demands and with a form factor that is not suited for a typical HAB’s payload (Figure 11).
HAB ground station (GS): Left: The GS in general: two robotic telescopes with (auto-track) and a high gain 24dBi Wi-Fi antenna. Right: the robotic telescope: (a) A view-finder webcam. (b) A Wi-Fi + 3G router. So the telescope can be controlled globally. (c) A Pi-camera mounted to the telescope eye-view. (d) A Raspberry Pi which controls the telescope using either visual tracking and GPS coordinates.
In theory, the use of a high gain directional antenna about 18–24 dBi for the receiver at the ground station and a directional antenna with a gain of about 10–14 dBi should provide us a link budget greater than 150 dB. Such link budget should enable communications for long ranges estimated at 10–30 km on regular conditions. In optimal conditions and a Forward Error Correction (FEC) mechanism, the range can be extended to about 50 km (Figure 12).
Keep it simple: launching two simple payloads: Raspberry-Pi (upper) and an android smartphone (taking this image).
This lead us to investigate a different approach that uses COTS Wi-Fi hardware but in a non-traditional way. Some of the IEEE 802.11 network interfaces can operate in a special debug mode that allows them to transmit and receive Wi-Fi communications with no regards to the IEEE 802.11 standard itself. As such, “makers” have used this feature for creating a “poor man’s” long-range HD FPV solution. We based our system on “bortek”‘s version of EZ-WiFiBroadcast (Figure 13).
The smartphone payload shot from an upper payload based on a Raspberry-Pi camera equipped with a long-range Wi-Fi transmitter. The picture was taken at about 9.7 km above ground.
Typically, the Wi-Fi long-range system includes:
Raspberry-Pi (RPi) device usually Raspberry Pi 0, with RPi-Cam camera and a Wi-Fi Network Interface Card (NIC) with an external directional 14 dBi flat panel antenna with its face directed down.
Ground station based on another RPi device with an external 20 dBi directional antenna.
Even though that our research on this approach is at early stages we have been able already to capture 720P video from a HAB at 9.8 km height and in an estimated distance of about 15 km with our long-range Wi-Fi communication system. Figure 13 is an image captured in this particular HAB mission. We found that flat directional antennas perform quite well as long as the angle between the balloon and the GS was not too wide.
As the GS design is compact it can be used as a mobile ground station located on top of a car which “chases” the balloon.
In Europe, there is a well-established RF solution for tracking on HABs led by the UK High Altitude Society (
LoRa module vs. iridium module.
We present a near-space drone, which is affordable, robust and may weight below the FAA regulations (300 g). The micro-UAV has a unique RTH control algorithm adjust to near-space conditions and on board black box for storing a wide range of sensor measurements (Figure 15). The proposed platform has the following properties:
Low-cost, lightweight electric UAV which was equipped with: multiple real-time sensors, HD cameras, a Pixhawk flight controller, GNSS receiver and long-range RF communication system for RC & telemetry data.
Smart release mechanism with several parameters for autonomous operation.
Near-space flight mode for smart decline.
Four different models of RTH micro drones. Each of them was tested for autonomous flight launched from a balloon.
The basic requirement of the UAV is the ability of autonomous RTH or any other Geo location. The UAV needs to be lightweight, aerodynamic wing structure for fast and smooth flight and at list extended range of 50 km for RTH. Denote that in most cases flying back home will require flying against the wind (Figure 16).
Full flight path of an HAB and RTH payload by a micro drone.
The smart release mechanism is established from two main elements: mechanical mechanism and autonomous smart release software. The mechanical mechanism has two construction sets: Servo or Fuse wire. The servo is operated with PWM signal, and the fuse wire burns from relay. One of the most important things is the way the balloon attached the release mechanism to the UAV without affecting the UAV fly ability and minimal change of the aerodynamic, because of that the release mechanism mounted on the balloon payload. The autonomous smart release software is an algorithm that gets a several sensor parameters and decides if to release the UAV. The algorithm has the next prioritization: balloon burst, RC signal, altitude, battery, and geo fence. The RC signal is the only parameter that comes from the ground, the rest calculated on the MCU (Figure 17).
The RTH payload is going up.
This mode has few parameters for controlling on smart decline. After the UAV release from the balloon, it will open parachute to altitude that set on the algorithm, the next step is to release the parachute and glide with a constant decline rate to altitude that set on the algorithm and then open the motor and fly back home (Figure 18).
Getting back home: A massive UHF transition caused the drone to get into the “fail-safe” state, releasing the drone which in turn flyied back to “home” autonomously.
Currently, we are constructing a micro wing-shape UAV with solar panels for energy harvesting; this will allow us to perform a much longer time and range experiment using super-pressure balloons. Release the drone on a “sunny morning”—allowing it to fly for up to 6 h during day-time covering 100–200 km. Such distance should be sufficient for finding a proper landing region (Figures 19 and 20).
290 g RTH micro-UAV, with a release carbon strip on its backend.
RTH micro drone lunching.
Launching a HAB requires authorization and following local regulations. We present here some of the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations. Please note that even though many countries tend to adapt these regulations, local regulations might differ from the following (FAA Part 101 and 14 CFR Part 48):
Any cellular phones must be turned off (airplane mode enabled) for any aircraft and/or balloon as soon as it leaves the ground.
Any individual payload must weight less than 4 pounds and have a weight-to-size ratio of less than 3.0 ounces/square inch (total weight of the payload only divided by its smallest face).
Total payload of two or more packages carried by one balloon must be less than 12 pounds total.
The balloon cannot use a rope or other device for suspension of the payload that requires an impact force of more than 50 pounds to separate the suspended payload from the balloon.
No person may operate any balloon in a manner that creates a hazard to other persons, or their property.
No person operating any balloon may allow an object to be dropped therefrom, if such action creates a hazard to other persons or their property.
The owner must register their HAB as part of the FAA’s new Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) laws. The registration number must be marked on each HAB flight.
Here are the main rules of thumb we have used in our HAB launches (on top of the local aviation regulations):
It is highly recommended to update the related FAA authorities and get a permission in advance.
Validate in real-time the conformation for the launch, a few minutes prior to the lunch.
Make sure you are not launching the HAB nearby airports or other no-flight-zones.
The overall weight of all payloads should not be more than 1 kg, “Return to Launch” UAVs should weigh less than 500 g—preferable below 300 g (FAA regulations).
The maximal declining speed of the falling payload (below 5000 m) should not exceed some velocity (say e.g., 12 m/s).
The usage of a parachute cannot guarantee declining speed or velocity. As in this method the overall max weight per square cm should be below some value, we strongly recommend a weight-to-size ratio of no more than 2.5 g per cm square, e.g., a cube payload of 1 l should not weight more than 250 g.
Secure each payload’s component to prevent its fall.
If there are still some safety issues with the HAB, make sure its planned route is not above populated areas—preferably above the sea. Aborting a HAB-UAV mission into the sea is a safe backup plan—and in HAB lots can go wrong.
Only launch at a safe zone—where there are no power-lines or buildings.
In the last decade, HAB experiments, which were considered esoteric and rare, have become more applicable for scientific researchers and near-space experiments. Today, the overall cost of an HAB experiment can reach up to $500. Radiosondes are commonly used for transmitting the sensory data in real-time. However, using this technology has a limited communication capability and is very hard to customize. New long-range wireless communication technologies such as LoRa allow us to transmit a wide range of sensory data with both substantial low-cost and light weight setup. The maximum data rate provided by LoRa technology is 37.5 kbps, which is sufficient for two-way telemetry along with a wide range of sensory data but is not suitable for high-data-rate applications such as real-time video data. For that we found long-range Wi-Fi techniques to be a prominent strategy: allowing us transmission of live video data up to ranges of about 15–30 km. For long duration application in which the balloon may circle the world, we also present a global two-way communication solution based on Iridium modem.
As the state-of-the-art of communications is still limited, we presented a whole different approach which focused on retrieving the payload in a safe and secure way. Such solution overcomes the need for transmitting the measured data wirelessly—as all the needed information are stored on board of the UAV.
Moreover, this approach highly reduces the risk of losing precious equipment and enables reusing the experiment platform over and over again. In the past, developing and operating an autonomous UAV system was a complicated and costly project. However, in recent years the successful efforts of the toy and hobbies industries to make UAVs accessible and simple to operate provided the opportunity for using UAVs as a common research tool. As such it can be used as a practical and cost-effective solution for returning the payload home with a relatively simple release mechanism and auto-pilot controller.
Based on six different experiments performed during 2016–2017, we conclude that the suggested strategy of using an autonomous UAV as a generic multi-parametric near-space platform is suitable for tropospheric remote sensing and for testing electronic components in near-space conditions.
Current research focuses on exceeding the operational capabilities of long-range Wi-Fi to a full-duplex communication channel and extending its range even further with the development of a high-gain antenna tracker. The deployment of LoRa WAN infrastructure can extend the HAB’s communication service over huge areas.
Finally, the current range of RTF autonomous micro UAV is about 30 km. We expect that after optimizing the algorithm for the decline mode (from near space to ground), such range may be extended to 50–100 km with a relatively high probability of success.
Migration is not going away. A fight for survival and a spirit of curiosity are well-established tendencies of our species. It is hard to put a historical timestamp on when human beings, as we know them, started migrating from their place of birth and settlement to other areas. Some did it in search of better opportunities while others were forced to migrate due to issues such as natural calamities, personal threats, and political warfare. These numbers have only increased with an increase in the world population, climate pattern changes, and individual countries becoming hostile to their own community.
\nIt is no surprise that refugees experience social inequality during their many interactions during displacement and will most likely experience deterioration of their physical, psychological, and social well-being. Poverty and social isolation have adverse health effects in transit and the destination country. The refugees primarily rely on the host community facilities for accessible, acceptable, and reliable healthcare services. While these healthcare services may be partially covered by government health systems and insufficient health insurance, lack of information and language barriers [1] pose significant obstacles to accessing these services effectively. These are particularly significant for undocumented migrants who are often denied access to services for public health or unwilling to use services available to them because of fear of deportation. It is well documented that even migrants with legal rights to healthcare will face numerous obstacles to their use [2]. A systematic review noted that women with refugee status fared worse with respect to perinatal measures, including mental health, offspring mortality, and preterm birth, compared to women from other migrant groups [1]. The global community faces a crisis, unlike any before. While improved transportation and connectivity have enabled migration and awareness, the steep increase in the number of refugees has led to a lack of consensus when it comes to the matter of refugees and human rights.
\nOne of the primary challenges legislators and healthcare providers face when it comes to providing health security to refugees is a popular ideology that the host country has no responsibility, implying moral and legal, toward providing adequate and safe healthcare to the refugee population due to the argument that responsibility toward its own citizens takes precedence. Support for this argument has been established by the growing number of leaders who have been recently voted for based on their closed border policies [3]. In the light of mounting healthcare costs and challenges related to the provision of healthcare for their population, it is imperative to examine the moral and ethical philosophies proposed toward and against providing health security to the vulnerable world refugee population.
\nThe question of morality here, however, is a complex one due to the contribution of human conscience and sympathy, both of which are subjective and harder to invoke during times of scarcity. Morality also has a temporal, cultural, legal, social, and racial contribution, which makes it harder to examine objectively [4]. Considering this growing human rights crisis, the moral question of the responsibilities of other countries toward resettling and ensuring health security for refugees is an existential one for our species.
\nThe authors have attempted to synthesize an opinionated albeit comprehensive narrative review on the topic. A broad perspective has been presented including various theories of morality that support the provision of basic healthcare to refugees around the world along with some of the major alternate arguments. Search terms and subject headings were identified for databases including MEDLINE, Google Scholar, and Pubmed. Relevant articles and book chapters were selected. The search used keywords “refugee,” “ethics,” “healthcare,” “morality,” “asylum,” and “aid.” Majority of the articles were obtained using some variation of search string (ethic* OR morality OR principle*) AND (refugee* OR asylum*) AND (healthcare OR aid OR service). Reference lists of review articles were also searched for any contributory publications. No restrictions were placed on region of origin of publication or on the type of article due to the epistemological nature of the chapter. A google search was also done with the same keywords for news and public opinion articles that were not included in the previously mentioned scientific databases.
\nAfter World War I (1914–1918), millions of people fled for their life. Governments of stable countries were forced to respond by assembling and agreeing to guidelines regarding the provision of travel documents for these people. These numbers increased significantly after World War II (1939–1945), as many more were forced to move and settle elsewhere. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was founded after World War II on December 3, 1949, due to the increasing number of displaced people [5]. The primary goal was to monitor and protect the human rights of the refugees and displaced people. As the numbers continued to increase, global communities were unsure about the appropriate response.
\nOne of the primary goals of the UNHCR was “To provide international protection to refugees and to seek durable solutions for refugees by assisting Governments in facilitating the voluntary repatriation of refugees, or their integration within new national communities” [5].
\nAccording to UNHCR, a refugee is someone who has been forced to flee his or her country because of persecution, war, or violence. They do not have much to lose and a lot to gain by securing entry into a country that, despite the legal uncertainties, is safer than their home country. Two-thirds of all refugees worldwide currently come from just five countries: Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan, Myanmar, and Somalia. Although two-thirds of the world’s refugees come from Syria due to the civil war, the rest are fleeing from other conflicts such as ethnic violence in Myanmar, religious persecution against Muslims in South Sudan, and political warfare in Afghanistan.
\nAccording to the 2019 World Health Assembly Update, between 2000 and 2017, the number of international migrants has risen by 49%, a staggering 258 million people. They also noted that most of the refugees are hosted in low- and middle-income countries contrasting the picture painted by political figures. It is valuable to note that the number of internally displaced people has been higher than the number of refugees and asylum seekers confirming that, in most cases, people try to find a safe space within their country due to similarities in culture, religion, language, and food. Estimates by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs suggest that over 90 million refugees live in the European area of the WHO, accounting for nearly 10%, and nearly one-fifth of the world’s population. According to the estimates of the UNHCR, about 5.2 million refugees and 1.4 million asylum seekers live in the region (including refugees) [6]. In short, the numbers are staggering and only rising by the day.
\nAn examination of ethics is incomplete without a look at current legal provisions. The existing moral code of the people dramatically influences the laws and policies of the state. The United Nations 1951 convention and 1967 protocol had positive outcomes, with 148 countries attending and agreeing to the framework that was laid out. The global policy structure with ramifications for international health security has been recently defined by the World Health Assembly Resolution (2008), the Executive Committee (2007) and the Guiding Principles on Migrants and Refugees Health (2007), and Resolution 70.15 of the World Health Assembly on 2017 on Refugee and Migrants Health.
\nOther relevant frameworks and resolutions from the past include [7, 8]:
The 1951 Convention relating to the status of refugees (ratified by 50 of 53 member states) and the 1967 Protocol relating to the status of refugees. The 1951 convention was initially limited to the people fleeing before January 1, 1951 and within Europe, because of World War II. These limitations were removed in the 1967 protocol, making it more universal.
The 1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families.
The 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women And Children (ratified by 52 of the 53 Member States).
The 2000 Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air (ratified by 48 of the 53 Member States).
World Health Assembly resolution 62.14 on reducing health inequities through action on the social determinants of health and
WHO Regional Committee for Europe resolution EUR/RC52/R7 on poverty and health, and related follow-ups, such as efforts to address health inequity linked to migration and ethnicity.
Changes in governments over time and change in the attitudes of people have made it hard to ensure enforcement of the international laws and guidelines on the provision of healthcare to refugees. Some of the countries such as Germany and Canada welcomed several refugees and provided asylum to them, while others such as the United States and Austria have taken a more rigid stance against them and have implemented legal and physical barriers against asylum seekers. These governments were elected based on their border policies, and therefore, the decisions are not those of individual people alone but a collective majority. This general trend based on a narrative of fear, racism, and scarcity is, unfortunately, proving to be an excellent political strategy. Chancellor of Germany, Angela Merkel, who strongly supported an open border for refugees making Germany one of the most refugee-friendly countries in Europe, had a decrease in popularity shortly after the most significant intake of refugees. News articles reported that her decisions were not well received in the country.
\nSimilarly, Donald J. Trump, president of the United States of America who won in 2016, has a strong anti-immigrant and closed border policy, which continues to be popular with many people in the United States. These recent global trends have made it harder to enforce policies to ensure health security for refugees. The British voted, by a significant majority, to leave the European Union for similar reasons. They cited “unacceptable strains on housing, welfare, and education” as one of the prime reasons for this decision [9, 10, 11].
\nGovernments supporting closed borders and fueling racism have led to increase in the backlash against immigrants or ethnically different groups. Right wing support correlated with hate crimes in Germany according to a survey analysis. Similary, hate crimes in India had surged by 300% which correlated significantly with the election of the right wing Hindu Nationalistic Party, “BJP” [12]. These changes are concerning as it not only endangers the new vulnerable influx population but also affects the integrated existing immigrants and their future generations. Far right policy changes could leave all refugees, immigrants, and even resident nonimmigrants without basic healthcare.
\nMoral theories attempt to determine right and wrong conduct. They allow individuals and, in extension, countries to critically evaluate the decisions they make in terms of impact beyond the social and economic implications. Morality has allowed the human species to survive in mutual harmony and to promote maximum welfare. There are many moral theories. Some of the well-studied ones are utilitarianism, Rawls theory of Justice, Kantianism, virtue theory, four principles approach, and casuistry [13].
\nUtilitarianism holds that morality must aim to maximize human welfare and happiness as a species. John Stuart Mill, a utilitarian philosopher, claimed that actions are right in the proportion they tend to promote happiness and vice versa, where happiness is intended pleasure and absence of pain.
\nThis moral theory supports many actions in medicine, such as triage and social medicine. However, it fails to take into account the age of the person or our obligations toward specific people such as our children or parents. Another reason why this theory is hard to uphold is the degree of self-sacrifice it demands. It obliges us to sacrifice our interests and the interests of the people close to us for the sake of people that we do not know if that is what will maximize good or utility. For example, it is hard to convince a physician in a developed world to move to a developing country while leaving or endangering their family for “utility.” It is also hard to convince a physician in a developing country to avoid pursuing opportunities in developed countries. If going by utilitarian analysis for providing healthcare for refugees, the sheer number of refugees justifies spending resources to provide healthcare to this vulnerable population. In other words, the burden of cost is not high when compared to the suffering of the large number of refugees [4, 13, 14].
\nRawls’ Theory of Justice [15, 16] is unique in that it considers the moral, cultural, and experiential differences among us that account for our current value system. Understanding that social systems distort our views and bias our opinions of morality one way or the other, Rawls suggests that in order to construct a system or solution for a problem, it must be done objectively. He suggested that a solution must be made after assuming that one has full control and that once implemented, they would be placed back in the society with random features such as sex, race, socioeconomic status, or prior experiences of oppression or wealth. For example, in many countries around the world, students from a university in the United States that is not very competitive are given higher status than a student from one of the top-tier Pakistani universities. Although one might argue that the educational system in the United States third-tier university might be better than the education at a top-tier university from a developing nation, this is also not true as evidenced by standard test scores. If used to make a decision about admission criteria, Rawls’ theory might work out the best possible moral solution to the question. Considering these ambiguities, Rawls holds that an objective stance called “The Original Position” (OP) might be the best way to ensure that lawmakers and politicians, who are responsible for all those who are residing in that area, make decisions that are not influenced by their biases. The OP is meant to be impartial while logically striving to aim for systems that have a high probability of supporting progress and decreasing distress in society. The assumption that the policymaker will have no control over their features when placed back in the system hopes to negate some of the biases while making system decisions that impact many people. The privilege walk activity [17] famously demonstrated how the less privileged must work twice as harder than the privileged. Rawls’ concepts also show how dominant systems, countries and organizations, construct systems that ensure their dominance. Rawls believes that social stability can only be achieved by elevating everyone to equal moral worth. Although he supported distributing resources from the wealthy to the poor, he also stated that opportunities should be based on just innate qualities and a motivation to excel.
\nRawls’ Law of Peoples adds to the Theory of Justice to provide insight into global ethics and a definition of justice without directly addressing immigration. He relaxed his assumption of society as a closed system or nation-state. He suggested that a decent liberal regime must be enjoyed by all people and expanded on principles of noninterference, respect for human rights, and assistance for countries lacking the conditions for a just regime to arise.
\nCriticism of Rawls mainly involves practical aspects of implementing a true OP. Also, strict equality principles are rarely favored in the world as there is no easy way of distinguishing between the passive, the corrupt, and the underprivileged. Either way, this has been looked upon as an excellent moral guideline when it comes to making decisions about international health policies and global refugee health security.
\nMoral subjectivism [4] holds that right and wrong are determined by the subject and that there are no objective moral properties. All ethical judgments, according to moral subjectivism, are not absolute truths but an attitude or opinion of the subject. In contrast, moral realism states that ethical principles are independent of the personal attitude. A subjectivist, by reasoning, cannot object to anyone’s behavior as all behaviors have been approved by the subject in question.
\nA few objections have been raised about the theory. A subjectivist making a statement about an ethical issue is only communicating a belief and not facts, although the statement might be confusing. For example, when stated by a moral subjectivist, “He is a liar” cannot be an objective statement announcing what one considers an immoral act but can only be a subjective opinion.
\nThere are different types of moral subjectivism:\n
\nSimple subjectivism. The view that all ethical thoughts are not objective truths but personal feelings and attitudes.
\nIndividualist subjectivism. Protagoras suggested that every human had a distinct moral compass and that his self interest is the goal.
\nMoral relativism. Relativism is an extension of moral subjectivism to the society. This view holds that in order to be right, it needs to be approved by the society as well.
\nIdeal observer theory. This idea was introduced to account for the biases and irrational ideas in the minds of the people. A hypothetical ideal observer would make the decisions, if there were too many clashes [18].
This theory pertains to the belief that morality is linked to religious prescriptions. A person subscribing to theistic voluntarism hold that our morality is governed by “moral obligations” as designed by God. The belief is that God’s command and/or God’s will (what he desires for us) are the backbone of our moral obligations [12]. Religious philosophers believe that all human beings have been created by God in his image. God’s commands are a guide toward fulfilling God’s will. Actions are morally required, morally wrong, or morally optional according to this theory. ChristianMiller simplified the theory by delving into scope (Who is expected to live up to a specific desire of God?), objectivity (the inherent morality of certain acts due to the creation of morality by an all-loving knowledgable being), learning (from religious texts, leaders, revelations, reasoning), and nontheist morality (atheists are also created in the image of God and therefore with a properly functioning reasoning can grasp some of the reasons that inform God’s desires related to moral obligations). This theory has been refuted both by debating the presence of a supreme being as well as arguments for “moral constructivism” and “independent moral realism” [12].
\nIrrespective of the religion, an obligation toward caring for the sick and helpless is prescribed as a moral obligation by the religious texts of major world religions including Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam. In extension, healthcare policies that do not include refugees or a subset of refugees violate the code of theistic morality.
\nKantian ethics [19] proposes that the morality of an act is decided by the intended consequence of the particular action. Kant said that the “maxim” or intended reason behind our action is vital for determining its rightness. For example, according to this theory, physicians are expected to prescribe what they believe to be the best course of treatment for the patient. A negative outcome due to the prescription would not be considered morally wrong. Whereas, if another physician prescribed a drug to maximize his income, the act of prescribing the drug becomes morally wrong. Kant holds that only goodwill can be morally right.
\nOne of the criticisms is that a country’s political system would have a responsibility of individual goodwill under Kantian morality, and this moral obligation would trump a question of utility. For example, according to Kantian morality, impeding the provision of healthcare to refugees would be morally wrong just by the nature of the act and its consequences on the people that the act is intended toward. It would ignore any potential negative consequences on the country’s citizens and legal residents. Kant also fails to propose a hierarchy of moral obligations. For example, can one risk the death of a refugee to prevent the death of a legal resident? Can one lie to prevent the murder of their family? Although Kant proposes a moral principle, he also fails to successfully define a strong logical reason to follow his principles.
\nJustice, autonomy, beneficence, and non-maleficence provide another framework for critically evaluating the morality of decisions in Medicine. Justice implies that healthcare resources must be distributed in a fair and just manner. Autonomy allows for individual decisions regarding healthcare. Beneficence is the moral obligation that healthcare workers have to act in order to benefit the patient. Non-maleficence aims to avoid harming patients. This framework, although simplistic, is not all-encompassing, and critical large-scale decisions need to be evaluated using other moral standards.
\nCurrently, there is no consensus regarding the matter of refugees, and in extension, the provision of healthcare services for this population. While some countries have upheld the laws that were established to protect their human rights, others have stayed passive or voiced their lack of support. Many politicians and philosophers have argued against the provision of healthcare services, aid, food supplies, or refuge in case of war, famine, or other international crises. Some of the major claims are listed below along with a look into the validity and significance of the claim.
\nOne of the most common arguments put forth against providing aid and services to refugees is the proposition that that resources are limited and that wealthy countries have limited capacity when it comes to resources and capacity. The 2016 British referendum shed light on the costs imposed by refugees and migrants [20]. Garett Hardin, an American philosopher, has elaborated on this argument in his controversial article, “Lifeboat Ethics: The Case Against Helping the Poor” [21].
\nHe compares a developed nation to a lifeboat. He creates a metaphor by assuming that a developed nation is a lifeboat with a capacity for 60 people with it currently holding 50 with room for 10 more. He then asks the readers to imagine that if the people in the lifeboat saw 100 swimming outside begging for admission, the options that the people inside have are limited.
Admitting all of them, which would ultimately swamp the boat and drown it.
Admitting 10 people, which poses further questions such as which ones to deny admission, or if it is a smart decision to load the boat to capacity in the first place.
He states that although it seems “morally abhorrent to many people,” not admitting more people to the lifeboat might be the only way to ensure the survival of the people in the lifeboat by preventing resource shortages and allowing for a safety margin of 10 people” for growth. He supports his argument with the potential effects on the food supplies, fishing supply, and environmental destruction that a few additional millions would have on a “wealthy nation.” He strongly supports a closed border and unflinchingly argues that a developed nation must focus on the protection, welfare, and survival of its own people and that considering the earth’s dwindling resources, the “lucky” nations need to protect what they have instead of giving it away by accepting refugees from other countries.
\nAs to the matter of providing aid and services to war-torn and impoverished nations, Hardin argued that death is a mechanism to prevent overpopulation from destroying the limited resources on earth, which relieves another human being of the moral duty to actively prevent this. In his subsection on “Population Control the Crude Way,” he stated that if other nations did not assist these countries, the rate of population growth in the world would be checked by famine and death. Hardin and other philosophers have suggested that saving refugee lives, by provision of humanitarian aid, poses a potential risk to the chance of survival of human beings due to the limited resources that the earth has.
\nMost philosophers and world leaders who support the above view are unhappy about the economic costs of providing healthcare and other resources to protect the human rights of refugees due to the costs falling on a few affluent nations. The commitment of the United States to provide $419 million in humanitarian aid to assist Syrian refugees and the countries holding them was not well received by these philosophers and was used as an argument against the whole approach. They used the standard argument against socialism to argue that nations would be enabled to draw from aid and to multiply in number instead of attempting to find solutions themselves, eventually bringing ruin upon the world.
\nThe American President Donald Trump, along with other nationalist leaders around the world, believes that refugee presence is costly, dangerous, burdensome, and a drain on the country’s resources and has based his political campaign on this policy [22]. Greg Ip [23] stated that people were apprehensive about refugees and immigrants, in general, more due to the value they place on cultural identity than the economy. It is evident that leaders who believe in discouraging refugees from coming into their countries resonate with many people, as evidenced by the overall support separatist leaders have received in recent political times. The return of support for nationalism among the people of developed nations and their pushback against providing refuge for individuals whose governments or people are violating their human rights increases the importance of assessing the ethics behind providing healthcare security to refugees. Although most leaders, if pressed, would agree that fundamental human rights are a requirement for the existence of the human society and species, which must transcend geographic and cultural barriers, their policies say otherwise.
\nThere are many problems with Hardin’s comparison of developed nations to lifeboats. Hardin’s definition of capacity is far from the real-world capacity of most developed nations and often appeals to a scarcity mentality harbored by many politicians either as a political strategy or as a false personal belief.
\nOverpopulation seems to be what Hardin is concerned about in the “Lifeboat.” Anne Roback Morse and Steven M Mosher defined overpopulation “as a situation where the number of people exhausts the resources in a closed environment such that it can no longer support that population” [24]. Research has shown that many developed countries are still capable of hosting many refugees before coming remotely close to their “full capacity.” Forty-eight percent of people around the world live in countries that have below-replacement fertility rates. Therefore, the initial assumption of Hardin seems to be false even before the presentation of moral arguments [24].
\nAssuming the assumption of scarcity was true for most countries of the world, Morse and Mosher compared this situation to an office that had too many people. They suggested that, if the environment was closed, resources like water and food would be used up. However, they refuted that most environments are not closed, which is why none of the countries have launched sterilization campaigns or started killing older people, both of which would be morally wrong.
\nThey also extended the argument by comparing the same office to an artificially closed environment, such as a country where governments prevented food and healthcare from being sent to or prevented people from leaving. The burden of morality is not on the “overpopulation of the closed environment” but the tyrannical governments locking people in without providing them with resources when they are available in abundance elsewhere.
\nCurrently, according to research, there is food being produced for more people than people in the world. Resources like food and water are not limited. By large, matter and energy have remained relatively constant. However, they have been mismanaged and contaminated. Scientists have highlighted that currently, every human being could have 5 acres of land and half an acre of arable land. We have survived despite the bleak predictions of the past. Human beings have put their minds together to find solutions for the growing needs and dwindling resources.
\nBy extrapolation, hunger is not a phenomenon due to low supply, but due to political failures and human flaws. Human beings have defied all predictions of doomsday using their minds and technology. There is no absolute reason to believe that they will not continue to do so.
\nAnother argument against providing aid and healthcare services to the countries is a question about the consequence of helping countries in crisis. Hardin states that helping these countries and their governments that do not plan ahead and save for a rainy day, and bailing the population of these challenged countries with aid each time will only allow them to “continue their ways” without planning for a more permanent solution. Considering the higher reproductive rate of underdeveloped countries in crisis, it further contributes toward overpopulation. Hardin believes that the overall stamp of “charity” that most measures to uplift underprivileged communities have harbors a sense of inequality that defeats the whole purpose of integration. The other “negative” consequence and concern of allowing refugees and allowing access to the public health system is the potential increase in illegal immigrants seeking to take advantage of the system. In contrast, there is sufficient evidence that when appropriately integrated, migrants contribute to the economic development of the host country. As per the 2003 stats, 29.4% physicians and 43.5% of nurses in the British National Health service were migrants [25]. According to the analysis of the government expenditure data from 2004 edition of Public Expenditure Statistical Analyses and the public finances section of the Financial Statement and Budget Report, Sriskandarajah et al. reported that the relative net contribution of immigrants was higher than that of the United Kingdom born. They used the ratio of immigrants’ contributions to their consumption of public expenditure, which represented the net annual fiscal contribution (NAFI). The NAFI of migrants has remained higher than that of the UK born since 1999, with a steady relative increase in the contribution from migrants. The NAFI was calculated after apportioning the cost of administering the asylum system to the immigrants alone. To summarize, the migrant NAFI/UK-born NAFI has increased from 1.03 to 1.09 even if the growing asylum costs were divided and included in the immigrant expenditure for calculation [25].
\nThere is little evidence that healthcare is a driver for migration. The major “push factors” noted include conflict in home country and desire for economic progress [26, 27]. Resident migrants and refugees often contribute to the delivery of healthcare and contribute to economic growth of the host country [28].
\nThere is a reluctance of most governments to provide refugees with the same healthcare services extended to their citizens. This is due to a concern that by doing so, the vulnerable populations (citizens) of the country might be negatively impacted. Although most policy makers agree upon the universal morality of providing equitable healthcare to all populations, this is sidelined in the name of an already overburdened healthcare system and the potential to encourage illegal immigration by provision of welfare services to all [29]. “Health-related deservingness” [30] has therefore been used to justify excluding refugees and asylum seekers from public healthcare systems. This deservingness has been defined individually by each country based on race, religion, national belonging, and perceived contribution to the society and used to discriminate against refugees. Further studies highlighting the contribution of these immigrants economically and socially might help to attend to the misconception that forms the main basis of this argument.
\nBesides the strain on the healthcare services, there is a concern that for one group to benefit, the other has to lose out [31]. Due to the motivation of “national economic interest” and the current citizens of the country, policies favoring equitable healthcare access for refugees and asylum seekers are rejected. There is sufficient evidence from multiple countries around the world showing the economic benefits of migrant influx. It has also been shown that restricting the access of refugees to healthcare could increase the cost more [32, 33].
\nRecently, the importance of national identity and cultural differences as a reason for intolerant attitudes toward refugees has come into light. This has been found to be the primary reason for the support for exclusionary healthcare policies by the host population [34]. A deeper look into this claim is essential considering its growing importance in the political climate of today’s developed world.
\nRefugees from sociocentric cultures find it harder to integrate as compared to egocentric individualitistc cultures [35, 36]. Higher social barriers and limited opportunities for new refugees also leads to a higher probality of turning to “their own kind” and forming diaspora communities [37]. This leads to a heightened awareness of their own cultural identity and encouragement of parochial altruism (and potentially outgroup hostility) [38]. All of these factors have been shown to lead to a social distrust, thereby indicating that for a country with a large immigrant population or a country open to welcoming refugees, multiculturism, albeit controversially, is not the best situation. Unfortunately, mistrust and social exclusion of refugees leads to “collectivistic communities” and “looking inward,” which only worsens the problem of social exclusion. In sufficient numbers and in smaller countries, these communities might pose a greater threat to cultural and national identity than if they were welcomed and allowed to integrate successfully with the host country.
\nSniderman et al. showed that national identity trumped economic considerations as a reason for opposition to immigrant minorities in western Europe [39]. Tsukamoto and Fiske, across three studies, showed that immigrant groups were thought to be untrustworthy and perceived to threaten American civic values (political ideology, etc.), but not ethnic values (shared cultures, customs, etc.) [40]. The British Social Attitudes Survey indicated that the perceived threat to limited resources, shared traditions of the British society, and, to a lesser extent, the potential for increased crime were the main reasons for an opposition to immigration and, in extension, provision of any services that might encourage immigration [41].
\nRecent literature has also attempted to tease out some of the factors that lead to a host society fearing loss of national identity and thereby opposing provision of healthcare to refugees, which is thought to encourage immigration. Grajzl et al. proposed and demonstrated that the longevity of national identity had a robustly negative effect on the preference of the host population for cultural assilmilaton of refugees and immigrants [42]. The modern acculturation theory refers to cultural assimilation as “melting pot” and accommodation of cultural diversity as “multiculturalism.” “Ultra-Tolerance” has been described as hypocricy by some thinkers as in many parts of the world, “tolerance” has started leading to discrimination by the separation of the “tolerant” from the “backward and intolerant” [43].
\nIrrespective of personal beliefs regarding the claim, the ethics of providing healthcare to refugees is not altered. Fear of loss of cultural identity (religious) might cause psychological distress and hardship to the host population. However, the difference in cost makes it impossible to morally justify the withholding of basic life-preserving and welfare-preserving services to refugees. The question of whether the cost of losing national identity is enough to warrantee not permitting refugees to enter is a different one and out of the scope of this discussion.
\nIt is easy to understand the moral obligation of helping a man who is bleeding or a woman in labor on the street. The moral obligation is no different when we do not see them directly. Most of the major moral theories, if used to solve the question of providing healthcare coverage to refugees and internationally displaced population, allow us to conclude that in order to be on the right side of morality, it is essential that we do everything we can to provide basic healthcare coverage to all people. Each country does have the liberty to decide what the “minimal acceptable health coverage” needs to be. In the long run, providing healthcare services to all people residing in a country will ensure the welfare of the whole population: citizens, temporary residents, and asylum seekers.
\nTanaya Sparkle and Debanshu Roy wish to express their special appreciation and thanks to Dr. Thomas Papadimos and Dr. Andrew Casabianca for their encouragement, support, and guidance. Tanaya Sparkle would like to thank Dr. Siddharth Kunte for his help with critical arguments about the topic.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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